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Benchmark Cultural Immersion Project: Research and Events
Taylor Davis
School of Behavioral Sciences, Liberty University
Abstract
This paper aims to discuss current research regarding the Deaf culture. It will discuss and
elaborate on four key elements learned through research. These elements are customs,
practices, and behaviors, patterns of immigration in the United States, inter-group and intra-
group characteristics, and key historical events and figures. In addition, a summary of the
historical and current oppression that the deaf community has faced will be provided. Two
treatment options will be explained and evaluated. This paper will also discuss two events that
were attended in an attempt to learn more about the deaf culture.
Keywords: deaf, research, history, treatment
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Benchmark Cultural Immersion Project: Research and Events
Cultural awareness and immersion are vitally important for all individuals, but especially
for licensed counselors. Cultural immersion is defined as an individual integrating themselves
into another culture in an effort to learn and better understand the other cultures values,
beliefs, practices, and social norms (Hays & Erford, 2023). Having this awareness of other
cultures allows counselors to better understand how to help multicultural clients. They can
utilize specific skills, insight, and knowledge to respect the client’s culture while also
constructing a respectful relationship.
This paper will provide current and relevant research about the deaf culture. The four
lessons from literature that will be discussed are key historical events and figures, prominent
customs and practices, inter-group and intra-group characteristics, and patterns of immigration.
Following that will be a discussion about the history and oppression that the deaf community
has faced. Effective treatment approaches are also evaluated. Finally, the paper will conclude by
a thorough explanation of events that were attended and how those events impacted the
author.
Research
Customs, Practices, and Behaviors
The primary way that Deaf individuals communicate is American Sign Language, or ASL.
It is a “natural visual language that incorporates the face, head, hands, arms, shoulders, and
torso of the communicator, in addition to the space in front of the signer” (Beal, 2020). There
are five parameters used together to create distinct signs. These include handshape, palm
orientation, location, movement, and non-manual markers like eyebrows, mouth, and eyes
(Beal, 2020).
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Changing any one of these factors can change the meaning of what is being signed. When using
ASL, it is normal for the individuals to be further apart than other cultures when conversing.
They need space to be able to accurately sign and express the emotion of what they are saying.
In order to get the attention of a deaf person, it is customary to tap their shoulder or
arm two to three times (Vallín, 2023). It is also acceptable to hit a table, wave hands, turn the
lights on and off, or even stomp on the floor to create vibration (Vallín, 2023). Eye contact in
Deaf culture is vital for communication (Vallín, 2023). In fact, if one person breaks eye contact
while the other is still signing it signifies that they are no longer listening. This culture uses direct
language. They may appear blunt or rude, but the goal is to be concise and accurate (Vallín,
2023). Along the same lines, pointing is acceptable for communication.
Patterns of Immigration to the United States
Immigration to the United States can be hard for all cultural groups. Deaf individuals,
especially children, experience greater acculturation stress (Tingle, 2021). This is mostly due to
the lack of universality with sign language. It is useless for an ASL interpreter to sign to a
nonEnglish speaking individual. Deaf refugees face extreme difficulties overcoming
communication barriers (Deaf Refugee Advocacy, 2015). They are often unable to obtain
employment. Deaf women in particular are subject to a disproportionate risk of violence
compared to other refugees
(Tingle, 2021).
Inter-group and Intra-group Characteristics
Compared to the hearing community, the deaf culture functions in a very distinctive way
on a daily basis. They are remarkably aware of their hearing deficit, while hearing people only
become aware of their hearing status when they interact with deaf individuals (Cue, 2024). Deaf
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culture values directness in conversation (Cue, 2024). For example, it would not be considered
rude to comment on somebody else gaining or losing weight. This is different from the hearing
culture, which values polite indirectness. The deaf community is very close-knit and collectivist,
often intermingling private and public lives (Cue, 2024). They emphasize information sharing,
eyewitness testimonies, and resource exchanges (Cue, 2024). Introductions in the deaf
community often focus on connections to others in the community, while hearing people
discuss names and occupations (Cue, 2024).
Possibly the most significant difference between the Deaf culture and the hearing
culture is their sensory orientation. Hearing people use minimal body movements while
communicating predominately with auditory and verbal methods (Cue, 2024). Contrary to that,
Deaf individuals “rely on visual and tactile senses for communication, using sign language, body
language, facial expressions, and spatial awareness” (Cue, 2024, p.4). There is also a difference
in how the two cultures view the concept of being quiet. Hearing people seek a reduction in
sound intensity, while those who are Deaf seek a reduction in visual and vibrational
disturbances (Cue, 2024).
While there are ample differences between the Deaf culture and the hearing culture,
there are also differences within the Deaf culture itself. These differences exist regardless of
individual ethnicity or race. The Deaf culture is very protective and exclusive (Wright, 2021).
Deafnormativity is the “social hierarchy that is interpreted through collective experience of
meaning-making interactions as experienced by deaf-blind individuals who formally held
positions of power in the dominant, sighted deaf hegemony” (Wright, 2021, p. 1222-1223).
Once a Deaf individual loses other abilities, they also lose their ranking among the deaf
community.
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The deaf-blind community often views the sighted deaf individuals as oppressors (Wright, 2021).
The Deaf culture often views themselves as having a level of prestige (Wright, 2021).
They do not view their deaf status as a disability (Rose, 2020; Wright, 2021). Deaf individuals
consider themselves to be part of a “club” that they are proud of (Wright, 2021). The deaf
community favors those that are solely Deaf (Wright, 2021). They are classified as “Deaf”,
meaning that their primary language is American Sign Language (ASL), and they identify with
the culture (Rose, 2020). Individuals that identify as “deaf” do not have the ability to hear but
they do not identify with the culture (Rose, 2020). People that have other disabilities are labeled
as deaf plus and are relegated to a binary, second class culture membership (Wright, 2021). This
can include individuals who are Deaf as well as blind, immobile, mentally disabled, or on the
spectrum for autism.
Key Historical Events and Figures
Historically, the deaf community was treated like barbarians who were riddled with sin
and demons (Hunter, 2013). It wasn’t until the 1500’s that attempts were first made to educate
the deaf. In 1620, Juan Pablo Bonet wrote the first book of manual alphabetic signs for the deaf
(Hunter, 2013). While it was not the well-known ASL, it allowed deaf individuals to
communicate. From 1760 to the 1780’s, deaf education spread around the world. By 1912,
more than 35 schools for the Deaf were established. This time from 1840-1912 became known
as the “Golden Age of Deaf Education” (Hunter, 2013). Abraham Lincoln signed a charter in 1864
for the first college for the deaf- Gallaudet College. This school still functions today.
In 1960, ASL becomes a recognized language (Relay South Dakota, 2022). William
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Stokoe published a book about the structure of the language titled Sign Language Structure
(Relay South Dakota, 2022). The cochlear implant is developed the following year. However, it
wasn’t implanted in anyone until three years later (Relay South Dakota, 2022).
Historical and Current Oppression
Early deaf culture was riddled with discrimination. As far back as 1000 BC, deaf
individuals were denied rights, having been assumed to be unable to be educated, unable to
own property, and unable to participate in spiritual rituals (Hunter, 2013). As time continued,
deaf children were called a sign of God’s anger at their parent’s sins (Hunter 2013). They were
thought to be possessed by demons. By 1930, half of the United States had forced, barbaric
sterilization laws for the Deaf community (Bridges for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, 2019).
This law was based on eugenics.
Deaf culture still faces significant oppression. Most notably, these individuals are a victim
of audism. VAWnet defines audism as “an attitude based on pathological thinking that results in
a negative stigma toward anyone who does not hear […] and limits individuals on the basis of
whether a person hears and speaks (2021, p. 1). This form of oppression is based on the
historical theory that deaf people are savages. The idea remains that deaf individuals have a
disability that must be fixed (VAWnet, 2021). Examples include refusing to call a requested
interpreter, asking a Deaf person to calm their facial expressions, doing tasks for them assuming
they are unable, or asking a Deaf person to read lips (VAWnet, 2021).
Job opportunities for Deaf individuals are scarce. Many are denied positions due to the
communication barrier and social acceptance (O’Connell, 2022). This job discrimination is often
based on the idea that Deaf people are less competent than hearing people (O’Connell, 2022).
Even in careers designed for Deaf employment, hearing individuals often hold the higher
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positions (O’Connell, 2022). This leaves Deaf individuals to work the lower tier jobs within their
own community. As with any marginalized group, it is important to fight against the oppression
that the Deaf culture faces. They need individuals that will advocate for them.
Treatment Approaches
Treatment for individuals in the deaf culture can be difficult to navigate. The counselor
should assess what the goal of the treatment is, how long the individual has been deaf, and how
well they are supported (Day et al., 2018). One method a counselor can use when working with
deaf patients is shared decision making. A second method is the adaptation approach,
commonly used in parent-child interaction therapy.
Shared decision making is crucial for audiological counseling. It actively involves the
patient in the decisions regarding the management of their condition (Hussain et al., 2023).
Twelve undergraduate students of varying ages took part in three semi-structured groups each
lasting one hour (Hussain et al., 2023). The goal was to explore how students conceptualize and
define the process of shared decision making using a qualitative methodology (Hussain et al.,
2023). The results showed that student’s definition and understanding of shared decision
making was predominately influenced by three key factors (Hussain et al., 2023). These factors
were implementation of decision aid, using a range of resources, and recognizing Ida Institute as
fundamental (Hussain et al., 2023). There were a few limitations to this study. First, it was
limited to students from one academic institution in the United Kingdom (Hussain et al., 2023).
Additionally, some of the students that participated had not yet experienced clinical settings
(Hussain et al., 2023).
The second study addresses the adaptation approach, which is an extension of
parentchild interaction therapy to include Deaf individuals (Day et al., 2018). The research was
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conducted in a clinical setting specifically for Deaf families that communicate via ASL (Day et al.,
2018). During intake, specific questions were asked to better understand the deaf-related
variables (Day et al., 2018). The therapist positioned themselves in direct eyesight of the parents
but behind the child to minimize distraction (Day et al., 2018). There were also no time-out
procedures for the child (Day et al., 2018). The study found that parent-child interaction therapy
can be successfully adapted for Deaf families (Day et al., 2018). When utilized correctly, this
study shows that this approach will strengthen the relationship between parents and Deaf
children (Day et al., 2018). The limitations of this study were the limited number of families that
participated and lack of regular attendance (Day et al., 2018).
The four components of the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies
(MSJCC) are counselor self-awareness, client worldview, counseling relationship, and counseling
and advocacy interventions (Hays & Erford, 2023). Keeping these in mind, there are a few
recommendations that I would make to ensure the treatment approach is culturally relevant.
First, the counselor must take the time to learn about and understand the client’s worldview
(MSJCC II). The counselor should develop a knowledge of the history, current issues, and
limitations of the Deaf culture. This will keep the shared decision making study culturally
relevant. The educated counselor will better understand the reason the client is making the
choices that they are. Additionally, the counselor should make sure that they are
communicating with the client in a manner that they understand, such as ASL (MSJCC III). The
adaptation approach of parent-child interaction therapy would not work if the counselor did not
take the time to learn and communicate via ASL.
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Events
I had a difficult time locating events in my area involving the Deaf culture. However, I was
able to connect with the American Sign Language Club at Virginia Tech. While I am about an
hour away from the University, it was the closest thing I could find to complete the
requirements for this cultural study. Brianna Leon, the president, was able to grant me
permission to attend two of their events. The first event was a fundraiser for the ASL club. It
took place on November 19 at a local coffee shop, Coffeeholics, in downtown Blacksburg, VA.
The event lasted from 7:30am until 7 pm, but I only went for three hours. Members of the club
were assisting the baristas with making the drinks, as well as delivering them to the customer.
The second event I attended was a club meeting. It was held at Virginia Tech in Seitz Hall room
300. It took place on December 3 from 7pm until 8pm. I was able to get there early to meet and
interact with members of the ASL club. The meeting was conducted in ASL, which I am not
familiar with. However, the Vice President of the club, Sachi Watsen, was gracious enough to
help me understand what was being discussed during the meeting.
My participation in these events definitely gave me a better understanding of the Deaf
culture. During the fundraising event, I was surprised to witness the reaction hearing people
had to the Deaf students. When the students would use ASL to tell the customers “you’re
welcome”, the customer almost always looked surprised or confused. This prompted me to
conduct an experiment. I wanted to experience the discrimination first-hand. I was quickly
taught a couple relevant words and phrases in ASL; the students taught me how to sign coffee,
you’re welcome, and have a good day. I began to understand the pain and judgement this group
receives. People gave me funny looks, rolled their eyes, or even laughed at me. Even though I
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can hear, this was hurtful to me. I appeared to be a normal person working a normal job, but
people still judged me because I was “Deaf”. At one point, I did confront a man. He had some
very hurtful words to say to me. He mentioned that if he just smiled, I would not know that he
was being mean because I can’t hear. When I finally did open my mouth and began speaking to
him, his whole face turned red. I kindly informed him that he was being discriminatory,
judgmental, and downright rude. I was there to serve him. The time spent at this event really
opened my eyes to how the smallest action can cause immeasurable pain. It pained me to see
the discrimination. Regular people were being looked down on, judged, and belittled simply
because they do not have the ability to hear.
It angered me. I think I responded in the way that I did because I knew it wasn’t right.
This immersion into the Deaf culture was a wonderful way for me to learn and grow
about a group of people that I knew little about. One key thing that I learned was how much
attention it takes to have a conversation in sign language. While I was in the meeting, I found
myself concentrating and focusing just to try to catch one bit of information. I am so used to
having a conversation while actively doing things with my hands. It took being submerged in the
language to understand the attention that it requires. The second thing that I learned about the
Deaf culture was that there should be a conclusion to the conversation. If one person ends the
conversation by breaking eye contact it is considered very rude, like leaving the room while
someone is still speaking. I did this once before I was corrected. They also do not like being
startled. It is important to get their attention appropriately. It took me some time to figure out
the appropriate way to get a Deaf person’s attention. A third key thing I learned was that it’s
acceptable to address an individual in this culture as a Deaf person. Some cultures find it rude to
be addressed in this direct manner. However, Deaf communication is direct and to the point. I
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tried to be politically correct and refer to the people I encountered as a person who is deaf but
was quickly corrected. I made ample mistakes while I was immersed in this community.
Thankfully, I was met with patience, kindness, and understanding. All of these lessons will help
me better communicate with and advocate for the Deaf culture.
Conclusion
The Deaf culture faces unique challenges. They hold great pride in who they are as a
group even though they have faced hundreds of years of oppression. Many men and women
fought to bring the Deaf culture to a place of respect and understanding. They communicate
differently, mostly through ASL. This can be utilized in the counseling room to better understand
the Deaf person. Additionally, it is important for Deaf families to learn how to work with Deaf
children, which can be encouraged through play. This culturally significant group needs more
people advocating on their behalf. They thrive in their unique life scenario, but more work
needs to be done on behalf of the hearing individuals that they encounter. `
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