Audience Analysis
In this lecture you will learn to
•Target your audience by identifying audience type, characteristics
and level of expertise.
•Determine your audience's needs by assessing their expertise and
their purpose in reading the document.
•Determine Document Density
People read technical documents for different reasons, and readers have
varying levels of technical expertise.
To be effective, technical writing must target its audience or a udiences.
Target your audience by identifying your
•audience type and level of expertise
•your audience purpose in using the document,
•and your audience attitude towards both you and the
content of your document
These considerations will influence specific features of the document,
including
•organization
• I ntroductions
•equations and mathematical models
•graphics
•technical terms
•and level of detail
These features, especially the level of detail, contribute to the density of the
document, the rate at which information is presented to the reader.
Determine your audience's needs by assessing their expertise and their
purpose in reading the document. Effective technical writing recognizes
several types of readers, reflecting different levels of expertise:
• experts
• technicians
• managers
• laypersons
• mixed audiences, composed of one or more of the listed groups.
Writing for Experts
Distinguish between two types of experts:
general experts and
specific experts.
Both kinds are readers with extensive technical knowledge of the document's
subject matter.
Levels of Knowledge
General experts possess extensive knowledge about a field in general, b ut
they might be unfamiliar with particular technical terms, specific equipment,or
recent advances in your document's subject matter.
Specific experts, on the other hand, share or surpass your
knowledge about a document's subject matter.
Purposes in Using Document
Experts read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:
•To maintain and expand their own general expertise
•To obtain specific answers to their own research and writing
•To evaluate a document's technical or scientific content
•Strategies for Writing to Experts
•If your audience consists solely of specific experts, you may not need to
give extensive background or define key technical terms or acronyms.
•If your audience includes general experts, provide sufficient background
information and define any terms that they might be unfamiliar with.
•Do not just present a concept to an expert. Also explain its parts and
processes in detail. Writing
for
Technicians
Technicians are the people who construct, operate, and fix things.
An office worker expert in publishing is a technician, as is the person who repairs
your telephone or washing machine.
Levels of Knowledge
Technicians are often more expert than anyone else in how a particular thing
works or why it doesn't work.
They are also usually familiar with the common technical terms associated
with the devices they use and the processes they perform.
They may not be familiar, however, with general or abstract concepts about a
device or a
process.
Purposes in Using Document
•Technicians read technical and scientific documents for a variety of
purposes:
•to learn how to perform particular tasks
•to learn how to solve specific problems
•to learn about new devices and procedures relevant to their
particular tasks
•to acquire and expand background knowledge helpful to the
performance of their tasks
Strategies for Writing to Technicians
• Keep introductions and background information brief.
• Make information accessible (explained in next slide)
• Provide short definitions or explanations of any unfamiliar terms,
tools, devices, or procedures.
Making Information accessible:
• When appropriate, reduce information to instructions on how
to perform a procedure or diagnose and fix a problem
• Use graphs and tables
• Keep sections and overall instructions as short
as possible Index and cross-reference material.
Writing for Managers
Assume that managers are busy people who need to use documents p
rimarily as
tools in making decisions. Because managers read and review
many documents, be
brief and to the point.
Levels of Knowledge
Managers vary in their technical knowledge.
Many managers, especially in technical organizations, are general experts in
a document's subject matter.
Rarely, however, are managers specific experts in the content of a document.
Managers usually supervise a number of projects, so they may not be
familiar with every recent technological advance.
And often managers are specialists in fields such as marketing or
management and have little detailed technical knowledge.
Purposes in Using Document
Managers read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes
•to aid in making decisions
•to assess current situations
•to maintain their general level of expertise
•to evaluate projects and employees
In general, managers read for the bottom line, a concise summary of the
present situation and specific recommendations for action.
Strategies for Writing to Managers
•Distill key information into an executive summary.
•In general, present information in order of importance.
•Emphasize information that will aid in making decisions.
•Present sufficient background information in your introduction.
•Summarize all recommendations for action in your conclusion.
•Segment information to allow easy reading of parts of the document.
•If necessary, put long, technical explanations into appendixes.
•Use graphs to summarize information.
•Explain any unfamiliar terms.
Writing for Laypersons
A layperson is one who does not possess the technical knowledge of an expert
or a technician.
Thus, all of us read some documents as laypersons; no one is an expert in
all fields. Levels of Knowledge
Do not assume a layperson has a technical background.
Unless you know that all members of your audience will understand a
technical term or concept, explain it carefully, using examples and
analogies with which the reader is familiar.
Some lay audiences can be classified as novices, persons who do not yet
possess technical expertise in a field but are in the process of acquiring it.
Technical textbooks at different levels, for example,are written to
audiences that are starting out as laypersons but may become experts.
Purposes in Using Document
Laypersons read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:
•to help make decisions as citizens, consumers, and investors
•to expand their general knowledge
•to learn how to use a device or perform a procedure
•to become an expert
Strategies for Writing to Laypersons
•Present extensive background information in your introduction.
•Organize information from the familiar to the unfamiliar.
•Simplify information to the level sufficient for the audience's purpose
in using the document.
•Explain all technical terms.
•Illustrate and explain technical terms and concepts with analogies
(e.g., "Your hard disk is like an attic; if it is too full, you may have
trouble retrieving a specific item,") and anecdotes.
Writing for a Mixed Audience
Often a document will be read by readers with different levels of expertise.
Computer documentation, for instance, may be written for experts who are
familiar with all the hardware and software processes involved, technicians
who will install and support the application, a manager who may be deciding
whether or not to purchase the software, and laypersons who may occasionally
use it.
Strategies for Writing to Mixed Audiences
•If appropriate, create separate documents for each audience type.
•Use an executive summary to present the gist of your
document in understandable language.
•If many of your readers will not be experts or technicians, place
all lengthy
technical discussion in appendixes and refer to them in
the main body.
•
Segment the document into sections so that different audiences can read
different
p•
a
I
nr
tcs
l
.
ude
in
the front matter
or
introduction
a
short
discussion
of
what
sections
are
appropriate to each type of reader and for what
purposes.
•Explain all technical terms thoroughly in any section that may be
read by a lay reader.
•Include an exhaustive glossary section explaining all technical terms in
either the
front matter or the end matter.
Audience Use of Document
Readers of technical and scientific writing, whatever their level of expertise,
read a document for three general purposes:
•to acquire information
•to help make decisions
•to learn how to do something
To Acquire Information
•Readers at all levels of expertise read technical documents to acquire
information.
•Experts read current documents in their own fields to maintain their
level of expertise
and read documents in related fields to increase the
breadth of their knowledge.
•Furthermore, experts or technicians in one field are often novices in another
field and
read documents to acquire a basic understanding.
Managers read to acquire both the general and the specific information
necessary for them to supervise their staffs effectively and to function well
in their organizations.
Laypersons read scientific and technical documents to acquire general
knowledge about a subject or as novices attempting to become experts.
To Help Make Decisions
•Readers at all levels of expertise read documents to make decisions.
•An expert may read a technical study to decide whether or not to
conduct a specific experiment or to use a new design element.
•A manager may need to make or approve a decision.
Technicians use documents to decide on the selection of specific hardware and
software and to determine the best procedure for performing a task.
Laypersons may read documents to help select a particular product or
investment. To Learn How to Do Something
All readers, whatever their level of expertise, sometimes read i nstructions to
help them
perform various tasks.
For example A manager may read a document to learn how to use new
budgeting software.
An expert may read a document to learn how to use anew device.
Attitude Toward You and Your Organization
If your audience views you as an expert, in some situations you may not need
to offer lengthy explanations for your conclusions and recommendations.
When we go to a doctor, for example, we do not always ask for a detailed
explanation
of a diagnosis or procedure.
Similarly, a reader of a technical manual written by the manufacturer is likely to
accept a statement of the possible causes of a certain type of error without
further explanation.
Because the reader trusts the accuracy of the manufacturer, no e
xplanation is necessary.
On the other hand, if the audience does not know you or does not consider
you an expert, or if the reader has had past negative experience with you or
your organization, the document should include extensive explanations of
your conc lusions and recommendations to create trust and establish credibility.
Audience Interest in Subject
Your audience's interest in your document's content will affect its organization.
If your audience is already interested in your subject, you may be able to shorten
your
introduction.
If your audience is not interested in your subject or if you do not know the level
of their interest, explain why the material in the document is important to the
reader.
Audience Attitude Toward Subject
If your audience initially may be hostile to your major conclusions, you
may want to present the problem first, then your analysis, then your
conclusions or recommendations.
On the other hand, if you believe your audience to be receptive to your
conclusions (especially if your audience is a manager), begin with
conclusions and recommendations.
Document Density
Document density refers to the amount, type, detail, complexity, and
rate of information presented to the reader.
The density appropriate to any document is determined by its audience
and the ways in which the audience will use it.
Matching the density of information to your audience is crucial for the
success of any technical document.
In this lecture you learnt
to
•Target your audience by identifying audience type,
characteristics and level of expertise.
•Determine your audience's needs by assessing their expertise and their
purpose in
reading the document.
•Determine Document Density
Defining Objectives
Summary Slide
•Defining Objectives
• Document Purpose
• Implicit Purpose
• Explicit Purpose
•Why do we need documents ?
Defining Objectives
•Defining the objectives of your communication is extremely important.
•Defining objectives has a strong link with the audience analysis
covered in the last lecture.
What is the purpose for writing documents?
Document Purpose
Documents should be created for explicit purposes or goals that both the writer
and the reader would readily agree on.
Although there are many explicit purposes for creating a scientific or
technical document, there are four general categories:
•to provide information
•to give instructions
•to persuade the reader
•to enact (or prohibit) something
What should you keep in mind while writing a document?
•Make the explicit purpose clear at the beginning of your document in an
abstract, an executive summary, an introduction, or all of these.
•Sometimes a formal statement of objective is called for.
•You may also need to identify the person, the agency, or the contract
requiring or authorizing the document or research.
•In addition to explicit goals, however, writers almost always write with
unstated but still extremely important implicit goals in mind.
•Among the most common of these goals are to establish a relationship, to
create trust and credibility, and to document actions.
What does ‘explicit purpose’ of a document mean?
Explicit Purposes
As discussed earlier most scientific documents have as their pri ncipal purpose
one or
more of the following actions:
•to provide information
•to give instructions
•to persuade the reader
•to enact (or prohibit something)
Whatever the general purpose of an overall document, certain sections of a
document always have a specific purpose.
To provide information Reports
Document Types
•literature reviews
•specificatio
ns Sections in
Document
•Background
•theory
•materials
•results
•tables
Example
“This document will discuss the reasons behind constructing a new Trade Center
in Islamabad”
Documents that give instructions ?
To give instructions
Document Types
•Instructions
Sections in
Document
•Procedures
•Work plan
Example
“This document outlines a procedure for constructing a new Trade
Center in Islamabad”
Documents
meant
to ‘persuade’ the reader ?
To persuade the reader
Document Types
•Proposals
•recommendation reports
•job application letters
•résumés
Sections in
Document
•Discussion
•conclusion
•recommendation
Example
“This document proposes a feasibility study for constructing a ne w Trade Center
in Islamabad.”
Documents
meant
to ‘enact’
something?
Document Type
• Acceptance letters
• regulations
• patents
• authorization
memoranda Example
“NOTICE: Construction site for Trade Center ahead; No unauthorized
persons
allowed.”
What is the ‘implicit purpose’ for writing a document ?
Implicit Purposes
•Keep your implicit goals in mind when writing a document.
•In addition to explicit goals, writers almost always write with other
unstated but still extremely important implicit goals.
•Common goals are to establish a relationship,to create trust and establish
credibility, and to document actions.
Importance to establish a relationship ?
To Establish a Relationship
•Communication not only conveys information but also
establishes a relationship between speaker and listener, or
writer and reader.
•A well-written letter of inquiry, for example, can begin a
professional connection that may last for years.
•Readers of research reports often initiate long and fruitful
correspondences with the authors.
Even seemingly impersonal documentation and instructions can, if
written carefully to addressing a user's need, establish a positive
relationship between the user and
the producer of the product.
Importance to create Trust and Establish Credibility ?
To Create Trust and Establish Credibility
•An underlying goal of all technical and scientific writing is to get
the reader to trust the writer's credibility.
•Scientific and technical writing is based on precision.
Accordingly, any technical or scientific document should justify
the reader's confidence in the accuracy of its content, style, and
organization.
•Carefully qualify statements that need to be qualified.
•Do not make claims that are merely suppositions.
•If your reader begins to doubt your ability or intent to analyze and
shape data with a minimum of distortion, the document will no
longer be effective.
Tips for writing effective documents ?
To Document Actions
•Scientists, engineers, and managers often use writing to create
permanent records of their thoughts and actions.
•One of the primary differences between most forms of written
and spoken communication is that writing can be fairly
permanent, whereas speech vanishes as soon as it is produced.
•Consequently, technical communication is often more effective
when it is written down.
•Make important observations, suggestions, or objections in writing.
•Similarly, communicate important tasks and deadlines in documents
such as project plans.
•Keeping precise records of experiments and procedures in notebooks is
crucial to a project's overall accuracy and to establishing intellectual-
property rights.
Importance of Statement of purpose ?
Statement of Objective
•If appropriate, state your document's objective at the beginning.
Readers of technical writing are often busy people; such a statement
will alert them that it is important to read further.
•The example on the next slide from a memorandum by an engineer at
a Hydro electric Power Plant warning his superiors of the problem that
later caused the explosion in one of the Plants section provides an
example of a good statement of
Exam
p
o
l
ebjective.
“ This letter is written to ensure that management is fully aware of the
seriousness of the current erosion problem in the section III from an engineeri
ng standpoint.”
How do you actually go about defining your objectives?
Example
Consider the example of Ali a fresh graduate from FAST who has been appointed
the junior Software Engineer in Adam Soft.
Today Ali’s boss dropped by and asked him that the two vice presidents of Adam
Soft have asked Ali for a report on his progress.
Ali must now decide what he has to write in the report.
If he writes his objectives clearly and precisely, they can guide him through all
his work at writing.
When people read they respond in two ways
simultaneously. They think and they feel.
Focus your attention on accurately understanding the communication to be
delivered and present it in such a way that it is viewed favorably.
Why is the identification of the final goal important while writing a
document?
Guideline 1
When defining your objectives, start by identifying the final result you want from
your communication.
Doing so will help you remember that when you write you are performing an
action for your desired result/outcome.
Examples
You want your boss to approve the project you are describing in your
proposal.
You want 2 new people to assist you in the new project you have been
assigned by your employer.
You want a new printer as sharing the old one with whole department reduces
your efficiency.
How do people respond when they read something?
When people read they respond in two ways
simultaneously. They think and they feel.
Focus your attention on accurately understanding the communication to be
delivered and present it in such a way that it is viewed favorably.
Why should you identify the tasks that would enable your readers?
Guideline 2
Identify the tasks you will help your readers perform while they read.
When you identify the tasks, you are describing the enabling ele ment of
purpose. At a general level all tasks are the same for all readers.
What tasks do readers perform while reading?
Readers perform tasks of locating, understanding, and using information
in many ways, depending on the situation.
For example Ali’s progress report would be read from front to back by the
vice presidents.
In this lesson you learnt
•Defining Objectives
• Document Purpose
• Implicit Purpose
• Explicit Purpose
•Why do we need documents ?
