Terms
Cultural Encapsulation (Gilbert Wrenn)-occurs when the dominant cultural view is regarded
in counseling as more important than minority values. Cultural encapsulation can lead counselors
to evaluate and treat diverse clients from the dominant perspective, disregarding client’s
individual cultures and values. Typically, the counselor does not understand the client’s
worldview or cultural identity and thus fails to integrate this information in practice.
Ex: Anna is a 19-year-old Latino client student who cultural background values cultural
dependency, crying a lot, trouble sleeping and loss appetizer. Mother called mental health, the
women said Anna need to be more independent and should call the center on her own.
Feminist Theory- which began as a political movement, is generally concerned with equality of
women. Theory promotes values taken from the areas of multiculturalism, politics, and social
advocacy. Carol Gilligan***
Gender Identity-belief about one’s gender
Gender Roles- include expectations put on a person by society about how someone should
behave, think, and be treated and what beliefs he or she should hold.
Gender Expression- refers to how individuals portray their gender, which may or may not be
aligned with gender role expectations.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- is a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the
mother's pregnancy. Fetal alcohol syndrome causes brain damage and growth problems. The
problems caused by fetal alcohol syndrome vary from child to child, but defects caused by fetal
alcohol syndrome are not reversible.
Informing-occurs when a member talks about other members outside group. Leaders should
remind all members that what happens in group stays in group.
Blocking (Leader)-Stop a counterproductive member behavior to protect other members of the
groups from being harmed.
Blocking (Group Member)-resisting, behaviors that when performed by a group member
impedes group cohesion and progress; keep the group from progressing to the working stage.
Joseph Pratt-credited with establishing the first group experience. An internist, Pratt used
groups to save time in educating and supporting patients with tuberculosis.
WWII-soldiers were tested and instructed in groups, and teamwork was emphasized. Groups
were also used on occasion to treat combat fatigue (PTSD).
J. L. Moreno-created the Theater of Spontaneity, which was the earliest form of psychodrama
used to bring about mental and emotional catharsis for the purpose of tension relief. He also
organized the first society of group therapists and coined the term .group psychotherapy
Eric Berne-highlighted his TA approach to group therapy (1960-70s). *Group*
Eric Berne Games People Play
https://mcpt.co.uk/transactional-analysis-explained/
The goal of therapy is to teach the client the language and ideas of TA in order to recognize
ego state functioning and analyze one’s transactions (How I talk to someone)
The personality has three ego stages: Parent, Adult, and Child
A life script develops in childhood and influences a person’s behavior
Complementary transactions: Adult to Adult- - leads to good communication
Crossed transactions: Adult to Child & Child to Parent- - leads to barriers to communication
Techniques:
Teaching concepts, helping diagnose, interpretation, use of contracts and confrontation
Carl Rogers-initiated encounter groups also known as sensitivity training groups (1960-70s).
*Group*
Person-Centered Techniques- Client Centered- Carl Rogers
Rogers reacted against the directive psychoanalytic approach which put the counselor in
charge of giving advice, teaching and interpreting- - His focus was more on the person’s
phenomenological world reflecting and clarifying their verbal and nonverbal
communication
The process of becoming, moving clients to self-actualization, and the alliance between
the client and counselor were very critical.
The focus of the counseling went from the past to the present and was on feelings.
Terms:
Unconditional positive regard
Genuineness
Empathic understanding
Phenomenological world: your phenomenon how you see the world
Marathon Group 24/48 hours-members met together for extended periods of time, usually ;
members were expected to become more and engage in true-self disclosure.authentic
Ex: mission trips, traveling groups
Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW)-was founded in 1973 for the advancement
of professionalism in group work. In the 90s, ASGW specified four types of group work: task
groups, psychoeducational groups, counseling groups, and psychotherapy groups.
COUNSELING GROUP
-Relatively full functioning members with mild decision making or situational problems.
exploration and growth oriented
PSYCHOTHERAPY GROUP
-More intensive and longer duration, entails remediation, skills and resources, and
reconstruction of personality because members have more serious psychological
problems, have to have a diagnosis,
PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUP
-Members have theme/issue in common and work on awareness and understanding
through discussion and educational information about the issue (Ex: Therapist is
teaching)
T-GROUP (TRAINING GROUP)
-Helps individual develop skills needed to interact effectively and gain self-awareness
concerning their behavior and its meaning in social context (consciousness raising), often
found in business settings
Informed Consent (Group)-allows members to know their rights and responsibilities prior to
beginning group work and can end treatment at any time.
Forming A Group
1. GROUP COMPOSITION
a. Heterogeneous : differences(opposite) in terms of issues,
backgrounds, age, gender, etc.
-Sexually mixed and continuous groups have more opportunity for deep and
lasting personality change
-If group are to heterogenous they may not be able to come to agreement or
on the same page
b. Homogeneou s : members are similar in some important characteristic(s)
such as, issue, gender, life situation, etc.
-These groups gel faster and become more cohesive, better attendance, less
conflict, but not as effective in lasting personality change
c. Children and Adolescents : take into consideration developmental level, age,
and gender
-]: no more than 2 year age span, separate groups for boys and girls is better
-Adolescents: developmental level more important than actual age, can be coed
or separate depending on maturity level
*HINT- Always, never, anyone words- may not be the right answer*
2. ENTRY INTO GROUP
a. Closed Group begins and ends with same members, preset termination date,
best for short term, task oriented and inpatient groups. People can leave a close
group, but you cannot replace them.
b. Open Group : members join and terminate at different times, usually no
preset ending date, can impede trust and cohesiveness, more acceptance of new
members in larger group, newly formed group, or support group
3. GROUP SIZE, LENGTH, LOGISTICS
a. Choose setting, length of group meetings
-Adults: best is 6- , psychoanalytic groups are usually smaller 8 members
than support groups, 1 1/2 to 2 hours
-Children: fewer members depending on age BUT , 20-30 minutes3-4 members
-Adolescents: 6-8 members, 1 hour
b. Frequency
-Usually once a week
c. Life Span o f group
-How may weeks if time limited
d. Admission of new members
-What will be the procedure for admitting new members
e. Mode of payment
4. SELECTION OF MEMBERS
-Sometimes selected because they fit theme of group
-Some leaders leave it up to client
-Best if interview helps leader and member know each other, and helps leader know if
members are compatible with other members
a. Screening Process
-History of family background, age, childhood, adolescence and adult years,
medical history, psychological history, diagnosis, where client is on
normal/psychotic continuum
-Explore target symptom (the issue group is focusing on)
-interview w/ them separately (informed consent)
*Cannot tell members that everything in group is confidential due to not
being able to guarantee that*
-Poor candidates:
*Brain damaged, paranoid, narcissistic, hypochondriacal, suicidal, drug/alcohol
addicted, psychotic, sociopathic
*Teens if insight and interpretation-oriented group: (ok if behavior
modification, problem solving, here and now, and/or support focused
group)
*Members whose issue is more family oriented: (may be better in family
therapy)
b. Premature Drop Out
-Evidence that dropouts don’t benefit
-Has demoralizing effect on remaining members and disrupts functioning of
group
-Characteristics: high denial, high somatization, lower motivation, lower
psychological mindedness, lower socioeconomic status, lower social
effectiveness, lower IQ
c. Informed consent
tells the client before counseling about the rights and expectations. Get this
“informed” consent before (OUTSIDE) of the group.
-can revoke the informed consent
Phases of Group:
1. TUCKMAN STAGES- 5 stages (Yalom- 4 Stage in ())
a. Forming (Orientation, Initiation, Exploration)
Begin to establish norms, identify w/ w/ another member, and build cohesiveness
Ask members to introduce themselves or to introduce another member
Ask members to describe themselves using limited # of words
Ask members what they hope to get from group or what their concerns are about
Conduct a check-in and check-out
ground rules and ask questions
b Storming (Transition, Conflict, Confrontation, Fighting)
This stage can occur sever times during a group
Increase conflict, frustration, and anxiety
Seeking control or dominance in the group
Challenging the facilitator
Facilitator should be non-defensive and deal openly w/ conflict, regulate the conflict
c. Norming : ( Plateau) group comes to agreement on expected behaviorsCohesion,
increase observed in support, acceptance, risk-taking, self-disclosure, trust,
sensitivity, and unity
members seek closeness and emotional attachments
facilitators should:
reinforce behaviors that build trust
be alert to subgrouping
continually note that the group can accomplish more
d. Performing (Working, Production) productive stage of group
Ind. Goals become focus of group efforts
member criticism of each other become more supportive and objective
possible regression to earlier stage of dynamics
facilitators should:
become less active as the group members activity increases
model appropriate methods of confronting
comment on the group process
address dysfunctional dynamics
e. Adjourning Termination(Deforming, Mourning, )
anxiety, fear, abandonment, and ambivalence
desire for closure and to resolve unfinished business
potential for “false-relapse”
risk-taking and self-disclosure decrease
facilitators should:
affirm accomplishments of the group members
review strategies that group members can use to maintain the progress made in
group
summarize the group experience
may have to send appropriate referrals during termination stage depending on the
group
Rituals
*Client can bring gifts and food to session, but therapist cannot*
2. COREY AND COREY
a. Pre-Group Formation/Pre-Group Screening
b. Initial Stage : uncertainty, awkwardness, surface level disclosure, wait for
leader to initiate, get acclimated, identify goals
c. Transition Stage : conflict develops because members beginning to
show true colors, factions may develop between members
d. Working Stage : deeper disclosures and trust, members initiate own work,
power and conflict issues resolved, members feel value of group, morale
grows
e. Final/Termination Stage : consolidation of learning, making meaning out of
experience and generating to real world, issues of separation
Group Leader Styles:
Authoritarian-takes control of and responsibility for the group; sets the agenda,
goals, and rules; serves as the conduit for member interaction (i.e., discussion
occurs through the leader.
Democratic members-facilitates member interactions; with leader guidance,
make decisions, take responsibility, set agenda, goals, and rules; sets norms
encouraging member interaction, self-disclosure, and feedback. *Considered best
style for group! *
Laissez-faire-assumes or responsibility for group agenda, little or no leadership
goals, or rules; assumes members all have abilities to make changes and take
responsibility for the group on their own; lacks structure and directedness
Attending to Group Process (point process)-involves noticing the dynamic between group
members, with the group serving as a social system. Attending to happens when you content
notice something in and of itself (leg shaking, verbalization, the time) without relating it to the
dynamic of the group.
Ex: group leader notices something about the client (shaking leg) you are supposed to direct it
with client in front of the group (answer is confrontation)
Career Maturity Inventory (CMI)- John Crites;developed by assesses career choice attitudes
and competence; targeted population is adolescents and young adults.
Ex: 8 Anchor
Operant Conditioning-
B.F. Skinner operant conditioningwas credited with inventing the idea of . In this view of
learned behavior, the consequences of the experience are the most determinant of whether the
individual will repeat that action. For example, someone who associated the use of drugs with
family issues in childhood would be less likely to try drugs in the future because of the learned
association, or experienced operant conditioning.
Theories of development revolving around Skinner's theory have been critiqued for their
inability to explain cognitive issues associated with language and memory. It would not be a
good explanation for someone with a developmental stuttering issue, for example.
********Remember to look at the behavior first and what are you trying to do********
Thornedike- Law of Effect
Cognitive Dissonance-Festinger’s created this theory-when an individual’s behavior is
inconsistent with his/her thoughts and beliefs.
developed by Festinger
inconsistent thoughts are often called “dissonance”
focus on cognitions and attitude formation
the discrepancies or inconsistencies that create tension are caused by cognitions or
attitudes
the tendency to justify behavior to create a state of “consonance” (harmony) between
attitudes and behavior predicts that a person will look for things which are consistent with
his or her behavior
example: a report states that an expensive watch is a good buy, the person buying the
watch now has consistency between his belief and his behavior
Countertransference-projections of the therapist onto the patient
Transference- projects of the client onto the therapist
Halo Effect- tendency for the observer (researcher or data collector) to form an early impression
of the person being observed and then letting this impression influence observations or ratings of
that individual. Halo effect can be positive or negative.
Memory device: hover on the subjects
Harm Reduction-A set of public health policies and pragmatic interventions that are
designed to reduce the harms associated with drug use and other high-risk activities.
Ex: nicotine patch or pill for alcoholic-methadone clinic
Reliability-Reliability is the consistency of a test or measure; the degree to which the test
can be expected to provide similar results for the same subjects on repeated administrations.
Reliability can be viewed as the extent to which a measure is free from error.
Stability: Test-Retest -obtained using the same instrument on both occasions-same group tested
twice; results of the two administrations are correlated; two weeks is a good time between test
administrations.
Equivalence : alternate forms of the same test are administered to the same group and the
correlation between them is calculated.
Ex: NCE
Internal Consistency : Split-half method-test is divided into two halves. The correlation
coefficient between these two halves is calculated. The Spearman-Brown formula
(prophecy) could be applied to see how reliable the test would be, if had not been spilt
into two.
oKuder-Richardson formula -are used if the test has dichotomous items such as
true-false, yes-no.
oCronbach Alpha Coefficient -are used if the test contains non-dichotomous
items such as . multiple choice, essay
Validity-degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure; validity is situation
specific.
Face-instrument looks valid.
Content-the instrument contains items drawn from the domain of items which could be
included.
Predictive-the predictions made by the test are confirmed by later behavior (criterion).
Concurrent-the results of the test are compared with other tests’ results or behaviors
(criteria) at or about the same time.
Construct-a test has construct validity to the extent it measures some hypothetical
construct such as anxiety, creativity, depression etc.
oConvergent validation- occurs when there is a high corr4elation between the
construct under investigation and others.
oDiscriminant validation- occurs when there is no significant correlation between
the construct under investigation and others.
*Tests may be RELIABLE, but not VALID! * VALID tests are always, RELIABLE! *
Example- a scale
Levels of Measurement-
Nominal-the numbers represent the variable’s qualities or categories; with this data you
would use a nonparametric statistic such as chi-square.
Ex: male and female
Ordinal-the numbers represent differences in some magnitude of the variable; you can
order the data, from top to bottom and high to low.
Ex: scored on a exam can be ranked from highest to lowest
Interval-the intervals between the numbers on a scale contain the same amount of the
variable throughout the scale; provides constant unit of measurement. No true zero
Ex: on a standardized test, the distance between 11 and 12 is the same as the distance
between 24 and 25.
Ratio-the numbers are on a scale which has a true zero; the numbers can be compared by
ratios.
Ex: someone who weighs 200 lbs is twice as heavy as someone who weighs 100 pounds.
https://www.graphpad.com/support/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ordinal-interval-
and-ratio-variables-why-should-i-care/
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) the influence of one or more independent variables on -
the dependent variable is controlled. This means that the initial group differences are adjusted
statistically on one or more variables that are related to the dependent variable.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that involves having at least one independent variable in a study with three or
more groups or levels. An ANOVA provides an , which indicates if two or more of the F ratio
group means are statistically different. With more than one independent variable, a factorial
ANOVA is used. Factorial ANOVAs yield both main effects and (i.e., interaction effects
significant differences among groups across two or more independent variables).
Transitional Object-Transitional objects are chosen possessions that offer security and comfort
to a child. They're often soft and huggable items, such as teddy bears and blankets, that are used
to soothe during a transitional phase
Null Hypothesis no difference-states there is between the or variables groups measured.
Aptitude test-also called ability tests, these measure the effects of general learning and are used
to predict future performance.
ASVAB-military, police, SAT
Achievement-measures the effects of learning or a set of experiences. Achievement tests are
designed to assess what one has learned at the time of testing. Specifically, they measure the
knowledge and skills an individual has acquired in a particular area due to instruction or training
experiences. Achievement tests are most frequently employed in educational settings and used
for selection, classification, placement, or instruction purposes. Assessment of achievement can
include standardized norm-referenced tests and teacher-constructed criterion referenced
tests. Standardized achievement tests can measure student academic growth, identify
academically at-risk students, and provide accountability data for educational program
evaluation.
Power Test
Speed Test
Ex: NCE
Interest Inventory-measures and evaluates an individual’s interest or preferences for a variety
of activities. -Holland
Strong Interest Inventory--an interest test based on the concept that people who achieve
success in one occupation are likely to have common interests and preferences that
differentiate them from people who are successful in other occupations.
Self-Directed Search- Self-administered. computerized and you can do it yourself*
explores daydreams, attitudes, abilities, etc., score provides person with Holland 3 letter
code *on the test this can count under assessment or career*
Kuder Career Search Planning System—computerized and you can do it yourself
Self-administered. explores daydreams, attitudes, abilities, etc.,
score provides person with Holland 3 letter code
*on the test this can count under assessment or career*
Histograms-is a graph of connecting bars that shows the frequency of scores for a variable; are
used with quantitative and continuous variables; uses group frequency data. 2 parallel lines up
and down
Quantitative Research-involves being very objective, creating controls and comparing the
experimental group with the control group to conclude something. Changes can be measured
Qualitative Research-Change in structure (more summary base) involves participant
narratives and transcripts that must be coded and analyzed for themes to evaluate the
effectiveness of a particular service or intervention.
T-Score-mean is 50; the standard deviation is 10. are eliminated unlike the z-Negative scores
score.
Z-Score-mean is 0; the standard deviation is 1.
Positive Skew mean is higher - than the median and mode.
Negative Skew mean is lower- than the median and mode.
Bell Curve-a normal bell-shaped curve has a mean of 100.
(Z-Score)
o68% = 1 Standard Deviation
o95% = 2 Standard Deviations *sometimes rounded to 96%
o99% = 3 Standard Deviations
(T-Score)
o40 to 60 is 68% = 1 Standard Deviation
o30 to 70 is 95% = 2 Standard Deviations *sometimes rounded to 96%
o20 to 80 is 99% = 3 Standard Deviations
Percentile-your spot in the line-up; considers the percentage of scores falling at or below a given
score.
1964 Civil Rights Movement-is NOT an early influence on the development of testing
movement. Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1972, 1978, and 1991 amendments. Assessments
used to determine employability must relate strictly to the duties outlined in the job description
and cannot discriminate based on race, color, religion, pregnancy, gender, or origin.
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) Buckley -known as the
Amendment; it allows parents of students under 18 years of age and students themselves, if they
federal law that affects any counselor who works in a education setting that receives funding
from the U.S Department of Education.
FERPA was created to specify the rights of parents
Education records, refers to any document or information kept by the school relating to a
student, such as attendance, achievement, behavior, activities, and assessment.
Parents have the right to access their children’s educational information until the child is
18 years old or begins college, whichever comes first, at which point the rights shift to
the student.
Directory information
at least 18 years of age, access to information in their (not counseling) educational
records.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA). Confirms the right
of students believed to have a disability, to receive testing at the expense of the public school
system. The act further mandates that students with disabilities receive an IEP that specifies the
accommodations a student will receive to optimize learning.
Axis 1 (DSM)- describes clinical disorders Examples: dementia, substance
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)- involves excessive anxiety occurring most days over at
least a six-month period, accompanied by at least three of the following symptoms: restlessness,
fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, and difficulties sleeping. The
symptoms of anxiety cannot be due to some other disorder.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)- involving one or more major depressive episodes in the
absence of a manic, hypomanic, or mixed episode. This disorder is diagnosed in females twice as
frequently as in males.
Substance Abuse-Prevalence rates of substance use are very high in the U.S. with over 22
million individuals reporting use. Substance-related and addictive disorders focus on ten classes
of drugs. concepts of abuse and dependence are no longer included in the diagnosis. The
Severity of disorder can be specified as mild, moderate and severe. A cluster of cognitive,
behavioral and physiological symptoms typify the disorder. Other criteria cover social,
occupational and interpersonal issues as well as risk-taking, tolerance and withdrawal.
Treatment may include medical interventions including use of medically controlled
substitutes. Adaptive coping mechanism and substituting positive behaviors can be effective
treatment options. Mindfulness training has been found effective in some cases.
Some of the ten substance-related disorders are:
a. Alcohol-related disorders
b. Cannabis-related disorders
c. Hallucinogen-related disorders
d. Inhalant-related disorders
e. Opioid-related disorders
f. Sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-related disorders
g. Stimulant-related disorders
Gambling disorder has similar neurochemical brain responses
and risk-taking behavior.
Adjustment Disorder- involve psychological responses to identifiable stressors. Symptoms
must begin within three months after the stressful event, and a more significant impairment than
would ordinarily be expected must result. Ordinarily, adjustment to the stressor is expected
within six months after the precipitating event, unless the stressor is chronic.
Humanistic- A group of counseling theories focusing on experiences that are unique to humans
(e.g., self-actualization, wellness, hope, love, creativity). Humanistic counselors believe in
human goodness and the ability of all individuals to strive toward self-actualization given the
proper environment. Humanistic counseling is frequently referred to as the “third force” in
counseling.
Rogers, Gilligan, Maslow, Adler
Psychoanalytic Techniques- Sigmund Freud
The goal is to bring things from the unconscious to the conscious
Id: pleasure principle/instincts/devil- - I want it, I want it, I want it now (born with it)
Ego: reality principle/ Defense mechanism
Superego: internalized ethics/morality/angel - - never, never, never (develops at age 3-5)
Unconscious: id & superego
Preconscious: ego
Techniques:
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Children’s Apperception Test (CAT), Rhorshock, Rotter
Incomplete Sentence Test
Projective: from the unconscious onto the picture
Subjective: Freud’s opinion
Transference: client projection onto the therapist/extra helper/extra person in the room
Countertransference: projections of the therapist onto the patient/ my feelings are getting in
the way
Negative: you remind me of someone I didn’t like
Positive: you remind me of someone I did like
Gestalt Techniques- This approach is based on existential principles, has a here-and-now focus,
and a holistic system theory viewpoint
Individuals are always looking at what is my purpose, why am I here
Gestalt: means whole – you cannot be a whole person until you get rid of the past
Figure ground: Individuals experience needs. To the extend a need is in the forefront, it
represents the ‘figure’ and the other needs are ‘ground’ (background). As the need is met, it
completes the ‘gestalt’ and a new need takes its place.
Key concepts in the theory include personal responsibility, unfinished business, and
awareness of the now
Techniques:
Role-play, two chair techniques, dream work
Interpretation is done by the client not by the counselor
H.B Gelatt-positive uncertainty
Albert Bandura- Social learning and social cognitive therapy (early 60s)
Bobo doll experiment
Self-efficacy Theory – belief that I can do it may not be immediately, but I am going to
work hard to get it, fight for themselves-personal agent
(Ex: If I believe that I can and my guidance counselor stated I couldn’t it could cause
psychological damage because I believed that I can…)
Vicarious Experience- watching other people, high or low self-efficacy through other
people performances. Comparing another person work performance to your own
competence.
Physiological Feedback- Is the way your body feels, sensations from their body and ow
they perceive this emotional arousal influences their beliefs of efficacy
Verbal Persuasion- Someone tells you that you can’t or can. Proving them wrong or
right. Influenced by encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an individual
performance or ability to perform.
Performance Outcome- positive and negative experience can influence the ability of an
individual to performance given task.
Is self-efficacy the same as self-esteem-NO!!!!
Krumboltz- Learning Theory of Career Choice, Planned Happenstance Theory
(1999)
John Krumboltz (learning theory of career counseling -- LTCC)
Krumboltz used Bandura‘s social learning theory to identify the principal concepts for this
theory of career development and career counseling. Reinforcement theory, cognitive
information processing, and classical
behaviorism are important concepts.
Career development and career decision making involve the following:
This includes inherited qualities which may set limits on career
Based careers on what we grow up with or seen
Based on Bandura
4 Factors that influence how people choose their career path
1. Genetic endowment and special abilities; innate abilities and physical
characteristics, this includes inheried qualities which may set limits on career
2. Environmental conditions and events: nature, technology, society, economy, or
culture
3. Learning experiences: instrumental and associative learning
4. Task approach skills: how people approach the completion of tasks (emotional
response work habits, personal standards of performance)
Planned Happenstance Theory- Idea that people can prepare for and created
opportunities for unexpected events that lead to career selection and success. Be
prepared for it study up that way if something comes up on the path unexpected you are
already planned for it.
Career belief inventory- question beliefs and get out of that pattern
counseling tool to identify career beliefs and assumptions that may block clients from
taking constructive action. Encouraged you to look beyond your social environment/ or
how you grew up.
Behaviorism-learning is a change of behavior brought about by the consequences of
behaviors.
Existential- assists clients in addressing universal questions about life, death, and freedom and
helps them find meaning in their lives. Both approaches stress the importance of showing clients
unconditional positive regard and allowing the client to direct the sessions. Humanistic-
existential counselors do not attempt to analyze clients, nor do they spend time focusing on the
past. Counselors trust that clients can make important changes in their lives without being
directed—that if counselors provide clients with a safe, trusting environment, clients will
naturally move toward personal growth.
May, Frankl (Man Search for Meaning/Logotherapy/Nasi Concentration Camp), Yalom
Phenomenology (the study of our direct experiences taken at their face value) is the basis of
existential therapy
We have freedom of choice and are responsible for our fate
We search for meaning and struggle with being alone, unconnected from others
Anxiety and guilt are central concepts
The goal of existential therapy is the understanding of one’s being, one’s awareness of
freedom, choosing responsibility, awareness of freedom, and choosing responsibility are
other goals
Underlying principles:
Freedom to choose what they do, think and how they react
With freedom of choice comes personal responsibility
Reality Therapy
William Glasser (think see through the glass tell it like it is no BS)
Father of Reality therapy: control or choice theory, BCP perception controls our behavior
present moment, excuses not accepted, no exploration of unconscious, believes the
individual controls the environment
If past comes up, focus is on successes dwelling on past failures can contribute to
negative self-concept relationship is like a friend wrote "schools without failure"
Positive addiction: jogging, must be noncompetitive and the client enjoys responsibility
for own happiness
Reality therapy is based on the underlying theory known as choice theory . The basic premise of
choice theory is that people make choices to meet their five basic needs:
survival (e.g., food, water, shelter,and breathing),
belonging (e.g., friends, family, relationships, and love),
power (e.g., self-respect, achievement, success, and competence),
freedom (e.g., independence, control, and autonomy), and
fun (e.g.,hobbies, leisure activities, enjoyment, and satisfaction).
The most important, but difficult, need to satisfy is love and belonging. As a result, people seek
to connect with those around them and experience distress when they are unable to relate to
others in a meaningful way.
`
Super
Believed a person Started career in adolescents
Labeled himself as a differential developmental-social-phenomenological psychologist
Based on Ginsberg
Developmental stages and task
Written for white upper class men
Life Rainbow Theory Life roles or Life Stages or Life Span or Life Space ( -where you
should be at the time or space)
Roles you play or might see theaters
• Leisure/lesurite- free time spent away from work- is Super term
Archway Pillars (Left pillar (Nurture/ genetics) and right pillar (Nature /outside world)
How self-concept is developed
The pillars come together and all things you experienced, belief, environment
come together on how you see yourself in your career.
True role concept or true self or self-concept-comes in-super term
Need to be in career by the age of 24
Written for white upper-class men
5 Vocational Developmental Task – What you are supposed to learn
Crystallization-start career in high school by formulating ideas (14-18 yrs. old)
Specification- general to specific in college (18-21 yrs. old.)
Implementation (21-24 yrs. old)
Stabilization-settle in, but in small steps
Consolidation-power in position
5 Stages of Maxi cycle- What you are In
Growth (0 to 14 yrs. Old)
Exploration (15-24 yrs. Old)
Establishment (25-44 yrs. old)
Maintenance (45-64)
Disengagement/ Decline (65+)
Later super he vied career development as more holistic and career adaptability
Roles are played in 4 theaters
Home
Community
School
Workplace
Super is responsible for the Career Pattern Study- Examined the Vocational behavior in 9
th
graders all the way up to 30s.
Havingshurt- Developmental Theorist
Non decision guy, wasn’t a decision it is something that you do
Trait and Factor (Career counseling approach)/ History
Frank Parson- Father of Vocations (Guidance)
*1909- Parsons “Choosing A Vocation” wrote his book * the year after he died
Trait and factor or called actuarial or matching approach
Trait-Factor means you
a) Study the individual (trait)-learn about myself
b) Survey occupations (factors)-learn about the job
c) Match the person w
d) an occupation (using true reasoning)
This approach stimulated the development of assessment techniques (tests and inventories)
and occupational info gathering
E.G Williamson- (1930)
Minnesota viewpoint- from university of Minnesota (Freudian believed a lot of things
were unconscious but Parson did not)
Refined the trait and factor approach
To him the career counseling approach involved 6 steps
1. Analysis
2. Synthesis
3. Diagnosis
4. Prognosis
5. Counseling
6. Follow up
Holland-RIASEC theory is based on personality types. He developed the Vocational Preference
Inventory and the Self-Directed Search.
-Careers are expression of the person’s personality
-Comparison of oneself with perceptions of occupations determines one’s career choice
A. Personality Types and Environments
1. Realistic: Manipulation of machinery, tools, working with hands, being outdoors, may not
have good social skills (machinist), like things more than people
2. Investigative: Analytical, curious, methodical, precise, scientific
(biologist) , people who like working things out
3. Artistic: Expressive, non-conforming, introspective, original,
unstructured (decorator or musician) , creative
4. Social: Working with and helping others, dislike of working with “things” (bartender or
counselor) , rather be with people
5. Enterprising: Manipulating, persuading, and leading others, interested in financial gain (sales
or lawyer) , sellers, politics, charmers
6. Conventional: Enjoying manipulation of data, records, prefer structure and clear expectations
(secretary, clerical worker, or financial expert) , book keepers, details exact
Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model-believed that career development occurred as part of
cognitive development as one resolved ego-relevant crisis. There are two phases: anticipation or
and or adjustment.
Erikson’s Stages- Erik Erikson-The only psychoanalyst to create a theory over ENTIRE
lifespan
Erikson Psychosocial Stages
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1.5 yrs.): Children completely reliant on caregiver. When
there is neglect and basic needs are not met consistently mistrust is developed.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (2-3 yrs.): Children gain more independence through
toilet training and begins to feel more control. Shame and doubt result from failing at
these tasks.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool, 3-5 yrs.): Children assert more power, good or bad,
purpose or guilt depending on messages from caregivers and environment,
exploration.
4. Industry vs Inferiority (6-11 yrs.): School begins, competence and confidence develop
if there is success, inferiority results from failure.
5. Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 yrs.): Sense of self and personal identity develops.
Success results in strong sense of self, failure results in confusion and weak sense of
self.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 yrs.): Intimate and loving relationships with others,
failure results in loneliness and isolation.
7. Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65 yrs.): Sense of accomplishment when contribute to
world or things that outlast you children etc. to feel useful. Failure leads to shallow
involvement in world and stagnation.
8. Integrity vs Despair (65-death): Reflection and wisdom, success means fulfillment.
Basic Counseling Skills-
Empathic Understanding: the ability to experience the client’s subjective world
including feelings and cognitions.
Congruence: also called genuineness, this characteristic implies that the counselor is
authentic and integrated in the counseling session. Congruence can also mean an
agreement between a client’s behavior and his or her values and beliefs.
Unconditional Positive Regard: also called acceptance, this characteristic implies the
counselor is caring without condition and is neither evaluative nor judgmental.
Concreteness: this is the extent to which the client and the counselor deal with issues in
specific terms rather than in vague generalities. : this is dealing with what is Immediacy
going on in the counseling process at the present time.
Interpretation: this is a therapeutic technique used to uncover and suggest meanings and
relationships often underlying the apparent expression.
Self-disclosure: appropriate self-disclosure means that the counselor shares personal
affect and experiences relative to the client’s issues.
Attending: this refers to several behaviors including listening, engaging in eye contact
and being psychologically present.
Restatement: repeating what the client has stated with emphasis on the cognitive
message.
Reflection: repeating what the client has stated with emphasis on the affective or feeling
portion of the message. “I STATEMENTS”
Paraphrasing: restating the message of the client to show or to gain understanding.
Summarizing: this is a process whereby the counselor or client brings together several
ideas or feelings usually following a lengthy interchange. Silence: silence may have
many meanings such as quietly thinking, boredom, hostility, waiting for the counselor to
lead, preparing the next thrust, or emotional integration.
Confrontation: occurs when the counselor identifies and presents discrepancies between
a client’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors or between counselor’s and client’s perceptions.
Defense Mechanisms-
Repression-rejecting from conscious thought (denying or the impulse or forgetting)
idea.
Regression-retreating to an earlier childlike form of behavior.
Displacement-substituting a different object or goal for the impulse or motive that is
being expressed.
Projection-avoiding the conflict within oneself by pushing it on someone else.
Rationalization-providing a reason for a behavior and thereby concealing the true
motive or reason for the behavior.
Compensation-making up for something
Denial-Refusing to see something that is a fact or true in reality.
Reaction Formation-expressing a motive or impulse in a way that is total oppositive of
what was intended.
Sublimation-can be viewed as a positive defense mechanism; desire or sexual tension or
energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as work.
Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH)-national document published by the U.S.
Department of Labor. It is current (published every two years) and contains job trend data,
employment projections for the next ten years, jobs of the future, occupational information,
salary data, etc.
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)-O*Net replaced the DOT; it is still available. About
12,000 different jobs are defined. The first three digits identify the general category, division, and
group of occupations; middle three digits represent data-people-things.
Autonomy-is "fostering the right to control the direction of one's life".
Beneficence-is "working for the good of the individual and society by promoting mental health
and well-being."
Justice-treating individual equitability
Fidelity-is "honoring commitments and keeping promises.”
Veracity-stands for "dealing truthfully with individuals with whom counselors come into
professional contact."
Margaret Mahler-developed object relations theory; she believed that attachment, borderline
and narcissistic disorders may occur when normal progression through these stages does not
occur.
Fusion with mother: normal infantile autism (first 3-4 weeks of life)
Symbiosis: with mother (3 to 8 month)
rd th
Separation/Individuation: (4 or 5 month)
th TH
Constancy of self and object: (36 month or 3 years)
th
Ann Roe-Career Theorist, needs approach
Psychology, Biology, and Sociology help predicts of careers
Needs Theory: How you were parented lead to needs you fulfill through your career
Fields and Level-categorical system designed to test needs theory
Theory based on Maslow hierarchy of needs (“People See Love Every summer”)
Maslow: Physiology, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization
Roe: added a psychological component related to the way people are parented
Looked at Parent Child Relationship (emotional concentration, avoidance, and
acceptance)
Emotional Concentration- over protective (restrictive)/ over demanding
(perfectionist)
Avoidance- emotional rejection (criticism)/ emotional neglect (ignore)
Acceptance- casual acceptance (permiss; min)/ loving acceptance (auto w/ love)
Can Grow in either a Cold Home (over demanding, rejecting, avoidance,
neglecting) or Warm Home (over protected, acceptance, loving, casual)
Levels- What we do?
Fields- Where we do it?
8 Fields-
Cold home will result in orientation towards things of : fields technology,
outdoors, and sciences
Warm Home will result in orientation towards people: of fields business contact,
service, arts and entertainment and general culture.
6 Levels-
(Professional & Managerial-independent responsibility 1, Professional &
Managerial-medium level 2, Semi-Professional / Small business, Skilled,
Semi-Skilled, and Unskilled.8)
*The person unconscious psychological needs are related to the occupational
level a person achieves. *
Linda Gottfredson-early 70
*Ages on the test*
Circumscription: Narrows choices down to those fitting self-concept; Ruling out
UNACCEPTABLE in relation to self-concept (Way that we are raised)
Age 3-5 Orientation to SIZE and POWER, (careers is for adults not children)
Age 6-8 Orientation to SEX ROLES, (shaped into girls/boys “stereotypes “boy
toys are based on careers, women based on being a mommy)
Age 9-13 Orientation to SOCIAL VALUES (“stereotypes, how society and
parents raised your children… girls shouldn’t act like this…, gender based)
Age 14+ Orientation to INTERNAL UIQUE SELF
The way we are raised (circumscription is how we comprise our careers, ZONE OF
TOLERANCE
Compromise: cut down to most appropriate, available, and practical (not the dream); cut
remaining OPTIONS IN FAVOR OF low-lying (more accessible) options
They have limited knowledge and even more limited network
They’ll cut first based on the field, the social level, and finally based on sex
Kohlberg-[Think no stealing from KOHLSberg…Morals]
Expanded on Piaget’s concept of moral development
Used stories to determine moral development in children
Three Levels 6 steps of Moral Development
1. Pre-conventional: 6 and younger: obey to avoid punishment, performs for rewards and
to have favors returned.
2. Conventional:7 to 11 yrs.: confirms to avoid disapproval or dislike, desire to conform,
desire to live up to society's expectations
3. Post-conventional: self-imposed morals and ethics, the highest level, some people never
reach this
Carol Gilligan- human relationships
A psychological theory pioneered by Carol Gilligan (1982) that espouses equality for all
individuals and is particularly dedicated to eliminating sexism. The theory aims to help clients
become more aware of the effect of gender on their lives as well as to empower them to improve
their lives and the lives of others
Piaget-SO PEOPLE CAN FLY
A structuralist, each stage is a way of making sense of the world. Believed teachers should
lecture less when children are in concrete operations because children learn most through action
and experimentations
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2: movements and sensations, object permanence is
developed, start to learn cause and effect and realize they are separate beings from
objects and people around them.
2. Preoperational stage: 2-7: more symbolic thinking, egocentric, struggle with the idea
of constancy (something looking larger from being a different shape) Centration:
also occurs in this phase, child focusing on clown's red nose, focusing on one key
feature or object while ignoring the rest. Symbolic Schema: language and symbolism
in play
3. Concrete Operational stage: 7-11: more logic thinking, is mastered conservation
(liquid in short wide cup equal to tall skinny glass) more organized thinking, begin to
think more of how others feel.
4. Formal operations stage: 12 and older: more abstract thinking, politics, ethical,
reasoning, deductive logic, or reasoning.
Critique of Research: He observed his own children
Reversibility: developed in concrete operational stage, learning one can undo an action, glass of
water returning to original shape.
Ex: a 6-year-old says “the rain is following me” this is an example of egocentrism.
Object permanence is also called representation thought
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed a constructionist, cognitive
developmental theory that integrated language as well as social and cultural influences. Vygotsky
that cognitive progress was facilitated by language development and occurred in a social context.
Zone of proximal development refers to the gap between what children
are able to learn on their own and what they are potentially able to learn with help.
Scaffolding refers to the supports that must be put in place to help children learn in order to reach
their potential. After children have their potential and are capable of performing the task
independently and automatically, the scaffolding supports can be removed. Vygotsky derived
stages of language development to explain cognitive advances.
He described children’s speech during the first three years of life as social speech aimed
at controlling the actions of others in the environment (e.g., shouting, laughing, crying,
and excitement).
Around age three years, and aligned with Piaget’s preoperational stage, he noticed that
children’s speech is very egocentric: children talk (think) out loud to themselves to guide
their own actions and explain to themselves what they are doing.
Vygotsky deduced that the reason children do this is because they have not yet developed
the capacity for private speech. At about seven years of age, children develop private
speech (inner speech), which are internalized thoughts that help guide personal behavior
and allow individuals to engage in higher mental processes.
Curative Factors/ Therapeutic Factor-
a. altruism- giving other people hope, telling your story
b. universality, - comparing yourself to someone else
c. interpersonal learning, -learning to work in relationships and group
d. imparting information,
e. developing socialization techniques,
f. imitative behavior,
g. group cohesiveness,
h. catharsis, -cry, yell-Freudian thing
i. corrective recapitulation of the primary family group, - looking at
someone in group that reminds you of someone, fixing problems in group stuff
j. instillation of hope, and – Ex: bobby got clean so can I
k. existential factors (such as one is alone and responsible). – meaning of
life and purpose
If these were present, participant growth and development would occur.
Self-Concept- One of Super’s most notable contributions to the field of career development was
his emphasis on the role self-concept plays in a person’s career. He defined self-concept as an
individual’s perception of his or her personality characteristics, abilities, and preferences. The
self-concept changes and develops over time as individuals acquire life experiences and learn
how they differ from others. Super saw career choices as reflections of self-concept and believed
the self-concept influences an individual’s ideas regarding suitable occupations.
External Validity- refers to the ability to generalize the results of a study to a larger group. The
two types of external validity are (i.e., involves the population to population external validity
which one can generalize) and (i.e., involves the conditions or ecological external validity
settings to which one can generalize). For both forms of external validity, the professional
counselor must sufficiently describe the participants, variables, study procedures, and settings so
that readers can ascertain the degree of
external validity of a particular study. Several threats are associated with external validity.
Where a # falls on the bell-shaped curve? 69/95/99
What should people certain age should have accomplished? Super by age 24
Age Equivalence- In school settings, scores on an achievement test are often reported as grade
equivalent scores. If a student correctly completes the number of items on a test that the average
sixth grader completes, that student has a grade equivalent score of 6.
Age equivalent scores work in a similar manner. An individual‘s score is compared to the
average score of others at the same age. For example, if a 7.6 year old student earned a score
equivalent to 8.0 year old students that would be his or her age equivalent score
Confidentiality- While members may agree that what is said in the group stays in the group,
confidentiality simply cannot be guaranteed in group settings. Counselors have an ethical duty to
maintain confidentiality, but group members do not. Of course, the dangers of revelation in
group are multiplicative: the chances of breaking confidentiality increase as group size increases.
Breaking confidentiality hurts group trust which suppresses member willingness to self-disclose.
Suppression is conscious avoidance… Conscious blocking of unpleasant thoughts, impulses,
and memories. Unlike repression, suppression does not block out thoughts indefinitely. They are
brought back to awareness when there is an opportunity to cope with them more effectively.
Robbert Hoppock- needs-based career theorist was a only. Addressed the roles of needs in
choosing, changing, and being satisfied with career.
Repression- is automatic or involuntary… It is unconscious avoidance.
Kuder Testing- Kuder Career Inventories This is a set of interest inventories that makes the
assumption that a person will find satisfaction in an occupation where workers have similar
interest patterns. The Kuder Galaxy is tailored for Pre-K through fifth grade; the Kuder
Navigator for grades 6 to 12; and the Kuder Journey for adults.
Kuder Search with Person Match (Interest Inventory) is a new generation of the well-
known
Kuder Occupation Interest Survey (KOIS). This is an interest survey that makes the
assumption that a person will find satisfaction in an occupation where workers have
similar interest patterns. Currently examines about 140 occupations and college
majors. It takes about 20 minutes to complete and must be scored by computer. The
survey can be administered via pencil and paper, computer, or the Internet. It is
primarily suited to those in the tenth grade and beyond.
World War 1(career counseling)-World War II continued to grow the field by creating a
greater demand for counselors, offering vocational tests, and creating counseling degrees in
universities
Paradoxical Intention- involves prescribing the symptom. For example, if a client laments
about how she cannot seem to stop crying, the counselor might tell her to try to cry all day. Or a
client with insomnia might be told to try to stay up all night. In this way, the or anxiety
accompanying the symptom is removed, and clients recognize that they have some control over
expression of the symptom.
Agoraphobia- (loosely translated as meaning “fear of the marketplace”) criteria include intense
anxiety over being in situations in which escape may be difficult and embarrassment may occur
should a panic attack ensue. Agoraphobia may occur with or without the occurrence
of a panic attack. Acrophobia-Fear of heights.
ANE LOEVINGER
Ego Development: Ego development plays a major role in individual differences in a person of
any age. Jane Loevinger believes that Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory is much
like her ego development theory. She believes that stages are important in revealing one’s
impulsiveness, self- protectiveness, conformity, conscientiousness, and autonomy.
Characteristics of Conception of Ego Development
1. 2. 3.
Stages are potential fixation points. They define types of children and adults.
Stage conception is structural. There is inner logic to the stages and their progression.
There are specific tests, experiments, or research techniques that become the instruments for
advancing knowledge in the domain. The conception is applicable to all ages.
Stages of Ego Development
1. Presocial Stage - Awareness of objects. Baby constructs a self-differentiated from
outer world. Object constancy and conservation of object.
2. Symbiotic Stage - Differentiation of self from others. Language plays a part in this
distinction.
3. Impulsive Stage - Affirmation of separate identity. Demanding of attention. Bodily
feelings.
4. Self-Protective Stage - Beginning of self-control. Understanding of rules.
5. Conformist Stage - Development of trust. Identification of one’s welfare with family.
Obeys rules because they are group-accepted. Appearance, social acceptance.
6. Self - Awareness Level Transition from Conformist to Conscientious Stage - Stable
position in mature life. Perception of alternatives and exceptions. Adjustment.
7. Conscientious Stage - Internalization of rules. Major elements of adult conscience.
Morality.
8. Individualistic Level Transition from Conscientious to Autonomous Stages - Greater
conceptual complexity. Desire for individuality. Awareness of inner conflict.
9. Autonomous Stage - Ability to cope with inner conflict. High tolerance for ambiguity.
Self- fulfillment as goal.
A correlation coefficient is used to determine reliability. If the reliability coefficient is high,
about .70 or higher, test scores have little error, and the instrument is said to be reliable.
Reliability is a necessary psychometric property of tests and measures. Correlation coefficient
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) is frequently used. A correlation
coefficient ranges from -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation) to 1.00 (a perfect positive
correlation). This is a statistical index which shows the relationship between two sets of
numbers. When a very strong correlation exists, if you know one score of an individual you can
predict (to a large degree) the other score of that person. A correlation between two variables is
called bivariate; between three or more variables, it is called multivariate. The correlation
coefficient tells you , only the degree of relationshipnothing about cause and effect
Norm Referenced comparing individuals to others who have taken the test before. Norms
may be national, state or local. In norm-referenced testing, how you compare with others is more
important than what you know
Criterion Referenced- comparing an individual‘s performance to some predetermined criterion
which has been established as important. The National Counselor Exam‘s cut-off score is an
example.
Ethics w/in groups & family- know your ethics
What are intelligence measures? Intelligence measure -tests used to Intelligence or IQ,
Achievement, Aptitude
Type of Studies
Single-subject design: studies the effects of a program or treatment on an individual or
group treated as an individual, usually after a baseline has been established.
Action research: attempt to improve services or a program. conducted in an This
research may often be viewed as having an evaluative function.
Pilot study: small-scale research effort often used to determine the feasibility a of a
large scale effort with emphasis on refining procedures and instrumentation.
Longitudinal research: collecting data from the same group consists of of individuals
over a period of time. also called a panel study. This is For example, this author
studied the career development of school children beginning when they were second
graders and re-interviewing them every two years until they were high school seniors.
Cross-sectional research: collecting data from different groups at the consists of
same time and examining these differences. For example, one approach to studying
career development is collecting data from each grade of students, for example from
second to twelfth grade, at the same time.
DIVERSITY
•Gender Identity (she(girl), he(boy), they (nonbinary))- What you have between your
legs and how you label yourself
•Gender Expression- How I express myself, how you present yourself
•Gender Dysphoria- unhappy with the gender assigned (ex: yes, they call me a girl,
but I am a boy)
•Sexual orientation- straight, gay, pansexual (attracted to many people)
•Transgender- People who are in the process of changing their gender
•Bisexual- attracted two or more genders
•Cisgender: Someone who is cisgender identifies with the sex they were assigned at
birth. For example, a cisgender man identifies with being a male, the sex assigned at
birth.
•Agender: Someone who doesn't identify with one particular gender or doesn't have a
gender at all.
•Intersex is an umbrella term used to describe people with differences in reproductive
anatomy, chromosomes or hormones that don't fit typical definitions of male and
female. Hormones for both genders (genetic)-can have both sexual parts but born that
way
•Misgender- refer to (someone, especially a transgender person) using a word,
especially a pronoun or form of address, that does not correctly reflect the gender
with which they identify. Purposeful- I told you I am girl but you keep referring to me
as a boy
•Coming Out-Process first come out to yourself then parents then others
*people who have issues with gender or sexual orientation the suicide rate is 25% higher*
Experiential family counseling
Carl Whitaker does family counseling from an experiential perspective. Less reliant on
theory, he becomes highly involved in the therapeutic process. He actively joins the
family paying close attention to what he himself was experiencing in the therapy. He
would then use that awareness to press for changes in the family.
The process of therapy is most important and the encounter in therapy is designed
to challenge the old ways of thinking and behaving, on the way to new growth. Whitaker
uses symbolism to help explain many experiences, and these symbols are often outside of
awareness or consciousness.
Humanistic family counseling
Virginia Satir humanistic model of family counselingrepresents a . Human beings as
well as families have the resources within themselves to flourish, grow and develop. Self-
concept of the individual is important. Poor communication (discrepancies) within the
family is often blocking members from healthy functioning. Satir‘s counseling approach
has also been characterized as one of process orientation thus her therapeutic style is also
an experiential one. She believed in interacting closely with the family and stressed the
need for intimacy in family relationships. Family Sculpting- a family member to
physically arrange the entire family in the room.
Satir believed that family members would adopt one of five different styles of
communication:
placater, (passive)
blamer, (aggressive)
intellectualer/super- reasonable,
irrelevant/ distractor
congruent communicator.
The last one is a healthy style. (assertive)
Family systems theory
Murray Bowen is the architect of the andsystems theory of family counseling
presented the most well developed family counseling theory. Based on general systems theory,
Bowen emphasized the family as an emotional unit in the formation of repeating dysfunctional
behavior in a family member.
Because he believed that family history including more than one generation of the family was
central to therapy, his approach has often been labeled transgenerational.
Eight theoretical concepts were identified by Bowen:
1. Differentiation of self: the degree to which individuals can distinguish between
their intellectual (thinking) processes and their feeling processes. If there is fusion
between these two processes, individuals are likely to experience involuntary emotional
reactions and become dysfunctional.
2. Triangles: Individuals have a need for closeness and individuation. To the extent two
individuals (e.g. husband and wife) are fused, they may bring in a third person (e.g. child)
to resolve such two-person stress. The basic building block of a family‘s emotional
system is the triangle. The greater the fusion in the family, the greater the triangulating
that will occur.
3. Nuclear family emotional system: Marital partners chose mates with equal levels of
differentiation. Thus two undifferentiated partners will probably become highly fused and
produce a family with similar characteristics. Such a nuclear family emotional system
will be unstable.
4. Family projection process: the fused, unstable marital partners will focus on one of the
children (typically the most infantile) and this is called the family projection process.
5. Emotional cutoff: children involved in the projection process may try to escape the
fusion by moving away geographically, or isolating themselves psychologically. This
emotional cutoff is only a deception.
6. Multigenerational transmission process: the poorly differentiated child of poorly
differentiated parents will select a similarly poorly differentiated child to marry. This
process could repeat itself through several generations with the weak links‘ always
marrying weaker links, etc.
7. Sibling position: roles tended to be associated with birth order. If two individuals of the
same birth order or different birth order marry, these individuals could complement each
other or compete with each other.
8. Societal regression: Bowen extended his thinking to society‘s emotional functioning,
and in his pessimistic view, society is regressing because it does not differentiate between
emotional and intellectual decision making.
He develops a for the last three generations This is a visual picture of the family tree.genogram .
In therapy, Bowen's tendency is to work only with the marital couple even if children have been
identified (IP -- identified patient) as having the family problem.
His goal is to maximize each partner's self-differentiation. His style as a therapist is to remain
neutral and detriangulated unlike the experiential and humanistic family therapists.
Structural family therapy
Salvador Minuchin is the primary proponent of structural family therapy.
Each family has an organization or structure characterized by the evolved rules which are the
transactional patterns between members. These rules dictate how, when, and with whom, family
members interact. Rules may be generic (for all family members) or idiosyncratic
(individualized).
subsystems which are necessary to carry out family functions. These subsystems have
boundaries and rules for membership. Examples of subsystems are: spousal, parental, and
sibling.
Boundaries between subsystems may be permeable or diffuse. If boundaries are too
diffuse, this may lead to enmeshment. Rigid boundaries lead to disengagement.
Alignments- refer to alliances between family members
power - refers to who exerts authority in a family in different situations.
Coalitions- occur when some family members form an alignment against
another family member.
Techniques for Structural Family Counseling
When structural family counselors first meet with a family, they engage in joining ,
which is the process by which the counselor becomes accepted by the family. To join the
family a counselor “emphasizes the aspects of his personality and experience that are
syntonic with the family’s.
Structural maps are visual representations of a family’s coalitions, alignments,
boundaries, and conflicts. Counselors use these maps to help assess the family’s
strengths, weaknesses, and needs.
Enactment is the deliberate process by which the counselor encourages the family to
play out its problem in the session. While family members interact with each other, the
counselor observes; notes any alignments, coalitions, and structural problems; and begins
to formulate a plan to address them. This technique provides the counselor with an
opportunity to observe a family’s issues and patterns of interaction firsthand.
Reframing , a concept discussed in several of the family theories outlined in previous
sections, occurs when counselors reframe a problem to sound more positive,
understandable, or controllable, making families more confident in their ability to solve it
and change their behavior.
Restructuring is an intervention that involves actively working to change the structure of
a family system. Unbalancing is a technique used to better establish a proper family
hierarchy. For example, the counselor might help parents learn how to be more
authoritative instead of allowing their children to make decisions and control them, thus
reaffirming the parental subsystem’s power. The counselor might also work with the
family to create clearer boundaries, especially when there is evidence of enmeshment or
disengagement. For example, the counselor might work to create more separation
between certain members or, conversely, create more closeness between certain members.
Strategic family therapy
like behavioral approaches to counseling, emphasize altering behavior rather than helping clients
gain insight and personal awareness. strive to reframe client problems in a positive and
constructive light, giving the family hope and control over their situation.
a. defining the problem,
b. asking family members to discuss what they have done to try to solve the problem
themselves
c. establishing the goal of counseling for the family
d. developing a strategy to help the family reach its goal.
Quid pro quo refers to the propensity of individuals to treat others as they themselves are
treated. For example, one family member does something (e.g., a favor) to get something from
another family member.
Family members tend to interact with each other in the same way, and it is unusual for those
patterns of behavior to change or expand. This is what is known as the redundancy principle .
Punctuation refers to the conviction by individuals that their verbal communication, especially
during a conflict, occurs in reaction to someone else In an argument between two people, what
one person says is not caused by what the other person says.
Metacommunication qualifies or puts conditions on the communication which occurs on the
surface or content level. It is called the second level of communication.
The strategic family therapy approach theorist are Milton Erickson, Jay Haley and Cloe
Madanes.
Techniques for Strategic Family Therapy
Relabeling and reframing involves interpreting a family’s situation in a new way to
encourage family members to view their problem in a more favorable light. It is
particularly important that the counselor reframe the problems in a way that increases the
family’s willingness to change their behavior and gives them confidence that they have
the ability to solve their problem.
The use of paradoxical intention, also called prescribing the symptom , in strategic
family therapy helps to lower client resistance to change. Essentially, the counselor tells
clients to keep engaging in their troublesome behavior. For clients who are resistant to
change, this assignment seems simple and nonthreatening. For example, a couple who
argues a lot might be asked to argue for at least a half hour every day.
directives (i.e., homework assignments) for clients to complete between sessions. These
directives encourage clients, either directly or subtly (through paradox), to participate in
new behaviors.
Counselors sometimes ask clients to engage in an which is a paradoxical ordeal ,
technique that asks them to complete an undesirable but health-promoting task before
participating in their worrisome behavior (e.g., fighting or excessive crying). For
example, a counselor might tell a client that she must run for 30 minutes on the treadmill
before she can start crying. Ideally, the woman will stop crying so often, so that she does
not have to run on the treadmill all the time.
In the pretend technique, clients are encouraged to simulate their symptoms. In this way,
they realize that they are able to exert some control over what they say and do, as well as
over the outcome of the situation.
Milan systemic family therapy-long brief therapy
This therapeutic approach came out of Milan, Italy and was led by Mara Selvini
Palazzoli. Instead of examining patterns of interaction among family members and developing
strategies to change them, this approach focuses more on exploring family members’ perceptions
of each other and their interactional patterns, as well as asking questions to increase their
awareness of unhealthy family behaviors. In this model the counselor collaborates with clients to
set goals, and it is the family’s responsibility to either work toward change or remain in their
current style of functioning.
Paradox
Counterparadox
Positive connations
Circular questioning is the process of asking several family members the same question
about the same relationships. This reveals family members' connections and the
differences in meaning they ascribe to an event.
Rituals prescriptions of the family are often used therapeutically; established family
patterns might be changed suggesting new ways of doing things, which may alter beliefs
and attitudes. By revealing family games‘ and through new information, Milan therapists
hope to change family rules and relationships.
Neutrality refers to the objective position that counselors adhere to when working with
families. Simply put, neutrality means that the counselor does not take sides with any
family members. Rather, all members’ perceptions and beliefs are deemed valid and are
used to provide the counselor with helpful information to guide questioning and develop
hypotheses. It is believed that if counselors fail to be neutral, they will become involved
in the family’s game or will be viewed as partial to certain family members and
prejudiced against others, both of which impede change.
Hypothesizing is fundamental to the Milan model of family counseling. Counselors
begin formulating hypotheses from their very first contact with family and often arrive at
sessions with hypotheses already conceived and ready to be confirmed or denied. As
counselors learn more about the family, new hypotheses take form or old ones are refined
for better accuracy. The objective of hypotheses is to help family members change and
gain more insight into their behavior; they are not supposed to be accepted as absolute
truths.
Behavioral/cognitive approaches
Behavioral techniques have been used effectively for behavioral marital therapy, behavioral
parent-skills training, functional family therapy, and conjoint sex
therapy. Cognitive behavior therapy, with its focus on thoughts and actions, has received
increasing emphasis. Robert Liberman introduced operant conditioning and social
learning principle.
Abraham Maslow's humanistic theory states that personalities are the result of a connection to
environments as well as to personal experiences. Maslow aimed to understand human
personalities within ordinary circumstances, as opposed to the abnormal personality issues that
theories such as psychoanalysis focused on. Maslow's concept of humanism explained that all
individuals have particular universal needs, and that these needs must be fulfilled in a specific
order so as to reach the pinnacle of a healthy personality. This idea led to Maslow's Hierarchy
of Needs, which ascend from most basic to most complex:
1. physiological (e.g., food, water, and rest)
2. safety (e.g., shelter, warmth, physical security, and emotional security)
3. belongingness (e.g., loving relationships, and sense of belonging)
4. esteem (e.g., self-respect, self-confidence, and feelings of success)
5. self-actualization (e.g., sense of purpose).
Self-actualization represents the achievement of our highest unique potential.
Occupational Information Network (O*NET) is an electronic source for occupational
information published by the U.S. Department of Labor and updated semiannually. It was
developed to replace its predecessor, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. The O*NET database
provides one of the most comprehensive occupational listings, housing current information and
skill requirements for over 1,000 occupations. Specifically, the O*NET supplies information
regarding the tasks, knowledge, skills, abilities, work activities, work
context, job zone, interests, work values, work needs, related occupations, and wages for each
occupation listed in the database
The is currently published by JIST Works, though itGuide for Occupational Exploration (GOE)
was originally issued by the U.S.Department of Labor. The , now in its fourth edition, is GOE
only available in print and is titled . This occupational New Guide for Occupational Exploration
resource offers information regarding compensation, projected growth rate, education or training
needed, values, skills, and working conditions on over 900 occupations.
Occupations are classified using the 16 U.S. Department of Education clusters that connect to a
variety of careers.
DISCOVER is published by ACT. This system employs a trait and factor method, matching an
individual’s self- assessment results to occupational information. It is avail- able in two versions:
a middle school version (Grades 5–9) and an adult version (Grades 9-adult).
DISCOVER includes research-based assessments that measure an individual’s interests, abilities,
and work values and databases that offer information on occupations, college majors, higher
education and training institutions, financial aid/ scholarships, and military options. The system
also includes information pertaining to job search strategies (e.g., résumé and cover letter
writing, interviewing skills).
System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI PLUS) is a system that CACG
integrates self-assessment information with in-depth and current occupational information.
Recently, was replaced by a new version, . This system can be used to assist SIGI PLUS SIGI 3
high school students, college students, and adults with vocational decision making and career
planning. assists individuals in evaluating their skills, interests, and work values, SIGI 3
acquiring up-to-date information on hundreds of occupations, determining the education and
training requirements needed for each occupation, and putting a career plan into action.
Psychodynamic theory of family counseling
Nathan Ackerman is principal proponent. Theory came out of psychoanalytic
background. In a new marriage, the couple brings psychological heritage and
resemblances from families of origin. They may bring introjects (imprints or memories)
from parents or others. The family unit seeks homeostasis and an individual family
member‘s symptomatic or pathological behavior disturbs the homeostasis.
Ackerman believed in an interactive style of therapy, moving into the family‘s living
space, stirring things up and acting as a catalyst for change.
James Framo, also psychodynamic in orientation, believed the social context of a
person‘s life helped shape behavior. Conflict stemming from one‘s family of origin
continued to be acted out in current relationships in one‘sfamily. Framo believed
that human beings in childhood are object seeking, i.e., hoping to establish satisfying
object relationships, especially with parents. If the child is rejected, this frustration is
retained as an introject which will appear later.Although Framo begins therapy with the
entire family, he often concludes therapy by doing conjoint (couple) therapyfollowed by
couples group therapy and then family of origin (intergenerational) conferences.
