DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 1
Shattered Bonds: Exploring the Traumatic Psychological Consequences of
Family Dissolution on Christian Children
Student Name
School of Behavioral Science, Liberty University
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 2
Abstract
For Christian children, divorce creates special difficulties that could seriously compromise their
sense of safety and distort their knowledge of religion. Although many American kids suffer
negative psychological consequences from family dissolution, those whose faith is intricately
linked to family stability feel it more. Emotional, cognitive, and behavioral problems cause
anxiety, confusion, and academic challenges and reducing these consequences depends much on
the degree of parental support, defined by consistency, love, and a caring environment, as well as
a child's personal traits and socioeconomic background. Christian children may experience
feelings of abandonment by God and begin to doubt fundamental faith principles. Family
routines and community disruption can undermine their support systems, therefore intensifying
their sense of isolation. Therefore, parents are urged to apply Biblically based teachings in a
supportive church community. These plans seek to promote resilience, strengthen faith, and offer
consistency. Moreover, premarital Christian counseling is essential for engaged couples to grasp
marital needs, nurture effective communication habits, and acquire conflict-resolution
techniques. This initiative-taking strategy aims to prevent future trauma for their children, by
laying a strong basis for a stable and Christ-centered marriage.
Keywords: Christianity, children, divorce, emotional well-being, spiritual development
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 3
Shattered Bonds: Exploring the Traumatic Psychological Consequences of
Family Dissolution on Christian Children
Discussion of the Topic of Study
The dissolution of marriage often bears significant emotional turmoil for parents however it
has a particularly complex and traumatic experience for Christian children within faith
communities. Unfortunately, many American children of all ages will experience detrimental
psychological effects concerning their emotional well-being due to the dissolution of their family
unit. The intensity to which children are affected varies considerably and is emphasized by the
critical role of their parental support during and after the divorce process. Factors such as a child's
personal characteristics and socioeconomic background, contribute to the level of traumatic
impact. For Christian children, whose faith often intertwines with the stability and unity of their
family, divorce may represent a profound loss of security and a potential disruption to their
understanding of God's blessings. The psychological consequences can become apparent in a wide
range of feelings, impacting their cognitive abilities and impulsive behavior which leads parent to
proactively utilize Biblically substantiated strategies to support their children's emotional growth
during this challenging time. It is vital for engaged couples to identify and comprehend the
requirements for marriage and especially how to prevent creating a traumatic psychological
circumstance for their future children by attending premarital Christian counseling.
Divorce Rates
Christian families are built on the foundation of a lifelong covenant not only between
husband and wife but also a vow to God (English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Matthew 19:4-
6) therefore, divorce within the Christian faith is deemed unacceptable due to its unbreakable
marital commitment and more importantly personal vows sworn to God. However, many
marriages are unsuccessful and face dissolution, which ensures that almost every family member
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 4
may be negatively impacted. Although, the U.S. divorce rates are gradually declining there
remains a grave concern for today’s current divorce rates. Besides the plethora of research
statistics concerning divorce, McAllister (2024) stated that 41% of first marriages in America
would be dissolved and considering the declaration to honor God within families of faith Hilles
(2025) states that the average rate of divorce for Christian families ranks at 26%. Furthermore,
although God only permits a marital dissolution due to sexual infidelity (English Standard
Version Bible, 2011, Matthew 19:9) many couples follow the harden hearts which Jesus
described created divorce for any reason permitted by Moses (English Standard Version Bible,
2011, Matthew 19:8).
Overall Effects
Divorce is a challenging and often traumatic experience for children, and its impact on
their psychological development concerning their emotional well-being can be profound and
enduring. Not all divorces are traumatic for children, some dissolution may provide relief of
chronic stress due to violent environments (Garriga & Pennoni, 2020). Many husbands and
wives are knowledgeable in navigating the familiar experiences and emotions of loss, so when
involved devoted parents provide reassuring dialogue to alleviate the effects of any traumatic
event children are supported and build a resilient inner strength (Koebanu & Tari, 2024). The
devastating impact to a child’s psychological development can be avoid when parents help their
children navigate the challenging time of divorce with more ease and establish a Biblical
foundation for healthy emotional growth by demonstrating intentional, consistent, and
compassionate behavior. Although parental support is a crucial factor parents typically fail to
provide extensive care regarding the child’s overall emotional well-being during the process the
divorce and aftercare once the dissolution is finalized (Miralles et al., 2023). These events create
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 5
a severe adverse impact which are perceived within the child’s emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral development (Garriga & Pennoni, 2020).
Psychologically Impacts
The psychological component of every human includes their emotional, cognitive,
and behavioral development regardless of age. Research has shown that a child’s psychological
components are intertwined, and this connection allows children to understand the emotional
display of others (Salazar Kämpf et al., 2023). Typically, children experience a wide array of
emotions due to divorce such as guilt, confusion, anxiety, and shock. Due to the large age range
of the study’s population the children are divided into three groups: elementary, middle school,
and high schoolers and every group has a generalized path of development for each
psychological component.
Emotions. The emotional development of any aged child is crucial to their future adult
lives and is often impacted through divorce especially high conflict divorce.
Elementary children generally display emotions of guilt, assume responsibility, and
internalize the divorce issues. This internalization of emotion often causes children to be
convinced that their actions or behaviors somehow caused the divorce, and the child suffers
additional emotional suffering. They may also experience feeling decreased self-worth and this
affects their wellbeing.
The middle school group is the most research group concerning parental divorce on
emotions (Garriga & Pennoni, 2020). This age group is the segway into risky behavior and
developing adverse health conditions outcomes by becoming aggressive and developing chronic
stress (Apata et al., 2023).
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 6
The adolescent stage is usually defined as developing autonomy from parents especially
emotionally. Sahi et al (2023) posits this independence is marked by a general development and
experience of emotional intensity and greater occurrence than their parents and teens may
experience a disruption in typical and expected emotional responses due to divorce.
Cognitive. The cognitive development of these three child groups focuses on the impact of
academic struggles due to divorce. While children often feel stress due to achieving academic
expectations their cognitive development can be improved when parents partner with schools to
assist children during divorce. Furthermore, all groups of children may have to experience
detrimental effects of divorce due to relocating to a new school adding additional stress to the
academic component of psychological development (Garriga & Pennoni, 2020). Since God is
concerned about every aspect of every child, then children would benefit from knowing that the
Lord gives wisdom and acknowledging His greatness ignites the beginning of all education
(English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Proverbs 1:7; 2:6).
The elementary and middle school groups often struggle to concentrate on school
assignments, and this distraction inhibits listening to vital instructions. Often these groups receive
supplemental school resources which promote continuing their high school education, but the high
school groups suffer more academic challenges.
The high school group receive the least amount of supervision largely due to their advanced
age and entering into young adulthood. They are more inclined to lack a basic secondary education
by abandoning high school due to issues of declining grades and non-involved parental supervision
(Apata et al., 2023). Their lack of basic education influences their denial into higher education
programs and leads them into a life of poverty. Research has shown that racial demographics also
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 7
influence academic achievement, majority of White children fail due to decreases in family
income, stability, and social skills (Brand et al., 2019).
Behavioral. The last component of psychological concern is the behavior of the
population. Recent research of Christian elementary and middle school groups confirms an
inclined to experience harmful behaviors especially when there is parental infidelity. Children are
protective of their families at young ages and experience anger when parents show romantic
interest in other adults. This notable struggle quite often leads to exhibiting polarized conducts of
extreme withdrawal or aggression (Situmorang et al., 2024). Subsequently children reared in
Christian family environments are usually aware of Biblical marriage principles such as the ten
commandments which associates high value on their parents’ dedication to each other (English
Standard Version Bible, 2011, Exodus 20:14). This natural rage is possibly a novel emotion may
require counseling.
Population of Interest
The emotional impacts of divorce on children aged 4 to 18 are significantly diverse and
influenced by a complex interaction of elements. The components of the population of children
in this study include various religious beliefs, such as Christianity and other faiths, sex, ages,
ethnicity, special developmental considerations, socioeconomic status. When a child is required
to navigate their parents’ divorce one of the most influential factors is determined by the child’s
chronological age (Demir-Dagdas, 2020) regardless of their other components within the
population, therefore the population list is not organized in order of importance. Since children
typical develop and reach certain psychological milestones the age categories are defined into
three groups. The developmental milestones for defining typical childhood behavior were created
by our paradigm of godly principles, "When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 8
child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind me."
(English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Corinthians 13:11). The elementary school group
consists of children aged 5 to 10 years old, this group is commonly known as middle childhood,
the middle school group are children aged 10 to 14 years old, and the oldest group of children are
high schoolers between 14 to 18 years old.
Christian Children
Situmorang et al. (2024) proclaims that many marriages fail due to a lack of regarding
God’s word, this failure often leads to tense verbal insults which terrorizes a child regardless of
age. Christianity provides guidance for navigating during our lives on earth by building
resilience, cultivating hope, and especially empowering children (Miralles et al., 2023).
Children are taught to memorize Biblical scripture as early as preschool age which is a
remarkable technique to build resilience to cope with divorce. Instilling strength and capabilities
are foundational for preschool children ministries and Philippians 4:13 generally one of the first
scriptures taught for application in their lives (English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Philippians
4:13).
Christian children experiencing parental divorce might have a particular range of
emotional difficulties since the separation could alter the perception of family classified as
religious. These exhausting times are reinforced by parents and youth ministries providing Bible
stories of people who also suffered a betrayal of trust such as Joseph tossed in a pit and left to die
by his brothers (English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Genesis 37:22-28). Furthermore, older
children in the high school category may face the difficulty of acknowledging their parents’
deceitful interactions of betrayal. However, parents may demonstrate avoiding hostility by
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 9
remaining faithful to their children and faith community which instills children remaining
steadfast and unmovable (English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Matthew 10:21-23).
Finally, although children regardless of their age, might struggle with issues regarding
God's plan, the significance of marriage, and their church's support, which could cause
confusion, abandonment, and guilt along with the possible loss of stability and support systems
inside their religious community (Mahoney et al., 2010). A child’s most common negative
impact concerning their faith is a decrease in maintaining their moral character while the least
common is practicing two religions due to residing in two households and abandoning their faith
altogether (Bah, 2020).
Sex
Regardless of our society’s recent objective to blur the factor of differences between two
sexes divorce affects boys more negatively than girls. Situmorang et al. (2024) posits the
difference sex factored impact continues with boys longer than girls. Recent research
demonstrates that boys demonstrate a polarized mixture of becoming violent or withdrawing
from peers while girls tend to show distrust and opposition to parental authority (Cano & Gracia,
2022). A child’s sex also determines the overall span of negative impacts for example girls may
initially show defiance within two months after high conflict interactions between parents and
last until two years post-divorce (Situmorang et al., 2024). While overall both sexes may
experience a lack of self-control due to a decrease in their maturity levels compared to children
whose family is intact.
Further research highlights the continuous contrast in detrimental impacts of divorce on
boys and girls, both sexes go through major turmoil and their expression of their suffering can
vary. Children are often shuffled between their father and mother’s residence therefore the time
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 10
equality of undivided attention with each parent is not equal (Cano & Gracia, 2022). Both sexes
usually spend considerable time with their mothers’ post-divorce and this decrease of quality
time between fathers and sons impacts their academic performance and mental health (Cano &
Gracia, 2022). Regardless of the child’s sex divorce will impact both parties differently so
parents are encouraged to engaged with appropriate conversation.
Ages
One of the most influential components of a child’s characteristic concerning divorce is
their age. A child's understanding and reactional behavior to divorce differ greatly with age. As
children aged 5-10 may battle guilt, those aged 10-14 may experience increased anxiety, while
teenagers aged 14 to 18 may react using risky behavior (Staff, 2025).
Staff (2025) investigated the typical behaviors of all three aged groups of children of
divorce. The younger children aged 5-10 typically realize the difficulty to grasp the complexities
of divorce and could sense guilt, considering they are somehow responsible for the divorce. They
may also show behavioral changes like trouble sleeping, increased clinginess, and regressive
concerning bedwetting. Lastly this young group may experience the guilt of preferring one
parent compared to the other causing feelings of disloyalty.
The 11–13-year-old group will experience heightened anxiety and withdraw from social
activities, which is problematic because their friend group becomes more important than parental
approval. This grouping also experiences intensifying emotions of anger or sadness which could
additionally disturb their personal social activities. Since their peer relationships are vital during
this age their sense of belonging. Due to the intensified emotions parents may seek additional
support from therapeutic counseling.
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 11
The last cohort of aged participants are 14-18 years old, and they typically struggle with
establishing autonomy and their personal identity (Staff, 2025). In addition to developing
independence, they may engage in risky behaviors such as early sexual interaction, substance
abuse, and jeopardize their personal safety. Older teens who are high school seniors may become
more cynical concepts of marital relationships and voice worries about their future dating
principles.
The age of the child at the time of the divorce can influence the severity of the impact.
Research shows that high school adolescences, 14-18 may experience the greatest difficulty
coping with divorce due to their heightened awareness of the changes. While there is no
particular age at which divorce will be the most harmful or disadvantageous for children; the
upheaval of the family structure will impact children of all ages, including those who are
preparing for college.
Figure 1
Ages of Children During Divorce
Note. The data for Ages of Children During Divorce are from “[Medium, adult-children-of-divorce-separation]”, by courtneystallcup, 2023,
https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:1100/format:webp/1*8O_UTbuSlbvRFCyYdFSjkQ.png.
Copyright 2023 by Medium.
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 12
Ethnicity
Children from different racial and ethnic backgrounds may experience divorce in diverse
ways based on cultural values, social support systems, and socioeconomic circumstances
(Amato, 2000). Although divorce can harm children of all racial and ethnic backgrounds, studies
show that varying effects highlight different degrees of severity. For example, some research has
indicated that Black children, who may have a higher incidence of single-parent homes report
67% of Black children compared to 25% of white children (Amato, 2000) show a high chance of
bearing negative behavioral consequences. The results are impacted by more complicated issues
like systematic inequalities.
Many ethic cultures tend to interact according to family structures, and this construction
impacts the emotional well-being of children who experience divorce (Harkness, 2022). In
certain marginalized families, close community connections and extended family support might
offset the unfavorable consequences of divorce, therefore offering kids a stable and caring
environment (Harkness, 2022). Furthermore, Harkness (2022) this is particularly true for
minority Black families, where income equality and limited resources increases stress for the
recent single parent and the children. Lifelong experiences have demonstrated the importance of
multigenerational households to assist financial and academically.
Special Developmental Considerations
Quite often another marginalized group is families who experience severe and difficult
divorce circumstances are those with special needs children (Gold Buscho, 2023). A high
percentage of American families, 20%, provides care for a child under 18 years of age with
conditions of disabilities or chronic illnesses. Conditions of this health category require constant
care and parental exhaustion is experienced. Research states that the divorce rate for these
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 13
families may be as high as 87% while the rate of divorce for families with children diagnosed
with of autism being around 80% (Gold Buscho, 2023). Within Christian families often children
with special needs may not be viewed as a wonderfully created creature of God (English
Standard Version Bible, 2011, Psalm 139:14), regardless of such conditions they deserve to
thrive with their family intact. Nevertheless, ultimately the marriage is doomed to failure because
of over-stressed required care.
Socioeconomic Status
Divorce can greatly change children's living situation and create a series of experiencing
lower socioeconomic status effects (Bah, 2020). These changes include a greater likelihood of
living in lower income neighborhoods ridden with crime. This lower quality of life subjects the
children to relocating to distant areas away from friends, living in cramped bedrooms, and
possibly experiencing evictions. Children might also feel more concerned about suitable housing,
emotions of rejection from their pervious friend groups, and a sense of loss in their community.
All groups of children are destiny to experience more signs of negative development and less
signs of positive development than those who remain in their pre-divorce home. Sometimes,
especially during adolescence, marital conflict might cause kids to leave home at an early age by
running away and beginning delinquent behavior (Bah, 2020). Therefore, the majority of
divorced families experience emotional stress as a result of income depreciation creating the
divided family to grudgingly accept substandard financial covets.
Miller et al. (2021) confirms providing extensive research to previous studies which
indicates that the entire population of child participants are significantly affected by the parents’
expected salary even when considerations of annual income fluctuate and negatively impact their
children’s emotional regulation. This implies a deeper psychological effect of perceived financial
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 14
stability, reaching beyond simple economic conditions to influence the emotional terrain of
childhood (Miller et al., 2021).
Specifically, additional longitudinal analytic research pointed to elementary children’s
capability to exercise self-control and avoid disruptive behavioral issues to achieve significant
higher grades in math and reading providing a correlation to an increase in wealth, so naturally
lower income spearheads disruptive and inappropriate behaviors. According to Miller et al.
(2021) elementary children who comprise the two lowest financial groups exhibited more
emotional issues such as sadness and anxiety compared to cohorts in higher wealth groups. The
pedagogy team considerably partners with parents by suggesting additional social resources may
be required to assist children to bridge the gap of emotional regulations and academic
achievement due to decrease financial availability (Wong et al., 2023).
In considering the longitudinal research within middle and high school children there was
also a correlations wealth and emotional development (Wong et al., 2021) reiterating that upper
aged cohorts’ negative emotional behavior was influenced by lower income.
Variables Associated with the Topic
There are several variables associated with a decline among children of divorce. The
most concerning is academic performance and it is affected differently within all three
developmental age categories. Bah (2021) posit all three groups of children experience negative
impacts on their overall educational development. Elementary school students, who are still
improving basic learning skills and completing homework with by depending on parental
support, may begin to display drop in grades, the inability to focus in class, excessive absences,
and lack motivation to perform diligently (Bah, 2021). The disruption to their routines and
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 15
emotional security can make it difficult for them to concentrate on schoolwork and recent
research shows that many elementary children have to repeat a class (Bah, 2021).
The results for middle and high school children of divorce were significantly similar and
illustrated a decrease in educational achievement. Although these two groups navigate puberty
and become more autonomous during this chronological stage, the pressure of family breakup
usually correlates to several results such as early school transfers, lower educational goals, and
less involvement in school events. Emotional upheaval can also lead to a higher likelihood of
disciplinary problems such expulsions from the school system or suspensions from the class and
lower university attendance expectations (Brand, 2019). Furthermore, the study accentuates that
parental divorce is associated to an immediate drop in school performance, so underlining the
significant academic effects for all grade level children is associated to additional successful
academic accomplishment at all educational levels (Bah, 2021).
Biblical Integration
Negotiating the intricacies of divorce can be really difficult so a Biblical integration
framework provides great benefit for every age group of children. In addition, when parents
stress God's constant devotion and presence, it empowers children to understand the changes and
guarantees that even in chaos, their lives have meaning and hope.
The disruption of divorce can darken children's spiritual paths and sometimes cause them
to lose faith and change their fundamental values and beliefs especially if the parents have
committed adultery and the sin is revealed to their children. Apostle Paul stresses the need of
marital fidelity to give children spiritual development stability and safety (English Standard
Version Bible, 2011, I Corinthians 7:10-16). Younger elementary children love their family unit
and experience profound excruciating betrayal upon discovering their family unit is destroyed
due to placing selfish sexual satisfaction before commitment to the family. Therefore, parents
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 16
should enlist the support of their clergy to bring comfort through God’s infallible word. The
most encouraging Biblical scripture states that regardless of any betrayal a child experiences,
God remains steadfast and unmovable, and His promise of constantly being presence is
guaranteed regardless of any circumstance (English Standard Version Bible, 2011, Hebrews
13:5).
Children of divorce will need purpose and post-divorce support therefore open
communication, a stable environment, and participation in religious activities help parents to
assist kids creating a positive adjustment to their new living arrangements. When parents provide
open and honest communication it offers children a safe environment to express their worries
and questions. God encourages children of to be inquisitive, they are freely welcomed to ask any
question because all children cohorts need answers as stated in Biblical scripture (English
Standard Version Bible, 2011, Matthew 7:7-8). Furthermore, consistent, stable environments
also give them a sense of security that can help anchor their spiritual life.
Quite often professional counseling can offer great direction during this time of transition
in addition to efficient co-parenting, which reduces conflict and emphasizes the welfare of the
children in all three age groups (Mahoney et al., 2010). However, a supportive Biblical
counseling atmosphere that motivates high school children to navigate the complications of their
parents' divorce may offer great healing (Mahoney et al., 2010). High schoolers are more aware
of the sacred loss and breach of the family unit creates intense spiritual questions which need
answering. So, it is vital to give children non-judgmental environments where they may process
these ideas without experiencing invalidation of their beliefs. Professional Christian counselors
can effectively provide additional support by utilizing uplifting reading materials for particular
spiritual difficulties resulting from this major life change, therefore promoting healing and a
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 17
restored sense of spiritual well-being. Finally, children need additional support beside their
parents and providing them a community of an extended Christian family will help bridge the
gap of transiting into a new reality.
Topics for Future Research
Research often leaves unanswered questions concerning many topics and as a result this
gap requires providing additional information to developing questions. Research concerning the
traumatic impact on a child’s psychological well-being is not a novel concept however, there are
two main gaps. First, all children could suffer from the dissolution of their family but to what
extent? The need to examine the impact of severe intense high conflict divorces on children
developing post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) (Lange et al., 2022) will lead to discovering
which marital discords such as infidelity, spousal battery, or economic hardship are more severe
to children’s emotional well-being. The second gap according to Deck et al. (2023) searches for
an unquestionable identification of parents who live in high conflict marriages and conflict issues
present prior to divorce. Marital counselors should distinguish high degree conflict marriages
from typical conflict marriages; this determination provides an effective treatment plan for the
family to avoid divorce (Deck et al., 2023).
Although divorce is emotionally difficult for parents, for Christian children it offers a
difficult and possibly traumatic experience. Divorce causes negative effects on emotional well-
being for American children of all ages and can be upsetting since their religion usually stresses
family unity. The resulting psychological effect can show up in different emotional, cognitive,
and behavioral problems. Parents must apply Biblically principles to assist their children's
emotional growth. Parents should also seek Christian premarital counseling before generating
traumatic psychological conditions for their future children.
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 18
References
Amato, P.R. (2000), The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Journal of Marriage
and Family, 62(4), 1269-1287.Thttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01269.x
Amca Toklu, D. (2022). Examination of the social behaviours of pre-school children whose
parents are married and divorced according to teacher opinions.TEarly Child
Development & Care,T192(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1728531
Apata, O. E., Falana, O. E., Hanson, U., Oderhohwo, E., & Oyewole, P. O. (2023). Exploring the
effects of divorce on children's psychological and physiological wellbeing. Asian Journal
of Education and Social Studies, 49(4), 124-133.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter-Oyewole/publication/376243678_Exploring_t
he_Effects_of_Divorce_on_Children's_Psychological_and_Physiological_Wellbeing/
links/65874e102468df72d3cecc4b/Exploring-the-Effects-of-Divorce-on-Childrens-
Psychological-and-Physiological-Wellbeing.pdf
Bah, Y. M. (2020). Divorce and its negative impacts on children.TEPH - International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science,T6(1).Thttps://doi.org/10.53555/eijhss.v6i1.97
Brand, J. E., Moore, R., Song, X., & Xie, Y. (2019). Why does parental divorce lower children's
educational attainment? A causal mediation analysis. Sociological Science, 6, 264–292.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6559749/#:~:text=PARENTAL%20divorce%2
0adversely%20affects%20a,and%20attend%20and%20complete%20college
Cano, T., & Gracia, P. (2022). The gendered effects of divorce on mothers’ and fathers’ time with
children and children’s developmental activities: A longitudinal study. European Journal
of Population, 38(5), 1277-1313. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10680-
022-09643-2.pdf
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 19
Chavda, K., & Nisarga, V. (2023). Single parenting: Impact on child’s development.TJournal of
Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health,T19(1), 14-
20.Thttps://doi.org/10.1177/09731342231179017
Demir-Dagdas, T. (2020). Parental divorce, parent–child ties, and health: Explaining long-term
age differences in vulnerability.TMarriage & Family Review,T57(1), 24–42.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1754318
Deck, P., Eisensmith, S., Skinner, B., & Cafaro, J. (2023). Identifying indicators of high-conflict
divorce among parents: A systematic review.TAdvances in Social Work,T23(2), 392-408.
https://journals.indianapolis.iu.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/
26384/25415
English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online. https://esv.literalword.com/
Garriga, A., & Pennoni, F. (2020). The causal effects of parental divorce and parental temporary
separation on children’s cognitive abilities and psychological well-being according to
parental relationship quality. Social Indicators Research, 161(2–3), 963–987.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02428-2
Gold Buscho, A. (2023, February 28). Divorce and special needs children. Psychology Today.
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/a-better-divorce/202302/divorce-and-special-
needs-
children#:~:text=Surveys%20show%20that%20the%20rate,entire%20family%2C%20inc
luding%20the%20siblings.
Harkness, S. (2022). The accumulation of economic disadvantages: The influence of childbirth
and divorce on the income and poverty risk of single mothers.TDemography,T59(4), 1377–
1402.Thttps://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-10065784
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 20
Hilles, J. (2025, April 23).TDoes Christianity Lower Divorce Rates – Revisiting the Statistics.
BCWorldview.Thttps://www.bcworldview.org/does-christianity-lower-divorce-rates-
revisiting-the-statistics/
#:~:text=IT%20SEEMS%20THAT%20%E2%80%9CEVANGELICAL%20CHRISTIAN
S,other%20subcategory%20of%20Christians%20(ex.
Lange, A. M. C., Visser, M. M., Scholte, R. H. J., & Finkenauer, C. (2021). Parental conflicts and
posttraumatic stress of children in High-Conflict Divorce families.TJournal of Child &
Adolescent Trauma,T15(3), 615–625.Thttps://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-021-00410-9
Mahoney, A., Warner, H., & Krumei, E. (2010). Broken vows and the next generation:
Recognizing and helping when parental divorce is a spiritual trauma. Counselling and
Spirituality, 29(2), 99–126. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4478045/
McAllister, R. (2024, December 11). Divorce rates in US 2025 – Current trends and analysis.
Miralles, P., Godoy, C. & Hidalgo, M.D. (2023). Long-term emotional consequences of parental
alienation exposure in children of divorced parents: A systematic review. Social
Indicators Research 42, 12055–12069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02537-2
Miller, P., Podvysotska, T., Betancur, L., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2021). Wealth and child
development: Differences in associations by family income and developmental stage.
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 7(3), 154-174.
https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/rsfjss/7/3/154.full.pdf
Miralles, P., Godoy, C. & Hidalgo, M.D. (2023). Long-term emotional consequences of parental
alienation exposure in children of divorced parents: A systematic review.TSocial
Indicators ResearchT42, 12055–12069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02537-2
DIVORCE TRAUMA ON CHILDREN’S WELL-BEING 21
O’Grady, A. M., & Nag, S. (2024). Promoting emotion understanding in middle childhood: A
systematic review of school-based SEL programs. Social and Emotional Learning:
Research, Practice, and Policy, 100068.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2773233924000421
Sahi, R. S., Eisenberger, N. I., & Silvers, J. A. (2023). Peer facilitation of emotion regulation in
adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 62, 101262.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878929323000671
Salazar Kämpf, M., Adam, L., Rohr, M. K., Exner, C., & Wieck, C. (2023). A Meta-Analysis of
the Relationship Between Emotion Regulation and Social Affect and Cognition.TClinical
Psychological Science,T11(6), 1159-1189.Thttps://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221149953T
Staff, F. W. (2025, January 31). Effects of divorce on kids of different ages: Insights and analysis.
The Center for Divorce Education. https://divorce-education.com/effects-of-divorce-on-
kids-of-different-ages/
Stallcup, C. [27/Female/ACOD]. (2023, April 29). Adult children of divorce &
separation.TMedium.Thttps://medium.com/@courtneystallcup/adult-children-of-divorce-
separation-3fc9e4a4430
Wong, T. K., Colasante, T., & Malti, T. (2023). A longitudinal examination of school-related and
mental health mediators linking emotion regulation to academic achievement. Journal of
School Psychology, 101, 101253.
