Overview of Brain Neuroanatomy & Physiology:
Welcome to the first series of lecture notes. These lecture notes will provide you with my opinion and
interpretation of the various course materials as we move along through the course. It should be noted
that these lecture notes are not likely to contain specific questions or answers that you will find on your
midterm or her final exam. The good news is, is that I will be providing you with the exact questions for
these tests in weeks three and eight, respectively. Typically, I will be posting these lecture notes within
the first three days of the week and I will do my best to follow along with each chapter as closely as I
can.
This is one of my most favorite classes to teach because it is the absolute foundation to being able to
function as a professional counselor and provide competent counseling. The term “theories” literally is
referencing the various psychological theories associated with personality development that have been
created, research, and posited over time. It should be noted that I believe the most important
knowledge base that a professional counselor has is their own theoretical orientation with regard to how
they approach counseling and conceptualize/interpret human behavior. This course will provide you with
a review of the various psychological theories associated with professional counseling, as well as the
various techniques associated with each theory.
When you hear a friend telling you a personal problem, which is something that happens quite
frequently with prospective counselors, your brain begins to process this information and forms a
conceptualization of your friend’s problem. In other words, you determine that which is the cause of
your friend’s problem and how to fix it. This is a skill that typically comes naturally for most counselors;
however, the purpose of this class is to take that raw skill and integrate it with psychological theory and
technique because your theoretical orientation will ultimately delineate the path down which you will
take your client in the journey of counseling.
In today’s lecture notes, we will be reviewing the biological bases of behavior because, in my opinion,
this is the foundation of understanding psychological theory and becoming a competent professional
counselor. Understanding the role and purpose of the brain prior to reviewing psychological theories and
therapy techniques is critical in my opinion because one cannot discuss human behavior, thought, or
emotion without also realizing the biological bases of these functions. The purpose of this document is
to provide you with a basic knowledge and awareness of the primary functions of the brain as it is
related to personality development, emotional functioning, and human behavior. As we progress
through this course, I would like to challenge you all to consider how this information that is presented
here integrates with the various theories we discuss in this class. Today’s lecture notes will review the
basics of brain anatomy and the various localizing functions as it pertains to counseling theories and
methods. We will also review basic neuropsychopharmacology, which is the “scientific” word for the
neurotransmitters of the brain that either directly or indirectly affects emotional, cognitive, or behavioral
functioning.
First of all, let us review some basic neuroanatomy terminology. The nervous system is composed of two
distinct systems called the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system. For the purpose of
this class and perhaps for the rest of your graduate-level training as a counselor, we will be focusing
primarily on the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of two things: the brain and
the spinal cord. Again, for the purpose of this class, we will only be talking about the brain. The brain is
divided into a left and right hemisphere. The left hemisphere primarily deals with language and logical
thinking, and the right hemisphere primarily functions for visuospatial reasoning and inductive
reasoning. Some of the definitions that will be important to know with regard to the brain includes:
1. Lobes – there are four lobes of the brain. A lobe of the brain consists of a discrete area of the brain
that is typically circumscribed by sulci (i.e., deep grooves).
2. Cortex – the outside of the brain that is primarily made up of gray matter
3. Gray Matter – neurons or the “processing centers/cells” of the brain primarily located on the outside
of the brain
4. White Matter – myelinated axons or “branch – like” processes that literally conduct electro chemical
impulse from one neuron to another. White matter is typically found inside the brain.
5. Neo – Cortex – primarily the prefrontal frontal areas of the brain
6. Neurotransmitter – chemical messengers within the brain that serve to continue, stop, or modify a
message from one neuron to the next
Overall, these definitions will help you understand the basic information about the brain and its
functions. We will begin with a discussion and review of the various lobes of the brain:
The Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe, perhaps unsurprisingly, is located in the front part of your brain.
Compared to other animals, the frontal lobes of humans is the largest per capita and primarily serves as
the main area of the brain dealing with personality and “higher order” cognitive functions. Specifically,
the frontal lobe of the brain houses what are termed “executive functions,” which include
initiation/motivation, abstract reasoning, planning, prioritizing, organizing, self-monitoring, impulse
control, social judgment, moral judgment, and emotional regulation. These are only some of the
functions of the frontal/prefrontal area and as you can see, these functions are likely to play a
paramount role in the development and manifestation of personality. It should be noted that the frontal
lobe is literally the CEO of all brain functions and allows us to make complex decisions, engage in social
behaviors, and control our emotional reactions.
Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe is located just “below” your ears within your skull. The primary
purpose of the temporal lobe is to process auditory information, including language in the dominant
hemisphere, and store memories. Inside the temporal lobe are two important nuclei (i.e., gray matter):
the amygdala and the hippocampus. The amygdala’s primary function is to process incoming stimuli for
danger and literally is the first step in the fight or flight process. The hippocampus, which literally means
shaped like a seahorse, is primarily concerned with the consolidation of memory. These two nuclei are
very close together and indeed work close together to encode memory by classifying incoming
information as either important for survival or nonessential. This is why it is much easier for you to
remember information and biological information that is traumatic or joyful rather than boring.
Parietal Lobe: The left and right parietal lobes primarily process information as it is related to spatial
relationships including the meaning of certain letters within a word, as well as visual spatial information
such as how close you are driving to the center lane on the highway.
Occipital Lobe: The occipital lobe primarily functions to process incoming visual information and is
located at the very back of your brain.
Limbic Lobe: “Wait a minute. Did not Dr. Armstrong just say there were only four lobes of the brain?”
Indeed. There are only technically four lobes of the brain but many people consider the limbic region of
the brain to be a distinct lobe. The limbic lobe can be found inside the brain and consists of both cortical
and sub cortical nuclei that have the primary function of processing emotionally salient information. For
example, the limbic lobe consists of the hippocampus, the amygdala, the fornix, the mammillary bodies,
and the hypothalamus. It also consists of the cingulate gyrus, which is technically the outer cortex and
can be found on the inside of the brain if you cut the brain in half long ways. It is important to note that
the limbic lobe is directly connected to the prefrontal area of the cortex, which is essentially the brake
pedal for emotions. This is why frontal and prefrontal lobe injuries often result in significant emotional
dysfunction such as pseudo-mania, pseudo-depression, explosive anger, and violent behaviors. The
prefrontal area and the limbic region is implicated in many personality disorders such as borderline
personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, amongst others.
Important Neurotransmitters to Know: The way the brain communicates with itself across lobes and
from one neuron to the next is via neurotransmission. Essentially, this is like a computer in that the
computer is the neuron and the Ethernet cable is the axon and the neurotransmitters are the electrical
impulse that traveled down the Ethernet cable into the computer. In order for a neuron to receive a
message, that neuron has to understand the language that the message is coded in and that language is
a “chemical language.” Some of the important neurotransmitters to know about include serotonin,
dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, acetylcholine, and glutamate. Although it is beyond the purpose of
this class to review all these in detail, it is important for you to know that each neurotransmitter has a
primary role in emotional regulation, behavioral output, and cognitive abilities.
1. Serotonin – the primary purpose of serotonin is to increase appetite, calm you down, help put
you asleep, and act as a buffer for anxiety and depression. This is an oversimplification of
serotonin and for a more complete review one can research these neurotransmitters via a quick
searching Google to learn more.
2. Dopamine – the primary purpose of dopamine is to increase energy, increased mood, help you
sustained attention and focus, help you inhibit impulses, and help you learn behaviors quickly
through the feeling of pleasure and reward.
3. Norepinephrine – the primary purpose of norepinephrine, like dopamine, is to increase energy,
increased mood, sustained vigilance, and again learned behaviors quickly. Should be noted that
both norepinephrine and dopamine also work in the brainstem to increase blood pressure.
4. GABA – the primary purpose of gamma – aminobutryic acid is to inhibit brain functioning,
decrease anxiety, and put you asleep.
5. Acetylcholine – the primary purpose of acetylcholine is to help form new memories and recall
old ones
6. Glutamate – the primary purpose of glutamate is to make neurons excitable and ready to receive
messages, as well as prime brain cells to make new connections and in some places, regrow.
Ch. 3 Key Terms for Review and Definition
Aspirational ethics A higher level of ethical practice that addresses doing what is in the best interests of
clients.
Assessment Evaluating the relevant factors in a client’s life to identify themes for further exploration in
the counseling process.
Boundary crossing A departure from a commonly accepted practice that could potentially benefit a
client (e.g., attending a client’s wedding).
Boundary violation A boundary crossing that takes the practitioner out of the professional role, which
generally involves exploitation. It is a serious breach that harms the client and is therefore unethical.
Confidentiality This is an ethical concept, and in most states therapists also have a legal duty not to
disclose information about a client.
Diagnosis The analysis and explanation of a client’s problems. It may include an explanation of the
causes of the client’s difficulties, an account of how these problems developed over time, a classification
of any disorders, a specification of preferred treatment procedure, and an estimate of the chances for a
successful resolution.
Dual or multiple relationships A counselor assumes two (or more) roles simultaneously or sequentially
with a client. This may involve assuming more than one professional role or combining professional and
nonprofessional roles.
Ethical decisions To make ethical decisions, consult with colleagues; keep yourself informed about laws
affecting your practice; keep up-to-date in your specialty field; stay abreast of developments in ethical
practice; reflect on the impact your values have on your practice; and be willing to engage in honest self-
examination.
Evidence-based practice (EBP) Psychotherapists are required to base their practice on techniques that
have empirical evidence to support their efficacy.
Informed consent The right of clients to be informed about their therapy and to make autonomous
decisions pertaining to it.
Mandatory ethics The view of ethical practice that deals with the minimum level of professional
practice.
Nonprofessional interactions Additional relationships with clients other than sexual ones.
Positive ethics An approach taken by practitioners who want to do their best for clients rather than
simply meet minimum standards to stay out of trouble.
Practice-based evidence Using data generated during treatment to inform the process and outcome of
treatment.
Privileged communication A legal concept that generally bars the disclosure of confidential
communications in a legal proceeding.
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