Module 6
Counselor Supervision
a. Introduction
Supervision is an integral part of your professional training and is one of the
ways in which you acquire the competence needed to fulfill your professional
responsibilities. Textbook knowledge alone is not sufficient; you need guidance in
putting your knowledge into practice. Supervision provides a forum for examining
your beliefs, attitudes, personality characteristics, and behaviors as they affect your
clients and the therapeutic process. Remley and Herlihy (2016) distinguish between
administrative supervision and clinical supervision. Administrative supervision
involves directions given by direct-line administrators to their employees. The
purpose of administrative supervision is to see that counselors who are employed are
doing their jobs competently. Administrative supervisors generally have direct control
and authority over those they supervise. Clinical supervision involves a supervisor
overseeing your professional work as a trainee with four major goals: (1) to protect
the welfare of clients, (2) to promote supervisee growth and development, (3) to
monitor supervisee performance and to serve as a gatekeeper for the profession, and
(4) to empower the supervisee to self-supervise and carry out these goals as an
independent professional.
As future practitioners, you can never know all that you might like to know,
nor can you attain all the skills required to effectively intervene with all client
populations or all types of problems. This is where the processes of supervision and
consultation come into play, and why supervision remains a relevant process
throughout your career. Professional competence is a developmental process. Being a
competent professional demands continuing education and a willingness to obtain
periodic supervision when faced with ethical or clinical dilemmas.
By consulting experts, practitioners at all levels of experience demonstrate a
deep sense of responsibility and commitment to their profession. This proactive
approach to seeking external guidance underscores their dedication to obtaining the
assistance necessary to provide the highest quality of care for their clients. For novice
counselors, consulting with seasoned experts helps them bridge the gap between
theoretical knowledge and practical application, allowing them to learn from the
wealth of experience that more seasoned professionals bring to the table. This
mentorship and advice are invaluable in helping new practitioners develop their skills,
enhance their decision-making processes, and avoid common pitfalls in their practice.
For experienced counselors, ongoing consultation with experts ensures that
they remain updated on the latest developments in their field. This continuous
learning process is crucial, given the dynamic nature of therapeutic techniques and the
evolving understanding of mental health issues. By engaging with peers and leaders in
the field, experienced counselors can refine their methods, integrate new evidence-
based practices into their repertoire, and address particularly challenging cases with
the benefit of a fresh perspective.
Moreover, the act of seeking expert consultation exemplifies ethical practice,
as it highlights the counselor's acknowledgment of their own limitations and the
importance of collaborative efforts in providing comprehensive care. This
collaboration not only enhances the counselor's professional growth but also
significantly benefits the clients, who receive well-informed and effective
interventions tailored to their specific needs. Therefore, the commitment to consulting
with experts reflects a broader dedication to upholding the standards of the profession,
ensuring that clients receive the most competent and compassionate care possible.
Ethical and professional standards and guidelines for clinical supervision are
an integral part of competent supervision. This explores dilemmas frequently
encountered in clinical supervision and provides guidelines for ethical and legal
practice. Supervision is a required component of your training program, and you will
obtain the maximum benefit from your experience in supervision if you understand
the roles, functions, and responsibilities of supervision. Prepare to assume an active
role in your supervision and develop a collaborative relationship with your supervisor.
Ethical, legal, and professional issues are of primary importance in supervision. Know
your rights and responsibilities as a supervisee, and learn what you can expect from
your supervisor.
b. Ethical Issues in Clinical Supervision
Effective and ethical supervision involves a fine balance on the supervisor’s
part between protecting clients’ welfare and providing training for supervisees.
Falender and Shafranske (2014) define effective supervision as “practice that
encourages supervisee development and autonomy, facilitates the supervisory
relationship, protects the client, and enhances both client and supervisee outcomes”.
Supervisors are ethically and legally responsible to monitor the quality of care clients
receive and to assist supervisees in learning the art and craft of therapeutic practice.
Through supervision supervisees gain the experience necessary to become
independent professionals.
When we take into consideration the dependent position of the trainee and the
similarities between the supervisory relationship and the therapeutic relationship, the
need for guidelines describing the rights of trainees and the responsibilities of
supervisors becomes obvious. The Association for Counselor Education and
Supervision addressed this early in the “Ethical Guidelines for Counseling
Supervisors” (ACES, 1993, 1995) and more recently in “Best Practices in Clinical
Supervision” (ACES, 2011). ACES now provides a comprehensive discussion of
informed consent, goal setting, ongoing feedback for supervisees, effective
supervision, the supervisory relationship, diversity and advocacy considerations,
documentation, supervision format, and the supervisory role. These best practice
guidelines support supervisors in their work and clarify most aspects of the
supervisory process.
Many of the ethical standards pertaining to the client–therapist relationship
also apply to the supervisor–supervisee relationship. Informed consent in supervision
is as essential as informed consent in counseling practice. It is now considered the
standard of practice to incorporate clear informed consent material for supervisees,
both orally and in writing. In addition, it is the responsibility of supervisors to ensure
that supervisees carry out an informed consent process with their clients prior to
beginning a counseling relationship.
It is beneficial to discuss the rights of supervisees from the beginning of the
supervisory relationship, in much the same way as the rights of clients are addressed
early in the therapy process. Supervisors are expected to engage in sound informed
consent practices in the initial supervision session and to clearly state the parameters
for conducting supervision (ACES, 2011). When supervisees learn what to expect in
all aspects of their supervision and what they need to do to achieve success, they are
empowered to express expectations, make decisions, and become active participants
in the supervisory process. In addition, misunderstandings are minimized and both
parties are more likely to experience satisfaction in their respective roles. Glosoff,
Renfro-Michel, and Nagarajan (2016) state that one way to establish and maintain a
strong supervisory working alliance is for supervisors to engage in sound informed
consent practices for the duration of the supervisory relationship.
Supervisors must consistently bear in mind that the goal of the initial and
ongoing process of informed consent extends beyond the mere dissemination of
information to their supervisees. While it is indeed crucial to provide supervisees with
comprehensive, accurate, and accessible information regarding the supervisory
process, policies, expectations, and any other pertinent details, this is only one
component of a multifaceted approach. The broader and more significant aim is to
cultivate a collaborative, egalitarian supervisory working alliance. This involves
creating an environment where supervisees feel valued as partners in the supervisory
relationship.
Fostering this type of alliance requires supervisors to actively engage
supervisees in open dialogue from the very beginning of the relationship and to
maintain this level of engagement throughout the supervisory process. It is not enough
to simply present information; supervisors should also encourage supervisees to ask
questions, express concerns, and contribute their own perspectives. This ongoing
dialogue helps ensure that supervisees fully understand the information being
provided and feel confident in their ability to participate actively in their own learning
and professional development.
Moreover, by bringing the supervisee into the conversation as an equal partner,
supervisors can facilitate a collaborative spirit that is essential for effective
supervision. This approach helps to break down traditional hierarchical barriers that
can impede open communication and mutual respect. When supervisees are treated as
partners, they are more likely to feel empowered and autonomous, which can
significantly enhance their learning experience and professional growth. They are
encouraged to take initiative, reflect critically on their own practice, and develop a
sense of professional identity and competence.
This collaborative and egalitarian approach also has the benefit of fostering
trust and mutual respect within the supervisory relationship. When supervisees
perceive that their supervisors are genuinely interested in their input and are willing to
share power and responsibility, they are more likely to be open and honest about their
experiences, challenges, and needs. This openness allows for a more tailored and
responsive supervisory process, where supervisors can provide more effective
guidance and support based on a deeper understanding of the supervisee's unique
context and development.
In conclusion, the process of informed consent in supervision is not a one-time
event, but an ongoing, dynamic process that involves more than just sharing
information. It is about creating a supportive, collaborative environment where
supervisees feel respected and valued as partners. By prioritizing this approach,
supervisors can help build a strong, egalitarian supervisory working alliance that
fosters supervisee autonomy and supports their professional growth in a meaningful
and impactful way.
c. The Supervisor’s Roles and Responsibilities
You get the most from your supervision as a trainee when you understand the
roles and responsibilities of those who supervise you. Supervisors must provide the
training and supervised experiences that will enable supervisees to deliver ethical and
effective services. To provide effective clinical supervision, supervisors must be
competent both in the practice of supervision and in the area of counseling being
supervised. Supervisors should provide supervision only after obtaining the needed
education and training to ensure competence in this role, and only if they can devote
the required time to provide adequate oversight (Barnett & Johnson, 2015).
Supervisors are ultimately responsible, both ethically and legally, for the actions of
their trainees. Therefore, they are cautioned not to supervise more trainees than they
can responsibly manage at one time. They must check on trainees’ progress and be
familiar with their caseloads. Just as practitioners keep case records on the progress of
their clients, supervisors are required to maintain records pertaining to their work with
trainees.
Clinical supervisors have a position of influence with their supervisees; they
operate in multiple roles as teacher, mentor, consultant, counselor, adviser,
administrator, evaluator, and documenter. Supervisors may serve many different
functions during a single supervisory session. They might instruct a supervisee in a
clinical approach, act as a consultant on how to intervene with the client, act as a
counselor in helping the supervisee understand how countertransference could be
affecting work with the client, and give evaluative feedback to the supervisee
regarding his or her progress as a clinician. Falender (2017) states that “a skilled
supervisor balances the multiple roles, giving ongoing feedback, positive and
corrective, while also supporting the development of the supervisee and ensuring that
the power differential is clear” (p. 213). Competent supervisors have a clear
understanding of the role in which they are functioning in any given situation, why
they are serving in that role, and what they hope to accomplish with the supervisee
(Corey et al., 2010). It is important for supervisors to monitor their own behavior so
as not to misuse the inherent power in the supervisor–supervisee relationship.
Supervisors are expected to be aware of the power differential inherent in the
supervisory relationship and to discuss the power dynamics in this relationship with
supervisees. Supervisors should strive to minimize the power differential by
establishing a collaborative relationship and encouraging open discussion, yet at the
same time they must maintain appropriate authority (ACES, 2011). The complexity of
the supervisory relationship and the multiple roles and inherent power differential of
supervision require specialized training in clinical supervision.
Supervisors are responsible for ensuring compliance with relevant legal,
ethical, and professional standards for clinical practice (ACES, 2011). The main
purposes for ethical standards for clinical supervision are to provide behavioral
guidelines to supervisors, to protect supervisees from undue harm or neglect, and to
ensure quality client care (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014). Supervisors can demonstrate
their knowledge of these ethical guidelines through the behavior they model in the
supervisory relationship.
Supervisors understand that client welfare is their main and highest
responsibility (ACES, 2011; APA, 2015). Supervisors have the responsibility of
monitoring each supervisee’s conduct and competence. Supervisors have an ethical
and legal obligation to provide trainees with timely feedback, monitor trainee’s
actions and decisions, teach trainees about due process and their rights, and guide
their personal development as it pertains to their clinical competence (ACES, 2011).
Supervisors must be fair in the process of evaluation and provide opportunities for
supervisees to take remedial actions when their performance does not meet expected
standards.
At times your supervisor may consult with faculty members regarding your
progress, but personal information you share in supervision generally remains
confidential. At the very least, you have a right to be informed about what will and
will not be shared with others on the faculty. Supervisors should put ethics in the
foreground of their supervisory practices, which is best done by treating supervisees
in a respectful, professional, and ethical manner. One of the best ways for supervisors
to model professional behavior for supervisees is to deal appropriately with
confidentiality issues pertaining to supervisees.
The ethical standards of the APA (2010), NASW (1994, 2008), ACA (2014),
and ACES (2011) require that supervisors demonstrate a conceptual knowledge of
supervisory methods and techniques and that they are skilled in using this knowledge
to promote the development of trainees. From an ethical perspective, supervisors must
have a clearly developed framework for supervision and a rationale for the methods
they employ. A variety of evaluative methods are typically employed in supervision.
Self-report is one of the most widely used supervisory methods, but it is not the best
representation of a student’s performance. Digital recordings can augment self-report,
which is otherwise limited by the supervisee’s conceptual and observational ability.
Verbal exchange and direct observation are the most commonly used forms of
supervision. In verbal exchange, the supervisor and supervisee discuss cases, ethical
and legal issues, and personal development.
Direct observation methods involve a supervisor actively observing a
supervisee’s practice in real-time settings. This approach can take various forms, such
as live observation during client sessions, reviewing video recordings of interactions,
or sitting in on meetings and interventions. By directly witnessing the supervisee's
actions, supervisors can gain a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the
supervisee’s professional skills, competencies, and areas for improvement.
Even though direct observation demands considerable time and effort from
both the supervisor and the supervisee, it offers a unique and invaluable reflection of
the supervisee’s abilities. Unlike indirect methods, such as self-reports or case
presentations, direct observation provides an unfiltered view of the supervisee’s
practice in real-world scenarios. This immediacy allows the supervisor to assess the
supervisee’s application of theoretical knowledge, technical skills, and interpersonal
competencies in a manner that other evaluation methods simply cannot match.
The process of direct observation allows for the identification of both
strengths and areas needing development in the supervisee’s practice. For instance,
supervisors can observe how effectively a supervisee builds rapport with clients,
manages time during sessions, employs intervention techniques, and responds to
unexpected challenges. These observations are critical for providing targeted feedback
that can help supervisees refine their skills and enhance their professional growth.
Moreover, direct observation facilitates the identification of subtle, yet
significant, aspects of practice that might not be captured through other means. Non-
verbal communication, client reactions, and the supervisee’s ability to adapt in the
moment are all aspects that can be more accurately assessed through direct
observation. This holistic view is crucial for developing a complete picture of the
supervisee’s professional performance.
The feedback derived from direct observation is often more concrete and
actionable, as it is based on specific behaviors and interactions observed during the
practice. Supervisors can provide immediate, real-time feedback, which can be
particularly impactful for learning and skill development. This immediacy also allows
for the correction of errors and reinforcement of best practices in a timely manner,
thereby promoting continuous improvement.
Furthermore, the process of direct observation and the subsequent feedback
sessions can strengthen the supervisory relationship. When supervisees see that their
supervisors are invested in observing and understanding their practice, it can enhance
trust and mutual respect. This investment demonstrates the supervisor's commitment
to the supervisee's professional development and can motivate supervisees to engage
more deeply in the learning process.
In conclusion, while direct observation methods require a significant
investment of time and resources, the benefits they provide make them an invaluable
tool in supervision. By offering a direct and detailed reflection of the supervisee’s
practice, these methods enable supervisors to deliver precise, relevant, and immediate
feedback. This, in turn, supports the supervisee’s ongoing development and
contributes to the establishment of a robust, supportive supervisory relationship.
The quality of the supervisory relationship is an important factor in
determining supervision outcomes (Falender & Shafranske, 2014). The methods and
techniques supervisors use are more likely to be helpful if an effective and
collaborative working relationship with supervisees has been established. In much the
same way that effective therapists create a climate in which clients can explore their
choices, supervisors need to establish a positive relationship that encourages trainees
to reflect on what they are doing.
You may require and benefit from different styles of supervision at different
stages in your professional development. Although you may need more direction
when you begin your training, it is a good idea to foster a reflective and questioning
approach that leads to self-initiated discovery. An effective supervisor will promote
autonomy without overwhelming the supervisee. When we supervise, we focus on the
dynamics between ourselves and our trainees as well as the dynamics between
supervisees and their clients. We see a parallel process operating between a
counseling model and a supervisory model.
Supervisees can learn ways to conceptualize what they are doing with their
clients by reflecting on what they are learning about interpersonal dynamics in the
supervisory relationship. Although the trainee’s ability to assess and treat a client’s
problems is important, in supervision we are equally concerned with the interpersonal
aspects that are emerging. As supervisors we oversee the work of our supervisees and
help them refine their own insights and clinical hunches. We strive to help supervisees
identify their own intuitions, perceptions, and struggles.
d. Ethical and Effective Practices of Clinical Supervisors
A collaborative supervisory relationship, characterized by a strong working
alliance, is a key component of effective supervision. Supervisors regularly include
constructive feedback on ethics when meeting with supervisees, and supervisors are
well trained, knowledgeable, and skilled in the practice of clinical supervision.
Effective supervisors recognize their responsibility to serve as role models for
supervisees and conduct themselves ethically in the supervisory relationship.
Supervisors regularly seek feedback from their supervisees regarding the
quality and effectiveness of the supervision they are providing. This process involves
actively soliciting input from supervisees about various aspects of the supervisory
relationship, including communication styles, the usefulness of feedback provided, the
clarity of expectations, and the overall supportiveness of the supervisory environment.
By doing so, supervisors can gain valuable insights into how their supervisory
practices are perceived and experienced by those they are mentoring.
This feedback can be gathered through multiple methods such as formal
surveys, informal discussions, structured reflection sessions, and anonymous
suggestion boxes. Formal surveys might include standardized questionnaires that
allow supervisees to rate different elements of the supervision on a Likert scale, while
informal discussions could take the form of regular check-ins where supervisees are
encouraged to voice their thoughts and feelings openly. Structured reflection sessions
might involve supervisees providing detailed feedback on specific supervisory
interactions, and anonymous suggestion boxes can offer a way for supervisees to
share their perspectives without fear of reprisal.
Once this feedback is collected, it is crucial for supervisors to carefully review
and reflect upon the information provided. They should look for common themes and
specific areas highlighted by multiple supervisees, which might indicate broader
trends or issues in their supervisory approach. For instance, if several supervisees
mention that they would like more detailed feedback on their performance, this could
signal a need for the supervisor to provide more specific and actionable guidance.
Supervisors should then use this feedback to make informed adjustments to
their supervisory practices. This might involve implementing new strategies for
communication, providing additional training or resources, or modifying their
approach to giving feedback. For example, if supervisees express that they benefit
from more frequent feedback, a supervisor might increase the regularity of
performance reviews or incorporate more immediate feedback sessions following
observed practice.
Moreover, the process of asking for and utilizing feedback should be seen as a
continuous, iterative cycle rather than a one-time event. Supervisors should regularly
revisit the feedback they receive and assess the effectiveness of any changes they have
made. This ongoing process demonstrates a commitment to professional growth and
the continuous improvement of the supervisory relationship.
In addition to enhancing their own supervisory skills, this practice also models
the importance of feedback and self-reflection for supervisees. When supervisees
observe their supervisors actively seeking and acting upon feedback, it can reinforce
the value of these practices in their own professional development. It can also foster a
culture of open communication and continuous improvement within the supervisory
relationship, making supervisees feel more comfortable providing honest and
constructive feedback.
Furthermore, by engaging in this practice, supervisors can create a more
collaborative and supportive supervisory environment. Supervisees are more likely to
feel valued and respected when their opinions and experiences are sought out and
taken seriously. This can strengthen the supervisory alliance and enhance the overall
effectiveness of the supervision.
In summary, the practice of regularly asking for feedback from supervisees
and using this feedback to improve supervisory practices is an essential component of
effective supervision. It helps supervisors to refine their approaches, fosters a culture
of continuous improvement, and strengthens the supervisory relationship. By
committing to this ongoing process, supervisors can ensure that they are providing the
best possible support and guidance to their supervisees, ultimately enhancing the
professional development of both parties involved.
In a study of the assessment of culturally competent supervision, counselor
trainees indicated it was helpful to them when their supervisor initiated discussions of
power dynamics in the supervisory relationship (Ancis & Marshall, 2010). This same
study revealed that supervisors who made efforts to create a safe and open supervisory
climate allowed trainees to be vulnerable and take risks that encouraged a discussion
of various personal and professional issues.
Many of these counselor trainees perceived their supervisors as embodying
qualities of openness, acceptance, and flexibility throughout the entire supervisory
experience. This perception played a pivotal role in shaping the overall dynamics of
the supervisory relationship. When supervisors consistently demonstrate an open-
minded approach, they create an environment where supervisees feel comfortable
sharing their thoughts, concerns, and experiences without fear of judgment or reprisal.
This openness fosters a sense of trust and safety, encouraging supervisees to be more
candid and reflective about their practice.
The supervisors' acceptance of the supervisees' unique perspectives,
backgrounds, and developmental stages further contributed to a positive supervisory
experience. By showing genuine acceptance, supervisors acknowledged the individual
strengths and challenges of each supervisee, creating a supportive atmosphere that
promoted growth and self-awareness. This acceptance helped supervisees feel valued
and respected, reinforcing their confidence in their own abilities and judgment.
Flexibility in supervision also played a crucial role in enhancing the
supervisory relationship. Supervisors who adapted their methods and approaches to
meet the specific needs of their supervisees demonstrated a willingness to
accommodate different learning styles and paces. This flexibility allowed supervisees
to progress at a comfortable rate, tailoring the supervision process to align with their
personal and professional goals. Supervisors who were flexible in their scheduling,
feedback delivery, and intervention strategies were able to provide a more
personalized and effective supervisory experience.
The positive impact of these qualities extended beyond the immediate
supervisory relationship, influencing the supervisees' interactions with their own
clients. Trainees who experienced openness, acceptance, and flexibility from their
supervisors were more likely to emulate these qualities in their therapeutic work. They
developed a greater capacity for empathy and understanding, which enhanced their
ability to build strong, trusting relationships with their clients. The supportive
supervisory environment encouraged supervisees to adopt a client-centered approach,
where they could be more responsive and adaptive to their clients' needs.
Moreover, the enhanced supervisory relationship fostered by these qualities
contributed to the supervisees' overall professional development. Supervisees who felt
supported and valued were more motivated to engage in self-reflection and pursue
continuous improvement. They were more open to feedback and willing to take risks
in their practice, knowing that their supervisors were there to guide and support them.
This supportive environment also reduced anxiety and stress, allowing supervisees to
focus more on their clients and less on their own insecurities.
In essence, the perception of supervisors as open, accepting, and flexible
created a ripple effect that benefitted both the supervisees and their clients. The
positive supervisory relationship served as a model for effective therapeutic
relationships, providing supervisees with a framework for how to interact with their
clients in a compassionate and adaptable manner. As a result, supervisees were better
equipped to foster strong, therapeutic alliances with their clients, enhancing the
overall effectiveness of their counseling interventions.
In summary, many counselor trainees viewed their supervisors as embodying
the qualities of openness, acceptance, and flexibility, which significantly enhanced the
supervisory relationship. This positive dynamic not only supported the trainees'
professional growth but also positively influenced their interactions with clients. By
fostering an environment of trust, respect, and adaptability, supervisors played a
crucial role in the development of effective, empathetic counselors who were well-
prepared to meet the diverse needs of their clients.
e. Competence of Supervisors
Clinical supervisors are increasingly vulnerable and at risk for ethical and
legal liability. Yet only recently has the standard for qualifying to be a clinical
supervisor included formal coursework and supervision of one’s work with
supervisees. Currently, most psychology and counselor education programs offer a
course in supervision at the doctoral level, but training for supervisors at the master’s
level is lacking. Many supervisors lack education and training in supervision. They
may rely on their previous supervisory experience as trainees and their clinical
knowledge to inform their practice as supervisors (Bernard & Goodyear, 2014;
Shafranske & Falender, 2016). From both an ethical and legal standpoint, supervisors
are required to have the competence necessary to adequately carry out their roles.
They provide supervision only for those supervisees and clients for whom they have
adequate training and experience (ACES, 2011). The counselor licensure laws in a
number of states now stipulate that licensed professional counselors who practice
supervision are required to have relevant training experiences and coursework in
supervision.
Competent supervisors must effectively deal with trainees who manifest
problematic behaviors. Jacobs and colleagues (2011) reviewed cases in which trainees
manifested problems of professional competence and found that supervisors often are
not managing these situations effectively. Jacobs and colleagues contend that difficult
conversations with trainees who have problems of professional competence are
necessary and are an ethical responsibility. In addition to specialized training in
methods of supervision, supervisors must have an in-depth knowledge of the specialty
area in which they will provide supervision. It is unethical for supervisors to offer
supervision in areas beyond their scope of practice. When supervisees are working
outside the area of competence of the supervisor, it is the responsibility of the
supervisor to arrange for competent clinical supervision of the cases in question. It is
extremely important that supervisors know their limits and accurately assess them;
such self-evaluation reflects their own metacompetence.
In her thoughtful article about best practices in supervision, Borders (2014)
emphasizes that supervisor expertise requires reflective knowledge “built during years
of practice and is dependent on continual self-awareness, self-assessment, self-
monitoring, and self-reflection, which are predominant characteristics of expert
supervisors”. It is our conviction that the competence of supervisors is related to their
personal qualities. Effective supervisors demonstrate the four A’s—they tend to be
available, accessible, affable, and able. The general picture of the good supervisor
reveals an individual who is a technically competent professional with good human
relations skills and effective organizational and managerial skills.
This discussion would not be complete without considering supervisor
incompetence. At times, supervisors may be unable to effectively carry out their
supervisory role due to personal or external factors or because of physical and
psychological depletion. Similar to the case of incompetent therapists, incompetent
supervisors can do harm to trainees. Supervisor behaviors and attitudes that have the
potential to be extremely damaging include boundary violations, misuse of power,
sexual contact with supervisees, substance abuse, extreme burnout, or diminished
clinical judgment. In some cases, supervisor incompetence may be a result of the
supervisor’s inexperience in the supervisory role, which can be improved with guided
supervision. Other cases may reflect more serious problems such as personal or
mental health issues that interfere with the supervisor’s ability to competently carry
out his or her supervisory duties.
According to Muratori (2001), it is critical to be aware of the reality that
supervisors are in an evaluative position vis-à-vis their trainees, which limits trainees’
options in deciding what to do in situations of incompetent supervision. Trainees need
to consider the power differential inherent in the supervisory relationship, the
personalities of both the supervisor and the supervisee, and their level of development
as counselor trainees and the extent to which this influences their perceptions of their
supervisor’s competence.
Supervisees need to carefully consider their course of action when dealing
with an incompetent supervisor, due to the potential consequences associated with the
supervisor’s misuse of power. Navigating this complex and sensitive situation
requires a thoughtful and strategic approach to ensure that the supervisee's
professional development, well-being, and future career prospects are protected.
An incompetent supervisor can manifest their inadequacies in various ways,
such as providing inconsistent or misleading guidance, failing to offer appropriate
feedback, or demonstrating a lack of understanding of ethical and professional
standards. These deficiencies can significantly impact the supervisee’s learning
experience, potentially leading to confusion, frustration, and a lack of confidence in
their professional abilities. Moreover, the misuse of power by an incompetent
supervisor can exacerbate these issues, creating an environment of fear and
intimidation where the supervisee may feel powerless to address their concerns.
The consequences of confronting an incompetent supervisor can be far-
reaching. A supervisor who misuses their power may retaliate against the supervisee
by providing negative evaluations, obstructing opportunities for professional
advancement, or spreading unfavorable information within the professional
community. This misuse of power can damage the supervisee's reputation, hinder their
career progression, and even impact their ability to obtain licensure or employment in
the future. Therefore, it is crucial for supervisees to weigh their options carefully and
consider the potential risks and benefits of any course of action they might take.
One strategy for supervisees is to document their experiences meticulously.
Keeping detailed records of interactions, feedback, and any incidents of incompetence
or misuse of power can provide a solid foundation for any formal complaints or
discussions that may arise. This documentation should include dates, times, specific
occurrences, and any communication exchanged with the supervisor. Having this
evidence can support the supervisee's case if they decide to report the supervisor’s
behavior to higher authorities or professional boards.
Additionally, supervisees may consider seeking advice and support from
trusted colleagues, mentors, or professional organizations. These individuals or
entities can provide valuable guidance on how to navigate the situation, offer
emotional support, and possibly intervene on behalf of the supervisee. Consulting
with experienced professionals can help the supervisee explore their options,
understand the potential implications of different actions, and develop a plan that
minimizes risks.
Supervisees might also explore alternative supervision arrangements if the
current situation becomes untenable. This could involve requesting a different
supervisor within the same organization, transferring to another agency, or seeking
external supervision if permitted by their training program or professional guidelines.
While such changes can be disruptive, they may be necessary to ensure the supervisee
receives the quality supervision they need for their professional growth and
development.
In situations where direct confrontation with the incompetent supervisor is
deemed necessary, supervisees should approach the conversation with caution and
professionalism. It may be helpful to frame the discussion around specific behaviors
and their impact on the supervisee’s development, rather than making personal
accusations. This approach can reduce defensiveness and open the door to
constructive dialogue. However, supervisees should be prepared for the possibility
that the supervisor may not respond positively and have a contingency plan in place.
Ultimately, the primary goal for supervisees is to ensure that their training and
development are not compromised by the shortcomings of an incompetent supervisor.
By carefully considering their course of action, seeking appropriate support, and
documenting their experiences, supervisees can navigate this challenging situation
more effectively. It is important for supervisees to prioritize their own professional
growth and well-being, even in the face of potential power dynamics and the risk of
negative repercussions. Through strategic and thoughtful action, supervisees can
protect their interests and continue to progress towards their career goals, despite the
challenges posed by an incompetent supervisor.
f. Legal Aspects of Supervision
Three legal considerations in the supervisory relationship are informed
consent, confidentiality and its limits, and liability. First, supervisors must see that
trainees provide the information to clients that they need to make informed choices.
Clients must be fully aware that the counselor they are seeing is a trainee, that he or
she is meeting on a regular basis for supervisory sessions, that the client’s case may be
discussed in group supervision meetings with other trainees, and that sessions may be
recorded or observed. Accountability requires an arrangement consisting of
professional disclosure statements and contracts that outline the model to be used in
supervision, the goals and objectives of supervision, and assessment and evaluation
methods (Corey et al., 2010).
Supervisors can make use of informed consent through contracting for
supervision so that supervisees are informed of the potential benefits, risks, and
expectations of entering into the supervisory relationship. A supervision contract is an
explicit agreement between supervisor and supervisee, and it can prevent problems
that could arise (Westefeld, 2009). The contract is not merely a checklist; it represents
a vital, ongoing process of mutual understanding of the parameters of training. “The
contract is an outgrowth of the supervisory relationship in which the supervisor is
respectful, collaborative, empathic, genuine, and explicit in articulating the power
differential within which supervision occurs”
A supervision contract plays a key role in establishing and maintaining the
supervisory alliance. It is a gold standard for best supervision practices, and it
provides the groundwork for an effective supervision experience. Some topics a
contract may address include legal and ethical requirements, methods to be used in
supervision, expectations and parameters for supervision and the training experience,
procedures for evaluation of job performance, feedback procedures, supervisor and
supervisee roles and responsibilities, limits of confidentiality in supervision,
documentation of supervision, and expectations for supervisee disclosures. Falender
and Shafranske (2014) state that “the contract lays out the duties of the supervisor,
including protection of the client as the highest priority, clarification of the
supervisor’s multiple and potentially conflicting roles of client protection and
gatekeeper for the profession, and [balances that] with the role of enhancing and
facilitating the growth and development of competence of the supervisee”
Second, supervisors have a legal and ethical obligation to respect the
confidentiality of client communications. Supervision involves discussion of client
concerns and review of client materials, and supervisees must respect their clients’
privacy by not talking about their clients outside of the context of supervision. By
their own behavior, supervisors model for supervisees appropriate ways of talking
about clients and keeping information protected and used only in the context of
supervision. Supervisors must make sure that both supervisees and their clients are
fully informed about the limits of confidentiality, including those situations in which
supervisors have a duty to report or protect. The informed consent process should
include information on all technology that might be used, as well as safeguards to
protect the client and the supervisee.
Third, supervisors ultimately bear legal responsibility for the welfare of those
clients counseled by their trainees. In addition to being ethically vulnerable,
supervisors are legally vulnerable to the work performed by those they supervise.
Supervisors are expected to understand the legal ramifications of their supervisory
work. To carry out their ethical and legal responsibilities, supervisors are required to
be familiar with all cases of every supervisee. Failure to do this invites legal action.
Supervisors cannot be cognizant of all of the details of every case, but they should at
least know the direction in which the cases are being taken.
Bernard and Goodyear (2014) indicate that supervisors bear both direct
liability and vicarious liability. Direct liability can be incurred when the actions of
supervisors are the cause for harm. For example, supervisors may give trainees
inappropriate direction about treatment or give tasks to trainees that exceed their
competence. Vicarious liability pertains to the responsibilities supervisors have to
oversee the actions of their supervisees. Supervisors are liable for the actions of their
supervisees due to their professional relationship with supervisees. From both a legal
and an ethical standpoint, trainees are not expected to assume final responsibility for
clients; rather, their supervisors are legally expected to carry the decision-making
responsibility and liability. Polychronis and Brown (2016) broaden the concept of
vicarious liability by addressing the legal doctrine of strict liability as it applies to
clinical supervision.
The doctrine of strict liability holds clinical supervisors responsible for
supervisees’ actions in a professional realm without any need to establish that
supervisors were negligent or careless. “What is problematic about the strict liability
standard is that it holds clinical supervisors responsible for unforeseeable and
professionally indefensible actions of supervisees even if deliberately concealed from
supervisory oversight” (p. 141). Even supervisors who provide exemplary supervision
may bear legal responsibility for any wrong caused by a supervisee. This level of
liability may contribute to the reluctance of some professionals to become
supervisors. Supervisors who practice in jurisdictions that apply the strict liability
standard to clinical supervision are especially vulnerable and need to engage in
vigorous risk management strategies to protect themselves.
Supervisors rely on their supervisees to provide clear and truthful reporting of
client progress and associated clinical issues. Just as therapists are vulnerable to
clients who may decide to press forward with malpractice actions, supervisors are
open to malpractice litigation against them by the supervisees’ clients. Documentation
of supervisory activity is of the utmost importance; if a supervisor is involved in a
legal action, accurate documentation is necessary for a supervisor’s defense. The APA
(2015) guidelines state: “Supervisors maintain accurate and timely documentation of
supervisee performance related to expectations for competency and professional
development” (Guideline 5.). Supervisors should practice risk management in
supervision much as they would in working with their own counseling clients.
g. Ethical Issues for Online Supervision
Few would argue that the recent proliferation of technology has truly changed
the way people interact and communicate with each other. It may come as no surprise
that the field of clinical supervision has been affected by these technological advances
and trends as well. The number of technological innovations being used in clinical
supervision has exploded in the past decade. Due to an international movement
toward integrating technology into clinical supervision around the world, Renfro-
Michel, Rousmaniere, and Spinella (2016) find that supervisors are independently
experimenting with using technology to improve the breadth and depth of services
offered to supervisees and clients. As cybersupervision and the use of electronic
media in supervision have become more prevalent, ethical issues regarding
confidentiality, informed consent, and the supervisory relationship have taken on
added dimensions.
Confidentiality in online supervision is fraught with potential problems such
as the possibility of people hacking into confidential communications between a
supervisor and supervisee and the risk of confidential content being sent to others in
error. Although safeguards are often in place to secure electronic exchanges, such as
encryption software or virtual private networks (VPNs), it cannot be assumed that the
technology is foolproof and that confidentiality can be absolutely guaranteed.
“Technology experts warn that even encryption-protected telecommunications
systems remain highly vulnerable to intrusion and that cybertheft has reached
epidemic proportions” (McAdams & Wyatt, 2010, p. 180). Therapists or trainees who
are working with a supervisor online must clearly convey to clients the potential for
inadvertent breaches of confidentiality. Despite ongoing philosophical debates about
the legitimacy of technology-assisted practices in the field of counseling and clinical
supervision, McAdams and Wyatt (2010) recognize that these new technologies are
inexorably tied to the future of the counseling profession.
As Rousmaniere and colleagues (2014) point out, "making the assumption that
the 'old methods are best' may do the field a disservice by blinding us to new
opportunities and alienating a younger generation of supervisees who identify with
technology being integrated into every part of their lives." This insightful observation
underscores the importance of evolving supervisory practices to remain relevant and
effective in a rapidly changing technological landscape.
Relying exclusively on traditional methods of supervision, such as face-to-face
meetings and paper-based documentation, can limit the potential for growth and
innovation within the field. These methods, while valuable and proven over time, may
not fully harness the advantages offered by contemporary technological
advancements. For instance, digital tools such as video conferencing, online
supervision platforms, and electronic record-keeping can enhance accessibility,
flexibility, and efficiency in the supervisory process. By integrating these tools,
supervisors can offer more timely and tailored feedback, facilitate more frequent and
varied forms of communication, and create a more dynamic and interactive learning
environment.
Furthermore, the younger generation of supervisees has grown up in an era
where technology is an integral part of daily life. They are accustomed to using digital
devices for communication, learning, and professional tasks. Ignoring this reality can
lead to a disconnect between supervisors and supervisees, potentially causing
frustration and disengagement among the latter. When supervisees feel that their
supervisors are not in tune with their technological preferences and needs, it can
hinder the development of a strong supervisory relationship. This disconnect can also
impede the supervisees' ability to fully engage with the supervisory process and
maximize their learning experience.
Embracing new technologies in supervision can open up a range of
opportunities for both supervisors and supervisees. For example, the use of video
recordings and virtual reality simulations can provide supervisees with unique
learning experiences that are not possible through traditional methods alone. These
tools can allow for more immersive and reflective practice, where supervisees can
observe and analyze their interactions with clients in a detailed and nuanced manner.
Additionally, online forums and collaborative platforms can facilitate peer learning
and support, fostering a sense of community and shared learning among supervisees.
Moreover, integrating technology into supervision can make the process more
inclusive and accessible. Supervisees who are geographically dispersed or have
mobility issues can benefit from remote supervision options, ensuring they receive
consistent and high-quality guidance regardless of their location. This inclusivity can
also extend to supervisors, who can connect with a diverse range of supervisees from
different backgrounds and regions, enriching the supervisory experience for both
parties.
However, it is important to recognize that the integration of technology into
supervision should be approached thoughtfully and strategically. Supervisors must
ensure that they are adequately trained in the use of new technologies and that these
tools are implemented in a way that enhances, rather than detracts from, the
supervisory process. There should be a balance between leveraging technological
innovations and maintaining the core elements of effective supervision, such as
empathy, active listening, and personalized feedback.
In conclusion, the assertion by Rousmaniere and colleagues (2014) highlights
a critical consideration for the future of supervision in the field. By moving away
from the assumption that 'old methods are best' and embracing the potential of new
technologies, supervisors can enhance their practice, better engage with younger
supervisees, and open up new avenues for learning and development. This progressive
approach can help ensure that supervision remains relevant, effective, and responsive
to the evolving needs of both supervisees and the broader professional landscape.
Haberstroh and Duffey (2016) emphasize that effective supervision involves
supervisors and supervisees mutually integrating feedback and working through
conflict. The maturity of both supervisees and supervisors has a great deal to do with
the quality of the supervisory relationship and the success of the supervision
experience. Haberstroh and Duffey believe that distance technologies can facilitate
effective supervisory relationships: “When supervisors establish clear guidelines for
distance communication, seek to be honest and compassionate, and take risks,
supervisees who are invested in the process can certainly benefit from supervisory
relationships at a distance”
h. Special Issues in Supervision for School Counselors
Faced with increasing threats of violence on school campuses and
achievement gap issues that disproportionally affect students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds, today’s school counselors have a greater responsibility than ever before
to meet the academic, social, and emotional needs of children and adolescents. As
Wood and Rayle (2006) have observed, existing clinical/mental health models of
supervision fail to meet the needs of school counseling trainees because these models
do not address all of the tasks required of school counselors, which include leadership
and advocacy. Schools must carefully examine ways to develop effective clinical
supervision programs. Many school systems hire administrators to serve as the
supervisors for school counselors; however, these administrators have no counseling
background.
Clinical supervisors for school counselors should be appropriately trained as
both clinicians and clinical supervisors. An excellent way to build supervision
opportunities in school settings is to establish community linkages between local
schools and university faculty. Faculty in counselor preparation programs are in a
good position to advise and educate school counselors on innovations in counseling
that can be applied to schools. Swank and Tyson (2012) point out that counselor
education programs are well placed to help school systems understand the difference
between supervision and evaluation.
These programs provide comprehensive explanations on how supervision can
significantly enhance the professional development, identity, and competency of
individuals in the field of school counseling. For the school counseling supervisee,
who is typically a prospective candidate for employment, supervision plays a crucial
role in bridging the gap between academic training and real-world practice. Through
regular, structured supervision sessions, supervisees gain practical experience, receive
constructive feedback, and develop critical counseling skills that are essential for their
future roles.
Supervision helps these supervisees refine their theoretical knowledge by
applying it in practical settings, which is invaluable for their professional growth. It
allows them to navigate the complexities of school environments, manage diverse
student needs, and implement effective counseling strategies under the guidance of an
experienced supervisor. This hands-on learning process not only enhances their
competency but also boosts their confidence and preparedness for entering the job
market. By observing and reflecting on their practice, supervisees can identify their
strengths and areas for improvement, fostering a continuous learning mindset that is
essential for their ongoing professional development.
Moreover, these programs emphasize the importance of supervision in shaping
the professional identity of school counseling supervisees. Engaging in supervision
helps supervisees internalize the values, ethics, and standards of the counseling
profession. It provides them with a clearer understanding of their roles and
responsibilities as future school counselors. Through discussions and mentorship,
supervisees explore their personal and professional identities, aligning them with the
broader goals and ethical frameworks of the counseling field. This process is
fundamental in developing a strong, professional identity that will guide their practice
and professional interactions throughout their careers.
For the practicing school counselor who takes on the role of a site supervisor,
these programs highlight how supervision can enhance their own professional
development and competency. Serving as a supervisor requires experienced
counselors to stay updated with the latest developments in the field, engage in
reflective practice, and refine their supervisory skills. This role not only reinforces
their knowledge and expertise but also introduces them to new perspectives and
approaches through their interactions with supervisees. Supervisors are challenged to
articulate their knowledge, provide effective feedback, and foster a supportive
learning environment, which in turn enhances their own professional skills and
growth.
Additionally, acting as a site supervisor allows practicing counselors to
contribute to the development of the next generation of school counselors, thereby
giving back to the profession. This mentoring role can be deeply fulfilling and can
enhance the supervisor's sense of professional purpose and commitment. Supervisors
often find that their supervisees bring fresh ideas and new insights into the counseling
practice, which can inspire and rejuvenate their own work. The process of supervision
can also prompt supervisors to critically evaluate and improve their own counseling
practices, leading to higher standards of care and service within their schools.
Furthermore, these programs underscore the reciprocal nature of the
supervisory relationship, where both supervisees and supervisors benefit from the
exchange of knowledge, skills, and experiences. Supervisors provide guidance and
support, while supervisees offer new perspectives and questions that can stimulate
professional reflection and growth. This dynamic interaction helps create a vibrant
learning community that promotes excellence in school counseling.
In summary, these programs provide detailed insights into how supervision
can enhance the professional development, identity, and competency of both school
counseling supervisees and practicing school counselors acting as site supervisors.
For supervisees, supervision is a critical component of their transition from students
to professional counselors, offering practical experience and fostering professional
identity. For site supervisors, the role provides opportunities for professional growth,
reflective practice, and a deeper engagement with the counseling profession. Together,
these elements underscore the importance of effective supervision in the ongoing
development and enhancement of school counseling practices.
Few school counselors have received formal preparation in supervision, and
web-based supervision training modules are now being designed to inform those
functioning as on-site supervisors (Swank & Tyson, 2012). Even in cases where the
clinical supervisor is appropriately prepared, he or she may not work in the same site
as the counselor being supervised. This situation does not allow for direct observation
of the counselor’s performance.
Most schools have only one counselor, or even a part-time counselor, which
raises the issue of how realistic it is to hire a counseling supervisor. School counselors
generally do not choose their clinical supervisors. From a legal vantage point, it is
unlikely that school counselors would be held accountable if a supervisor were to
inappropriately disclose information about schoolage children to teachers or
administrators. However, in such situations school counselors have an ethical
responsibility to address concerns they have about their supervisor’s actions. If a
supervisor has evaluative authority with counselors, this can place these counselors in
a vulnerable position.
Boundary issues in the supervisory relationship need to be considered. An
example of a multiple relationship might involve the clinical supervisor also serving
as the administrative supervisor for the school counselor. Another boundary issue
pertains to including a discussion of the supervisee’s personal concerns in the
supervisory sessions. At times it may be necessary to address a supervisee’s personal
life, especially if these concerns are having an impact on his or her ability to work
effectively with clients. When helping the supervisee to identify and understand how
personal issues may be interfering with effectively delivering services, the challenge
is to maintain appropriate boundaries so that the supervisory relationship does not
become a therapy relationship.
i. Multicultural and Diversity Issues in Supervision
Multicultural and diversity competence is an ethical imperative in clinical
supervision. A lack of diversity competence is likely to result in ineffective
supervision. Diversity competence is an inseparable and basic component of
supervision and involves relevant knowledge, skills, and values/attitudes (APA,
2015). Supervisors should include cultural and advocacy competencies in the
supervisory contract and intentionally address these topics throughout the supervisory
process.
Multicultural supervision encompasses the full range of cultural factors,
including race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, ability status, privilege, sexual
orientation, spirituality and religion, values, gender, family characteristics and
dynamics, country of origin, language, and age (ACES, 2011). Supervisors have an
ethical responsibility to become aware of the complexities of a multicultural society.
Ethical and competent supervision involves recognizing and addressing the salient
issues that apply to multicultural supervision. Supervision involves an inherent power
differential, and supervisors need to address power and privilege issues with
supervisees. A supervisor’s lack of awareness of the power, privilege, diversity issues,
and multiple identities that operate in the supervisory relationship is likely to
negatively influence the supervisory process.
Ancis and Marshall (2010) found that discussing and attending to cultural
variables in the supervisory relationship results in a higher degree of satisfaction with
supervision and an enhanced working alliance between supervisor and supervisee. If
supervisors include multicultural issues in supervision sessions, Ancis and Marshall
contend that trainees will have a basis from which to develop multicultural
competence. Furthermore, supervisees tend to view such discussions as having a
positive influence on their work with clients. The modeling of a supervisor is one of
the best ways to give supervisees an appreciation for attending to cultural variables in
their work with clients.
Supervisors need to ensure that all assessments, diagnostic formulations,
counseling interventions, and the supervisory process itself are sensitive to the range
of diversity that supervisees may encounter (Barnett & Johnson, 2015). In this section
we take a closer look at some of these issues as they relate to supervision.
There is a price to be paid for ignoring racial and ethnic factors in supervision.
If supervisors do not assist supervisees in addressing racial and ethnic issues, their
clients may be denied the opportunity to explore these issues in their therapy. The
supervisor’s recognition of racial issues can serve as a model for supervisees in their
counseling relationships. Reflecting on racial interactions in supervision offers a
cognitive framework for supervisees to be inclusive in their counseling practices.
When supervisors are working with trainees from a different ethnic or cultural
background, it is important for supervisors to acquire knowledge and skills in
culturally congruent methods and styles of supervision. Supervisors must use
culturally appropriate modes of social interaction, and they need to recognize how
their position of authority is likely to play out in the supervisory relationship.
To develop the knowledge and skills to work effectively in multicultural
counseling situations, trainees need to understand their own level of racial and
cultural identity. Furthermore, they need to recognize how their attitudes and
behaviors affect their clients. Good supervision will enable trainees to explore the
impact that diversity issues may have on their counseling style. Ancis and Marshall
(2010) found that counselor trainees were more likely to engage in self-disclosure and
discussion about their cultural background and values when their supervisors took the
lead in being open and genuine in sharing something of their own cultural
background, experiences, and biases. Being open, accepting, and flexible fosters a
positive relationship with supervisees. In addition, multicultural discussions in
supervision positively affect client outcomes. Butler-Byrd (2010) emphasizes the
importance of self-knowledge in the development of competence as multicultural
counselors.
In her view, self-knowledge consists of understanding one’s historical and
current cultural context and the numerous aspects of one’s identity such as ethnicity,
social location, class, gender, and ability. It also includes being cognizant of the
impact one’s behavior has on others and the need to change behaviors that are no
longer promoting growth or healthy relationships. In helping trainees to increase their
self-knowledge and develop multicultural competence, Butler-Byrd supports students’
“deliberate strengths-based preparation in multicultural counseling skills and
consciousness-raising around critical social justice issues”
Spirituality, which is an aspect of culture, plays an important role in the lives
of some clients and supervisees. Clients are oftentimes faced with spiritual matters as
they go through the various stages of life, experience loss, and have chronic pain or
other disabling conditions. Supervisors must be prepared to address spirituality or
religious matters important to clients or supervisees in a culturally sensitive manner;
however, supervisors often receive little training in these areas, which can be
problematic. As noted by Shafranske (2016), “agreement with the client’s spiritual
worldview is not required to appreciate the role it serves; however, cultural humility is
necessary to be receptive to client perspectives that are in variance with the
supervisee’s beliefs and ontological commitments” (p. 19). Supervisors must be
mindful of their own spiritual or religious beliefs and values to ensure that they do not
impose them on either supervisees or clients. It is an ethical imperative that mental
health professionals be well prepared to understand, honor, and address spirituality
and religious diversity.
MacKinnon, Bhatia, Sunderani, Affleck, and Smith (2011) write about the
intersection of feminist supervision theory and masculine psychology and state that
supervisors need to open a dialogue regarding the impact of gender on the supervision
process. More specifically, MacKinnon and colleagues believe supervisors who lack
awareness of masculine psychology are at risk of providing ineffective supervision
with male supervisees, which can have detrimental effects on their professional
development. Many men place a high value on personal achievement and individual
success, and during supervision discussions male supervisees are likely to focus on
cases in which they are succeeding. This tendency may deprive male supervisees of
the opportunity to explore the ways they may be struggling with clients. Thinking that
they are surrendering their power, male supervisees may not be willing to engage in a
conversation with their supervisor on clinical and relationship issues and may be
unreceptive to feedback from the supervisor.
These principles and ideas apply equally with female supervisees. All
supervisees should feel that it is appropriate for them to raise any concerns they have
about gender differences in the supervisory relationship, issues of power, and how
their gender-role socialization influences their ability to get fully involved in the
supervision process. Regardless of the model a supervisor operates from, it is
important to make the supervision relationship safe so trainees can gain the maximum
benefit from clinical supervision. One way to create this safety is for supervisors to
take the initiative in discussing gender issues that are operating in the supervisor–
supervisee relationship.
j. Multiple Roles and Relationships in the Supervisory Process
The ACES (2011) “Best Practices in Clinical Supervision” state that clinical
supervisors are expected to possess the personal and professional maturity to play
multiple roles. Multiple-role relationships in supervision occur when a supervisor has
concurrent or consecutive professional or nonprofessional relationships with a
supervisee in addition to the supervisor–supervisee relationship. For example, your
supervisor may be a clinician at your training site and also hold an administrative or
leadership position wherein she or he makes employment decisions. The AMHCA
(2015) ethical standard cautions supervisors to “avoid all dual relationships that may
interfere with the supervisor’s professional judgment or exploit the supervisee”. The
AAMFT (2015) code addresses exploitation: “Therapists, therefore, make every effort
to avoid conditions and multiple relationships that could impair professional
objectivity or increase the risk of exploitation”
Multiple roles and relationships are common in clinical supervision; some may
be unavoidable and most can be beneficial (Falender, 2017). However, these
relationships also have the potential to be problematic, and it is the ethical
responsibility of supervisors to carefully manage these relationships so they do not
result in harm to or exploitation of supervisees. It is critical for supervisors to possess
both the personal and professional maturity to serve as effective role models in
establishing and maintaining appropriate boundaries (Austin, Austin, Muratori, &
Corey, 2017). Both faculty and supervisors play critical roles in helping counselor
trainees understand how to balance multiple roles and manage multiple relationships.
Dickens, Ebrahim, and Herlihy (2016) investigated doctoral students’ experiences
with multiple roles and relationships. All the doctoral students in their study
acknowledged that multiple roles and relationships are an inevitable part of counselor
education. Participants recognized both positive and negative effects of multiple roles
and relationships on personal and professional levels. Many participants reported
struggling with role confusion and emphasized a desire for ongoing, open
conversations with faculty members. This study underscores the importance of faculty
and supervisors providing clarity before students are asked or required to engage in
multiple roles and relationships.
Barnett and Johnson (2015) believe going too far in avoiding all
nonprofessional relationships (multiple relationships) may limit opportunities for
appropriate relationships with supervisees and students. Kozlowski, Pruitt, DeWalt,
and Knox (2014) claim that supervisors who maintain rigid boundaries run the risk of
depriving their trainees of deeper mentoring relationships as well as authentic
emotional relationships that can assist supervisees in learning how to provide therapy.
Although measures must be taken to avoid role confusion, some positive boundary
crossings (PBC) can enhance the supervisory relationship (Kozlowski et al., 2014).
One study showed that supervisees who experienced a PBC within the context of the
supervisory relationship felt increased comfort and camaraderie and felt understood
and cared for (Kozlowski et al., 2014). The participants of this study also reported that
the PBC enhanced their training. Supervisors need to clarify their roles and to
distinguish between flexible and rigid boundaries.
If the supervisor does not maintain objectivity, the supervisee will not be able
to make maximum use of the process. As Herlihy and Corey (2015b) point out, unless
the nature of the supervisory relationship is clearly defined, both the supervisor and
the supervisee may find themselves in a difficult situation at some point in their
relationship. The core issue of multiple-role relationships in the training and
supervisory process is the potential for abuse of power. Like therapy clients, students
and supervisees are in a vulnerable position and can be harmed by an educator or
supervisor who exploits them, misuses power, or crosses appropriate boundaries. Both
feminist supervision and multicultural supervision pay attention to the power dynamic
in the supervisory relationship and try to reduce its impact. For example, instead of
the supervisor telling supervisees what to do, the supervisor can help supervisees
think about their clients in new ways, formulate their own interpretations, and devise
their own interventions.
