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Psychological and Interpersonal Effects of Divorce and Blended Families on Children
Andrea Hayes
Liberty University
Divorce, Marriage, and Blended Families
Dr. Heck
December 8, 2023
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Abstract
Divorce is a traumatic experience that can significantly affect the family, especially
children. However, in the last few decades, there has been a rapid change in the attitude and
mindset concerning marriage in American society and worldwide. Proper upbringing of children
requires love and affection from both parents. Nonetheless, divorce separates children from their
parents, and the separation breaks the tender mind from the inside. Additionally, blended families
are increasingly common due to spousal death or divorce, with the latter causing the most
numbers of divorces in the United States. Current psychological studies demonstrate that divorce
and blended families can negatively impact children emotionally, physically, and socially.
Additionally, research indicates that children in blended families experience increased adverse
outcomes than children in families with both biological parents. As studies on divorce and
stepfamilies have expanded, scholars have made significant steps in identifying and
implementing parenting practices and interventions that improve children’s mental health and
their relationships with parents, ultimately promoting positive outcomes.
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Psychological and Interpersonal Effects of Divorce and Blended Families on Children
Introduction
One of the human beings' most vital decisions is choosing a partner. Socially, marriage is
a stable bond between a woman and man, which, in addition to satisfying their emotional and
sexual needs, also regulates their cultural and social relations and economic conditions.
Individuals choose a partner and conclude a marriage contract, ultimately forming a family to
develop a sense of self-respect, belonging, and security and to foster social and personal
development (Sarmadi & Khodabakhshi-Koolaee, 2023, p. 2). As among the most crucial social
institutions, the family has had a remarkable weight and place in all societies throughout history.
According to Washington & Anderson (2023), almost fifty percent of marriages in America will
end in separation or divorce. Scholars estimate that forty-one percent of first marriages end in
divorce. Divorce is stressful and may significantly affect an individual's well-being, and a person
experiences economic and financial stress due to it. In ideal conditions, children should grow up
in a relatively unchanging and predictable environment, but divorce can significantly impact
their development. The dramatic change affects their family life and adversely impacts their
relationships with parents and others.
Thesis Statement
The psychological and interpersonal impacts of divorce and blended families may affect
children emotionally, financially, and physically. The children of conflict-filled divorces usually
endure physical and emotional trauma as their parents maneuver their way through their
conflicts. As compared to children of continuously married parents in stable and reliable
relationships, children of divorced parents are at higher risk of developing and maintaining
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relationships and trusting others, struggling with behavioral issues such as violence and
aggression, having poor physical health, and performing poorly in academics.
Divorce and Blended Families
According to Eaton (2018), family life is changing, and studies indicate a reduction in
two-parent households in the US as cohabitation, remarriage, and divorce continue to increase (p.
34). Remarriage and divorce are transforming American children's lives astonishingly. For
instance, according to a report released by the US Census Bureau, fifty percent of the country's
more than sixty million children under thirteen lived with a biological parent and the current
parent's partner. 21.4 percent lived with their mother, while 4.4 percent lived with their father
(US Census Bureau, 2022). Additionally, more than sixty percent of American families are
recoupled or remarried, and sixty-six percent of those living together or remarried may break up
when they involve children. Divorce involves the termination of a marital union or marriage
under specific customary, religious, and legal requirements, after which the parties have no
obligations or rights towards each other.
Various factors that can assail and ultimately undermine a marriage, resulting in
reconciliation or divorce, include marital infidelity, financial disagreements, lack of intimacy,
lack of equality, abuse, and addiction (Eaton, 2018, p. 35). Divorce can affect children socially,
physically, psychologically, and emotionally. Children whose parents are divorcing may have a
hard time interacting with others and tend to have minimal social contact. Studies associate
divorce with academic difficulties such as disruptive behavior, lower grades, and dropping out of
school. They also experience increased levels of depression, emotional distress, stress, and lower
self-esteem. Scholars also associate parental divorce with cohabitation, risky sexual activity,
higher poverty levels, and early marriage (Sheoran, 2021, p. 6442).
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Blended families or stepfamilies are among the many modern family types worldwide.
They usually form because of a spousal death or divorce. Although a spousal death is still a
crucial factor, most modern stepfamilies result from divorce and separation. These families are
becoming increasingly common in the US, and almost half of the country's children live with a
biological parent and the parent's current new partner (Sarmadi & Khodabakhshi-Koolaee, 2023,
p. 3). Although most stepfamilies involve remarriage, not all remarriages lead to blended
families. For instance, remarriages that involve partners with no children from prior relationships
would not yield a stepfamily. Furthermore, families that started as blended families may no
longer identify if the stepparents adopt their stepchildren. In terms of complexity and structure,
stepfamilies are heterogeneous.
According to Perry & Fraser (2020), approximately sixty percent of remarriage women
are from stepfamilies (p. 56). More than half of these remarriages involve stepchildren living
with the remarried couple. Scholars often categorize blended families into typologies that
illustrate the diversity of family structures that may impact relationships. According to Sanner et
al. (2022), about ten percent of American children live in blended families at a specific time (p.
885). By adulthood, approximately 4 in 10 (42%) Americans indicate having at least a step-
relative, including a stepchild, stepparent, or step-sibling. Parties may form blended families
early in a child's life and become integral to the child's childhood experience through adulthood.
The joining of two parents and respective children can lead to various challenges, which
therapy can assist in easing. Compared to children living with both biological parents, children in
blended families experience multiple challenges, such as behavioral issues, academic
achievement, and emotional well-being. They also show more depression signs and are at higher
risk for developing emotional issues. Adolescent stepchildren may engage in alcohol and
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substance abuse and risky sexual activity as compared to children living with both biological
parents. They also have lower academic performance than children living with both parents.
Stepchildren also have higher premature school dropout rates, lower graduation rates, and lower
school attendance.
Nonetheless, these differences are minimal, which may disappear when considering
factors such as the length of time since the remarriage and family income. The increased
financial resources that result from remarriage assist children in overcoming these challenges.
Parental support, attention, and monitoring can also help children adjust. Changes that
accompany remarriages, including attending a new school and moving to a new home, tend to
make it challenging for children to adjust.
The Psychological Impacts of Divorce and Blended Families
The Psychological Impacts of Divorce on Children
Divorce is a challenging period for everyone involved. While adults are more prepared
for what is about to come, it is often a new experience for children. For children, divorce can be
terrifying, confusing, and challenging to understand and cope with. They cannot understand why
their family is separating and why their parents suddenly stopped loving each other. Divorce
affects children more often today than in the past, with the proportion of children living in single-
parent households tripling in recent decades (D'Onofrio & Emery, 2019, p. 100). The family is
the only home environment known to children before divorce or separation. Divorce creates
significant changes in this known home environment and brings fear and uncertainty among
children.
Additionally, the whole family will feel the conflict and fighting between parents.
Children whose parents go through the divorce process tend to have more psychological issues.
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Compared to children in a family where parents live together, children of divorced parents
usually have more mental health issues, often leading to long-term consequences. Research
studies indicate that children of divorced parents are at an increased risk of experiencing
psychological problems, including low self-esteem, depression, anti-social behavior, stress, and
anxiety (D'Onofrio & Emery, 2019, p. 100). Studies have also documented that parental divorce
or separation leads to a higher risk for adolescent and child adjustment issues such as depressed
mood, disruptive behaviors including substance use and conduct problems, and academic
challenges, including premature school dropout and lower grades and school attendance.
Additionally, regular family conflict affects a child psychologically as it creates stress and
threatens their environment and sense of security. Obeid et al. (2021) demonstrated this
phenomenon in a national research study conducted to explore the relationship between divorce
and mental health outcomes, especially suicidal ideation, anxiety, and depression among 1,810
Lebanese adolescents aged fourteen to seventeen years. The study revealed that adolescents with
divorced parents had higher social avoidance and fear, suicidal ideation, and depression,
highlighting the significance of implementing adequate and efficient prevention programs to
support both parents and children during their emotionally challenging period. Living in a single-
parent family usually entails limited resources, whether social–parental supervision and support–
or financial, which in turn are likely to lead to poorer mental health among children, such as
depression.
Additionally, it leads to reduced time spent with one of the parents, which often means
minimal involvement in a child's life. Divorce often means a child loses daily contact with one
parent, most often the father. Minimal contact impacts the child-parent bond. According to Obeid
et al. (2021), the father's absence can significantly impact boys' psychological adjustment more
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than girls since boys are likelier to need a male figure and role model during adolescence (p. 6).
Moreover, establishing and maintaining close relations is more challenging for boys. Studies also
associated parental divorce with increased suicidal ideation among offspring. According to Fu et
al. (2017), children living with one of their biological parents did not experience increased
suicidal ideation compared to peers.
Nonetheless, children living without biological parents experience a higher risk for
suicidal ideation and stress than those living with a single parent. Studies indicate that suicidal
risk in children of divorced parents is related to various factors, including insecure attachments,
weak family cohesion, and ineffective child-parent communication (Obeid et al., 2021, p. 6).
Furthermore, for some children, divorce is not the most challenging part. The accompanying
stressors make this period the most difficult. Living with a single parent, moving into a new
home, and changing schools are the additional stressors that make divorce most challenging
among children (Sheoran, 2021, p. 6442). Financial problems are also common following
divorce. Families have to change neighborhoods or move to smaller houses, and they usually
have fewer financial and material resources.
The Psychological Impacts of Blended Families on Children
Children in all families experience various and changing feelings concerning their family
relationships. These feelings can be more intense in stepfamilies. Studies have frequently
analyzed family structure as a predictor of child well-being, whereby they compare children from
blended families to children living with both biological parents on various developmental
outcomes (Sanner et al., 2022, p. 885). On average, studies consistently report that children in
blended families are at a slightly increased risk for adverse effects compared to children living
with both biological parents. Children in stepfamilies experience tremendous stress as a result of
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family structure transitions, including parental remarrying, divorce, and separation. For instance,
parental remarrying is related to various changes children may experience, including housing and
neighborhood relocations, with the potential loss of friends.
Additionally, parental remarrying frequently leads to changes in household income,
establishing relationships with new extended members, adjusting to new home routines and
dynamics, adapting and establishing relationships with new household members, and reduced
time with one or both biological parents (Perry & Fraser, 2020, p. 56). The child may feel
stressed and unsure of how they fit into the family. They might also feel worried about various
things, including how to behave in the new household, handle the changes in their life, and
respond to their stepparent's feelings. Children in blended families might have uncomfortable
feelings regarding the family. They might feel jealous of their parent’s partner's children, angry
or sad that they have to share their parent with the new partner, blame their parent for breaking
the first family, or feel less important since their parent has a new partner. Some children may
reject the new partner since it reminds them that their biological parents will never get back
together. Children may feel abandoned by the non-residential parent after a divorce. They may
struggle with new emotions as they start caring for the stepparent. They may worry that if they
love the stepparent, they will betray their biological parent.
According to Sanner et al. (2022), when children cannot control their life direction, they
replace frustration with adaptive behavior, which can manifest as behavior or emotional
problems including low self-esteem, depression, aggression, defiance, anxiety, and anger, as well
as negative peer association and school problems (p. 895). Of additional concern, a stepparent
may respond to these issues by disengaging, which may further lead to marital dissatisfaction,
child-parent discord, and other family stress. Furthermore, in most stepfamilies, parents may
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hand over children to the other biological parent based on the custody agreement. Visitation with
the other parent may be confusing and may cause trouble. Scheduling conflicts can create stress
and tension. New family members may also have inadequate time to interact and get used to each
other. Children may also complain to their non-residential parent about their stepparent, adding
tension to an already strained relationship between divorced or separated parents (Sanner et al.,
2022, p. 895).
The Interpersonal Impacts of Divorce and Blended Families
Not only do divorce and blended families impact children's psychological health, but they
also affect their social health by contributing to behavioral problems, including lower
communication skills and increased aggression (Eaton, 2018, p. 36). Children whose parents are
going through divorce have a challenging time relating to others and usually have less social
contact. They are always uninterested or fearful of social situations, including attending school
events or hanging out with friends (Xu, 2022, p. 2131). Children learn by observing their parents
and regularly seeing them employ ineffective problem-solving skills. They may start applying
these ineffective, unproductive, inefficient, and aggressive approaches.
Furthermore, parents usually become harsher and stricter when punishing their children
with during marital conflicts, particularly during divorce. These intensified punishments lead to
behavioral problems among children, including bullying, anger, and increased violence.
According to Xu (2022), divorce can also result in disruptions in the child-parent relationship,
loss of emotional support, and negative attitudes towards relationships (p. 2136). Children in
divorced families develop introverted and withdrawn personalities, leading to the traits of low
self-esteem and silence. Thus, as they participate in school activities, they do not communicate
and cooperate effectively with peers to solve problems. They lose the spirit and sense of
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cooperation and collaboration and may not stimulate their potential leadership skills. Their
introverted personality affects their social circle, and they may lack an opportunity to
communicate with others.
During and after divorce, children experience a hard time making and maintaining
friendships. They also have difficulty communicating with others and talking about their
feelings. These issues can significantly affect a child's social life, particularly during the two
years following a divorce (Perry & Fraser, 2020, p. 57). Furthermore, many children close their
hearts when their parents divorce, leading to severe personality defects, strong resistance to
blended families, poor interpersonal skills, and negative attitudes towards marriage. Parental
divorce usually results in low trust among children. The divorce of their parents makes intimate
relationships and friendships more challenging as they reach adulthood. According to Perelli-
Harris et al. (2017), children of divorced families are more than 50 percent more likely to divorce
in adulthood than those in stable families (p. 304).
Children in blended families often perceive the stepparent as an outsider, creating
boundary ambiguity. This refers to a lack of clarity about who belongs in the family system and
who is out. Additionally, the relationship between a non-resident parent and the child becomes
more complex when one parent remarries. Children observe the communication between their
mother and stepfather daily and assess the relationship quality based on open family
communication, parenting agreements, and frequency of arguments (Perelli-Harris et al., 2017, p.
309). Stepfathers’ behavior in relation to these factors can either contribute to establishing an
emotional connection and effective relationship with a stepchild or maintain a sense of distance,
ultimately affecting interpersonal relationships in the new family.
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Interventions
Parents, teachers, and other parties can implement practical strategies to preserve
children's psychological, social, and physical well-being. Parents can implement strategies that
include open communication, parental cooperation, and enlisting professional support (Sheoran,
2021, p. 6441). Enrolling in programs such as The New Beginnings Program for Divorcing and
Separating Families (NBP) can help improve children's mental health and enhance the
relationship between parents and children. The program teaches skills that assist parents in
establishing warm and positive relationships, employing effective discipline, using open
communication, and keeping children out of the middle of conflict between the parents (Eaton,
2018, p. 40). It focuses on effective parenting since studies have shown that the quality of
parenting by both parents is among the most potent resources for assisting children in adjusting
positively to parental separation or divorce. Kids in Divorce Situations (KIDS) is an evidence-
based program to minimize psychological impacts and enhance communication and relationships
between parents and their children after divorce. Through eight interactive group sessions,
children develop strategies for coping with the changes they face when their parents separate or
divorce.
Conclusion
The paper provides fundamental insights into the psychological and interpersonal impacts
of divorce and blended families on children. Parental divorce has tremendous psychological
effects on children, including disruptive behaviors, depressed mood, and academic difficulties.
Parental separation and differences in custody will result in new living arrangements for children
that may cause significant confusion and stress. Divorce and blended families also affect
children's interpersonal development in various ways, including changing their attitudes and
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views on relationships, social ability, and personality. Various programs, including NBP and
KIDS, can help improve their mental health and relationships with parents.
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