NEFF AND MCMINN REVIEW PART A 3
Summary
Entwistle chapter eight covers the integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity
by understanding and making models. The models are broken into two categories based on how
to understand psychology and how to understand theology (Entwistle, 2015). There are six
models explained, compared, and contrasted in this chapter. The first model we are introduced to
is enemies.
Antagonistic Models of Disciplinary Relationships Enemies
The biggest inequality between Whites and Blacks in America is the Justice System.
Blacks are punished at a higher rate than peers for similar offenses. Additionally, blacks are
incarcerated at nearly five times the rate of white Americans and up to 12.5 times in other states
(Rezal, 2021). While Blacks make up only 47 million people in the country compared to 197
million Whites in America. This shows a large disparity between the country’s communities of
color and white Americans (Rezal, 2021). There has been a noticeable increase in police brutality
and death in the African American community. Thus, birthed the Black Lives Matter Movement
(BLM) in 2013. BLM has been a vocal part of the movement against police brutality in the U.S.
by organizing marches and protests in response to unlawful killings of black men and women by
police (Statista Research Department, 2020). In 2014, the fatal shooting of Michael Brown in
Ferguson, Missouri sparked concerns for Black Americans in the U.S. President Obama had to
address the nation and explained that the incident in Ferguson showed a deep distrust exists
between law enforcement and communities of color (Hodge & Ortiz, 2021). Since 2014, there
has been a large increase in police shootings of unarmed Black Americans compared to White
Americans. As, a Black woman in America I am afraid of interactions with the police, and I fear
NEFF AND MCMINN REVIEW PART A 4
for my life while just simply driving to do typical daily tasks. I don’t believe White Americans
experience the same fear.
Intermediate Models of Disciplinary Relationships
Recognizing your cultural identity is extremely important to human development and
becoming a multicultural competent counselor. Your cultural identity shapes your views,
interactions, and experiences you have in the world. Counselors that are culturally competent
must take into consideration issues of cultural identity for their clients and to themselves (Hays
& Erford, 2023). Additionally, counselors must acknowledge intersectionality and how
intersecting identities contribute to how they are seen in the world, how they are treated in
society, and what advantages and disadvantages they face (Hays & Erford, 2023). Cultural
identity development is the foundation of a counselor and is reflected in the client-counselor
relationship. Therefore, cultural self-awareness, identity development theory, and related
interventions and strategies are crucial to multicultural competent counseling (Hays & Erford,
2023). Understanding your own cultural identity gives counselors a better understanding of the
social issues in the worldview and the climate your clients may face. The research I learned has
helped me understand that my culture has a strained history in America and with therapy. The
obstacles that my culture face is something I can personally relate to and gives me the
opportunity to better connect to clients from similar backgrounds. Knowing the history and
stigma my culture has with regard to counseling gives me the preview I need to learn more about
counseling individuals that have been oppressed.
Social justice counseling refers to counseling that sees the impact of oppression,
privilege, and discrimination on the mental health of people (Ratts et al., 2016). Social advocacy
is an important skill in building connections between a counselor and a client relationship. Social
NEFF AND MCMINN REVIEW PART A 5
advocacy is particularly important to my culture due to the increase of social injustices Black
Americans have faced in the last ten years. Black’s history of oppression is heavily documented.
Oppression can have two modalities, oppression by force or deprivation (Hays & Erford, 2023).
Blacks have experienced both force and deprivation. Blacks experienced oppression by force
during slavery and oppression by deprivation during Jim Crow. Learning more about the
negative impact the justice system has on Black Americas has created the need to learn how I
can be an advocate for not only Black Americans but any individual that faces social injustice.
For instance, I remember what America felt like when the video camera footage of George
Floyd’s death made the media circuits (Leaked Video Shows New Details of George Floyd’s
Fatal Arrest | CNN, 2020). I had open discussions with my peers as while as people that I loved
that were not Black. There were mixed sides and the notion that if Black people do everything
that police officers ask then the situation will not escalate, but through my research and watching
several videos I learned quickly that’s not true.
Social justice also refers to the unequal distribution of rewards and burdens (Hays &
Erford, 2023). I also watched a video of a white man completely disobeying an officer, cussing,
and aggressively merging at the officer to be arrested unharmed. There is a need for social
advocacy for every individual that is mistreated. The goal of social justice counseling is to
promote access to resources and opportunities and advocate equity (Hays & Erford, 2023). I also
learned through my research that social justice advocacy doesn’t stop at my own culture but
extends to all people that experience some form of mistreatment or discrimination. This is in
religious groups, LGBTQ+ individuals, people in poverty, etc. In order to acknowledge
oppression in groups, when have to also acknowledge privilege. Privilege can be having power,
access, or unearned advantage in the society you live in (Hays & Erford). I learned through my
NEFF AND MCMINN REVIEW PART A 6
own research that Blacks have privilege in certain contexts and situations. Privilege can be race-
based, culturally-based, or socioeconomic-based. If counselors want to be advocates of social
justice, they must look beyond the traditional role and scope of counseling and reject the idea of
neutrality (Hays &Erford). Additionally, counselors must work for just and equitable social
systems. Lastly, I know social justice advocacy is not just talking about it but actions toward
making a change. This will require a personal evaluation of personal commitment, and privilege,
establishing a personal social justice compass, understanding oppression, and working to become
multiculturally literate.
Conclusion
In conclusion, your personal cultural background affects you personally and
professionally. My cultural background influenced the way I looked at myself in the mirror
physically, the norms in my family structure, my view on education, my learning of family
systems, and cultural traditions, and my view of social justice. Additionally, by evaluating my
cultural background I am able to visualize how my background plays an important role in my
identity development, the role of culture and social justice in counseling. My research also made
me preview to my own potential cultural bias and the oppression my culture has experienced.
Lastly, I understand the importance of knowing your background to become a better
multicultural competent counselor.
NEFF AND MCMINN REVIEW PART A 8
References
Bosley, D. (n.d.).FCultural Norms & Values in the African-American Population.
https://psychologydictionary.org/african-american-cultural-norms-values/
Hays, D. G., & Erford, B. T. (2023).FDeveloping multicultural counseling competence: a systems
approachF(4th ed.). Pearson.
History.com Editors. (2009).FBrown v. Board of Education. History.com; A&E Television
Networks. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/brown-v-board-of-education-of-
topeka
Hodge, S.,F&FOrtiz, R. (2021). Police body cameras a lesson in objectivity and accountability or
a tool without scientific basis?.FRichmond Journal of Law+&+Technology, 27(2),F1-51.
Leaked video shows new details of George Floyd’s fatal arrest | CNN. (2020). Www.cnn.com.
https://www.cnn.com/videos/us/2020/08/03/george-floyd-bodycam-footage-leak-eg-
orig.cnn
McCoy, R. (2011). African American Elders, Cultural Traditions, and the Family
Reunion.FASA. American Society on Aging.FRetrieved from:
http://www.asaging.org/blog/african-american-elders-cultural-traditions-and-family-
reunion
McGoldrick, M., Giordano, J., & Garcia-Preto, N. (Eds.) (2005).FEthnicity and family
therapyF(3rd ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN: 9781462502240 (e-book version
-Fhttps://ebookcentral.proquest.com/auth/lib/liberty/login.action?returnURL=https%3A
%2F%2Febookcentral.proquest.com%2Flib%2Fliberty%2Fdetail.action%3FdocID
%3D406015
Quillian, L., Pager, D., Midtboen, A., & Hexel, O. (2019).FHiring Discrimination Against Black
Americans Hasn’t Declined in 25 Years. Harvard Business Review.
https://hbr.org/2017/10/hiring-discrimination-against-black-americans-hasnt-declined-in-
25-years
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Ratts, M. J., Singh, A. A., Nassar-McMillan, S., Butler, S. K., & McCullough, J. R. (2016).
Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies: Guidelines for the counseling
profession. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(1), 28–48.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12035
Rezal, A. (2021). The Racial Makeup of America’s Prisons. US News & World Report.
https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/articles/2021-10-13/report-highlights-
staggering-racial-disparities-in-us-incarceration-rates
Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2013).FCross-cultural psychology
:FCritical thinking
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contemporary applications (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Statista Research Department. (2020).FPeople shot to death by U.S. police, by race 2017-2018 |
Statistic. Statista; Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/585152/people-shot-to-
death-by-us-police-by-race/
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