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Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the technology
and marketing strategies some small business music artists used to generate sales
revenues from the Internet. The target population for this research study was six small
business music artists who have used technology and marketing strategies to generate
Internet sales. The geographic location for this study was Los Angeles County,
California. The implication for social change includes the potential to improve economic
sustainability for small business music artists in the music industry.
Nature of the Study
The three types of research methods are qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
(Venkatesh, Brown, & Bala, 2013). I selected the qualitative method to find out what
strategies some small business music artists use to generate sales revenues from the
Internet. Qualitative researchers use interviews, observations, and records in research
projects (Barnham, 2015). In contrast, quantitative research consists of hypothesis testing
to achieve research goals (Park & Park, 2016). The mixed method combines the
elements of both quantitative and qualitative research (Venkatesh, Brown, & Sullivan,
2016). In this study, I conducted interviews, which are part of a qualitative study, instead
of hypothesis testing, which is part of a quantitative study. In addition, the mixed method
did not align with this study because I did not combine both qualitative and quantitative
elements. The qualitative method was appropriate for this study because participants
answered semistructured interview questions about the technology and marketing
strategies they used to generate sales revenue from the Internet.
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I considered five qualitative research designs: (a) case study, (b) narrative, (c)
phenomenology, (d) ethnography, and (e) grounded theory. Narrative researchers include
stories that portray human thought and action (Shapiro, 2016). I did not use the narrative
approach because my research question did not focus on lived or told stories from
participants. Phenomenological researchers concentrate on human experiences with
phenomena (Fisher, Francis, Thomas, Burgess, & Mutler, 2016). I did not use the
phenomenological approach because my research question did not focus on the
experiences participants have in common to describe a phenomenon. Ethnography is
mostly concerned with the study of cultural groups (Kalou & Sadler-Smith, 2015). I did
not choose the ethnography approach because my research question did not focus on the
language, beliefs, and values of a cultural group. Grounded theory involves an
explanation of a theory of process, action, or interaction shaped by views of a vast
number of participants (Johnson, 2015). I did not select the grounded theory approach
because I did not try to create or discover a theory. The case study design involves a
detailed explanation of a contemporary event and uses the terms what, how and why in
research questions. Researchers use a multiple case study design to ensure the added
validity of findings and to confirm that conclusions will not lead to a direct replication
compared to a single case study (Gog, 2015). I selected the multiple case study design to
gain an in-depth understanding of the technology and marketing strategies small business
music artists use to increase sales revenues from the Internet.
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Research Question
The overarching research question was: What technology and marketing
strategies do some small business music artists use to generate sales revenues from the
Internet?
Interview Questions
1. Which Internet strategies do you use to generate sales revenue?
2. What strategies do you use to market and brand yourself on the Internet?
3. How do music videos help you generate revenue on the Internet?
4. What, if any, digital music distribution outlets do you use to sell your music
online? (Ex: iTunes, Spotify, SoundCloud, Bandcamp, CDBaby, TuneCore)
5. What challenges have you faced when trying to generate e-sales revenue from
the Internet?
6. How did you address the challenges to generate e-sales revenue from the
Internet?
7. What additional comments can you add to the subject of music artists
generating sales revenue from the Internet?
Conceptual Framework
Henry Mintzberg developed organizational configuration theory in 1978.
Mintzberg (1978) identified simple, machine, professional, diversified, and innovative as
five different types of organizational configurations (Krabberod, 2015). Leenders,
Farrell, Zwaan, and ter Bogt (2015) discussed how leaders and managers use
configuration theory to seek a position in a competitive environment that delivers
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superior performance, and how organizations use configuration theory to organize their
marketing activities. Executives who use configuration theory identify critical
interdependencies between elements that establish an organization as a sustainable
system. Organizations can use configuration theory to describe how market performance
is affected by formal organizational design arrangements used to exploit synergies
between design elements and create value for customers. Smaller organizations may use
configuration theory to help explain how music artists develop an efficient technology
and marketing strategy to generate revenue through music streaming, physical products,
and digital downloads.
Organizations that use configuration theory may identify with this research
because technology and marketing are two strategies that music artists can use to develop
a competitive advantage. Henfridsson and Bygstad (2013) discussed situational, action
formation, and transformational mechanisms in the self-reinforcing socio-technical
mechanism model. Small business music artists use social media as a socio-technical
opportunity in a competitive environment to develop marketing, branding, and
promotional strategies to generate revenue. These marketing strategies can lead to
valuable sources of income through the transformational mechanism that produces
outcomes at a micro-level. This study on the technological and marketing strategies
small business music artists used to generate sales revenue from the Internet was thus
aligned with Mintzberg’s (1978) organizational configuration theory and Henfridsson and
Bygstad's (2013) self-reinforcing socio-technical mechanism model.
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Operational Definitions
360 deal: A way of monetizing a record label’s relationship with an artist through
the record label participating in and receiving income from a range of musical activities
beyond the sales of recordings (Galuszka & Wyrzykowska, 2016).
Brand personality: A set of associations or characteristics that can affect a
consumer’s decision making (Kristin & Sirgy, 2016).
Hip-hop culture: Shared fashion, music, dance, art, attitude, language, and
experiences of anyone who participates in or consumes at least one of the four elements
of hip-hop: rapping/emceeing, breakdancing, graffiti art, and deejaying (Ferguson &
Burkhalter, 2015).
Niche music: A kind of music that has a smaller market of intrigued shoppers and
that gains audience through web-based social networking or suggestions through online
music destinations (Dewan & Ramaprasad, 2014).
Self-congruity: Actual, ideal, or social connections with brand personality where
musicians can influence an individual and can lead to positive attitudes towards a brand
(Kristin & Sirgy, 2016).
Small business: Based on the number of employees or the measure of annual
receipts a business has (U.S. Small Business Administration, 2018).
Viral marketing: The relationship between buzz marketing, word of mouth
marketing, and online marketing (Rollins, Anitsal, & Anitsal, 2014).
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Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
Nkwake and Morrow (2016) explained that assumptions are beliefs, expectations,
or considerations affecting research. I assumed that selecting the qualitative multiple
case study method was the best methodology to explore the technology and marketing
strategies of small business music artists. Instead of using a quantitative or mixed
method, I selected the qualitative method because it allowed for a description and
interpretation of the business problem. The second assumption I made was that the six
small business music artists all had technology and marketing strategies they used to
generate revenue from the Internet. The last assumption was that the six small business
music artists gave honest and truthful answers in their interview question responses.
Limitations
Limitations of a research study are potential weaknesses or situations that are
beyond a researcher’s control (Helmich, Boerebach, Arah, & Lingard, 2015). My
research study had several limitations. The research question focused on revenue from
music streaming, compact discs, and digital downloads, but new media platforms may
emerge for future researchers. Further, I only focused on technology and marketing
strategies to generate revenue in the music industry, and these procedures may not apply
to small businesses in other sectors. The role that record companies play during different
stages of an artist’s career needs more research as well (Leenders et al., 2015). The
sample size of six small business music artists may have also limited the scope of the
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study. A lack of available participants was also a potential weakness of the study and
could require future research.
My research focused on music artists in Los Angeles, California and further
research is necessary to study other target populations. Another potential weakness of the
study was its focus on the Internet as a source of revenue, instead of traditional media
outlets such as the television, radio, newspaper, and magazine. Avoiding personal bias
could have been a limitation unbenounced to me, but I established procedures to guard
against bias.
Delimitations
Researchers use delimitations to define the boundary, scope, and scale of a study
and mark the characteristics that limit the scope of inquiry (Karodia, Chimusoro, & Jeske,
2015). For this multiple case study, I used a purposive sampling of small business music
artists based in Los Angeles, California. I sent potential participants a written invitation
to be a part of the study. These small business music artists did not have a recording
contract or legal agreement with a major record label. I limited the scope of the study to
the technology and marketing strategies small business music artists used to generate
Internet sales. These sales included but were not limited to tickets for concerts, CDs,
digital downloads, music streaming services, and other merchandise sales.
Significance of the Study
My research may help small business music artists generate sales revenue from
the Internet. Digital music stores, streaming services, and webcasting stations have
significantly reduced the cost barriers to distribute and sell music, giving musicians the
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ability to promote and sell their music globally without having to forfeit their copyrights
(Thomson, 2013). Using the findings in this study, small business music artists may
develop technology and marketing strategies to help them become financially stable in
the music industry.
The implications for positive social change may include the potential to improve
economic sustainability for independent artists in the music industry. Musicians are
influential figures in today’s society. Adolescents and youth can create music as a social
activity in urban environments to avoid gang violence and criminal behavior. Martin
Lamotte detailed the characteristics of hip-hop as a set of principles of resistance in urban
areas which give an understanding of everyday street politics or hidden transcripts of the
oppressed (Black, 2014). Hip-hop can help at-risk youth avoid incarceration and help
them become entrepreneurs as independent artists. Music artists can use the Internet as a
competitive advantage and opportunity to reach fans without having to sign to a major
record label. The expanding significance of the Internet in the music industry has
provided music artists with more opportunities to become noticed by different audiences
(Veborod & Noord, 2016).
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
In this study, I extended Leenders et al.’s (2015) research on young music artists’
media sales strategies. These authors focused on the development of social media from
2005-2010 when iTunes, YouTube, and illegal downloading was dominant in the music
industry. I focused my research on the music industry between the years 2014-2018,
when music streaming services such as Spotify and Pandora are on the rise and CDs, and
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digital download sales are decreasing. Social media also has an impact on music artists,
and social media networking and development of online music groups have added to the
development of fan bases, enabling rising artists to easily connect through new
advertising strategies (Naveed, Watanabe, & Neittaanmaki, 2017).
I used organizational configuration theory as the conceptual framework. Lui,
Mezei, Kostakos, and Li (2017) explained that organizational configuration theory shows
how combinations of varying initial conditions may lead to the same outcome. Strategy,
structure, and the environment are three different variables in configuration theory that
can influence a business outcome in various ways. For this study, I reviewed 216 peer-
reviewed journal articles, 87% which were published between the years 2014 and 2018. I
also reviewed a reference from a government website and a reference from a corporate
Internet site. To gather peer-reviewed journal articles, I searched several academic
databases using the keywords music streaming, configuration theory, contingency theory,
social media, traditional media, the music industry, digital infrastructure models, digital
piracy, and record labels. My objective in this literature review was to give a critical
analysis and synthesis of configuration theory as it relates to contingency theory, discuss
the socio-technical mechanism model and social-competitive intelligence framework,
give an analysis of the music industry and music revenues, and discuss the evolution of
music technology and the emergence of social media.
Application to the Applied Business Problem
I explored the technology and marketing strategies that small business music
artists used to generate sales revenue from the Internet. Music artists can use the Internet
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as a method to produce income. The music industry has become electronic through
computers and smartphones as it has shifted from CDs to digital download MP3s and
music streaming services. To sustain in the music industry and evolve with technological
changes, music artists will need to develop successful revenue generating strategies.
Organizational Configuration Theory
In 1978, Henry Mintzberg discussed five types of business configurations
including simple, machine, professional, diversified, and innovative (Krabberod, 2015).
Other authors have stated how configuration theory enables researchers and business
leaders to examine marketing strategies and the relationships between marketing
activities and business strategies (Leenders et al., 2015). Configuration researchers show
how firms share a set of strategies, structures, and goals as a collective rather than
individually (de Villiers Scheepers, Verreynne, & Meyer, 2014). In his configuration
theory, Mintzberg proposed that organizational effectiveness is achievable through one or
more configurations between simple, machine, professional, diversified, and innovative
ideal types (Krabberod, 2015). Configuration researchers use variables such as strategy,
structure, and the environment to identify patterns (de Villiers Scheepers et al., 2014).
Managers may use configuration theory to explain how no single activity, but
rather a specific configuration of capabilities leads to strategic advantages and superior
performance in an organization (Zacharias, Nijssen, & Stock, 2016). A configuration is a
particular group of multiple characteristics or sets of conditions including a firm’s
strategy, resources, and knowledge (Mohsen & Eng, 2016). Treacy and Wiersema (1993;
as cited in Zacharias et al., 2016) identified three ideal strategies including product
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leadership, operational excellence, and customer intimacy. These strategies are leading
to configurations that create value through exploration, exploitation, and adaptation.
Additionally, these strategies lead to value capture capabilities such as relational market-
based assets and intellectual market-based assets. Furthermore, these configurations of
value creation and capture capabilities are leading to customer loyalty and superior
performance.
Several authors have provided analyses of configuration theory. Bedford and
Malmi (2015) reported that managers are using configuration theory to choose an
internally consistent control structure that best fits their contextual conditions. According
to Agic, Cinjarevic, Kurtovic, and Cicic (2016), strategic marketing patterns are
arrangements or configurations of a firm’s market-based resources and marketing
capabilities that show how businesses align with their environments. Researchers of
configuration theory posit that for every context, there are ideal sets of organizational
characteristics that work better than others work and result in higher performance
(Zaefarian, Henneberg, & Naude, 2013).
Managers and leaders use configuration theory to analyze how only a few
variables may be useful to explain how an organization operates with favorable outcomes
(Harlacher & Reihlen, 2014). Another organizational assumption is that the alignment
between strategy and structure results in better organizational performance (Najafi-
Tavani et al., 2015). Executives who use configuration theory assumes that a set of the
same variables could affect an outcome in different ways, depending on how the
variables are arranged together (Mohsen & Eng, 2016).
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Organizations use configuration theory to explore patterns and combinations of
variables to show how their synergistic effects lead to actual results (Mikalef, Pateli,
Batenburg, & Wetering, 2015). Managerial analyses using configuration theory show
how firms with superior performance represent ideal organizations with a set of
dimensions in comparison to companies with weaker performance. Researchers have
demonstrated how a configuration of a set of dimensions contributes to superior
performance (Hughes, Sorensen, & Hughes, 2016). Managers and leaders who use
configuration theory assume that sets of configurations or conditions, rather than a single
state, determine the outcomes of strategies (Bohm, Eggert, & Thiesbrummel, 2016).
Hakansson (1989; as cited in Bliemel, McCarthy, & Maine, 2014), developed a
business networks model that views networks as integrated systems of actors connected
by their performance of competitive activities and the consumption of resources. The
three variables in the business networks model include the actor, resource, and activity.
The most common independent variables related to configuration research include
characteristics of the external environment that a firm is competing in, the elements of
organizational structure, and the factors that relate to corporate strategy making (Walker,
Ni, & Dyck, 2015). Another management model associated with configuration theory
targets relational performance and includes seven variables: interpersonal trust, inter-
organizational trust, affective commitment, behavioral commitment, relationship-specific
investments, communication, and cooperation (Zaefarian, Thiesbrummel, Henneberg, &
Naude, 2016).
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Infrastructure often alludes to an accumulation of data technology and
frameworks that jointly create the desired result. Henfridsson and Bygstad (2013)
discussed the digital infrastructure model, noting that in a complex organization there is
no single source of digital infrastructure evolution. Managers use the organizational
network to describe how networks of human and technical elements drive digital
infrastructure development. Managers and leaders may use configuration theory to
connect the business environment to design options that music artists use when they
experiment and seek a position for a competitive advantage in an atmosphere that
delivers acceptable performance (Leenders et al., 2015). In an organization,
configurations involve a particular arrangement of multiple parts, components, elements,
mechanisms, attributes, or something similar (Bedform & Malmi, 2015). Researchers
use the relational model to propose that infrastructures should appreciate through the
sense-making of its users and stakeholders (Henfridsson & Bygstad, 2013). This analysis
of organizational configuration theory leads to a related theory called contingency theory.
Contingency Theory
Managers and leaders may use contingency theory to focus on how the
environment affects their organization. Van de Ven and Drazin (1984) discussed how the
contingency theory of entrepreneurial marketing is necessary to explain the advantages of
participating in the innovative, proactive, and risk-taking activities of opportunity
development (Whalen et al., 2016). Organizations can use contingency theory to build on
three types of variables: contingency variables or external environmental factors,
response variables in response to contingency variables, and performance measures that
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measure the contingency and response variables (Zeriti, Robson, Spyropoulou, &
Leonidou, 2014). Executives use contingency theory to explain how the activities and
relationships of marketing performance are dependent upon the nature of the
environment, the way an organization is structured, and the quality of a task (Souchon,
Hughes, Farrell, Nemkova, & Oliveira, 2016).
Several authors have offered analyses of contingency theory. For example,
Taylor and Taylor (2014) discussed contingency theory as a frame for understanding how
an organization maintains a fit between its structure and contextual factors to perform at
high levels. Grotsch, Blome, and Schleper (2013) concluded that there is no single best
way to manage processes of organizing, decision-making, and leadership because
different environments offer different circumstances. Van de Ven, Ganco, and Hinings
(2013) discussed contingency theory as an analytical description of organizations and the
external conditions that form organizational designs, and they noted that there is a close
linkage between the external, internal, and performance measures.
Managers and leaders may use contingency theory to broaden the scope of
strategic management control by emphasizing the balance between external
environmental factors and internal resources of an organization (Fakoya, 2014).
Organizations can use contingency theory to explore technological and marketing
uncertainties that influence communication strategies to get a better internal and external
understanding of new high-tech product performance (Chang, 2015). However,
executives who use the contingency theory of performance management argue that there
is no universally acceptable performance management system for all organizations in all
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conditions; rather, particular features of a system and its effectiveness depends on
specific organizational and contextual factors (Wadongo & Abel-Kader, 2014).
Managers and leaders can use contingency theory to predict how they adapt to
different environments and adopt best practices that improve performance (Elhamma,
2015). The most common contingencies are the regulatory environment, the size of an
organization, corporate strategy, and organizational structure (Shao, Feng, & Hu, 2016).
However, organizations that use contingency theory emphasize that firms must adjust
themselves strategically with a set of specific factors to produce high achievement
(Cucculelli, Bettinelli, & Renoldi, 2014). This analysis of contingency theory leads to
some models related to organizational configuration theory.
Self-Reinforcing Socio-Technical Mechanism Model
Henfridsson and Bygstad (2013) discussed how a self-reinforcing mechanism
independently maintains and sustains itself, and how technical infrastructures are difficult
to govern because control distributes amongst multi-actors. The Internet is an
infrastructure that has proven to enable innovative possibilities for entrepreneurs if they
are following the safe and responsible use of information and communication technology.
Researchers who use the self-reinforcing socio-technical mechanism model employ
action formation mechanisms that show how a specific combination of an individual’s
desires, beliefs, and action opportunities formulate a particular action (Henfridsson &
Bygstad, 2013). The self-reinforcing socio-technical mechanism model also relates to the
social competitive intelligence framework.
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Social Competitive Intelligence Framework
Degerstedt (2015) noted that competitive intelligence is a systematic process that
involves gathering, analyzing, and transforming information into actionable intelligence.
Many music artists attend music schools where they gain knowledge to help them
advance in their career. Degerstedt (2015) discussed the five areas of competitive social
intelligence and the competitive social intelligence framework. These areas include the
socio-technical analysis and design, knowledge work (extensive collaboration), the
networking work model (coordination and cultivation), the social learning community
that creates and transforms knowledge, and the strategic decision-making progress for
environmental analysis. Gironda and Korgaonkar (2014) discussed how social
networking sites (SNS) help marketers build a brand’s familiarity and have a positive
impact on the efficacy of brand-related messages. Marketers use social networking sites
to advertise through geographic, demographic, and psychographic variables because
social networking sites have valuable information from all users that fit into those
categories. Marketers use business pages on social networking sites to provide a
convenient platform for consumers to generate word of mouth between each other, and
this provides firms with critical information on what consumers value. In the next
section, I discuss music revenue.
Music Revenue
Bakker (2011) explained that the demand for recorded music increased
dramatically in almost every part of the world since 1945. The supply side of a
musician’s products includes new formats such as the long-playing record (LP), the 45
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revolutions per minute (rpm), the audiotape, and the stereo. The education and leisure
time of teenagers influence the market for music. Fairchild (2015) explained the
evolution of the music industry occurred between 1982 and 2012. During this period, the
economic basis for the successful relationship between the music industry and consumers
depended on consumers buying what the music industry produced through reasonable,
tangible transactions, such as buying 45’s, long-playing records, or CDs.
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) gave a history of income
revenue streams in the music industry from 1973-2013. The products and services in the
music industry include the cassette, cassette single, other tapes, 8-track, long
play/extended play, vinyl single, CD, super audio CD (SACD), CD single, music video,
download music video, DVD audio, and download single. Furthermore, other products
and services include the download album, kiosk, ringtone and ringback, SoundExchange
distributions, paid subscriptions, limited tier subscriptions, on-demand streaming, other
ad-supported streaming, and synchronization (RIAA, 2017). Musicians in the U.S. music
industry continued development except during the period of economic recession in the
early 1980’s, and the peak of the music industry occurred in 1999 generating more than
20 billion dollars (Naveed et al., 2017). Musicians who yielded income from CDs
generated $1,172,500,000 in 2016, while those who made income from paid
subscriptions generated $2,258,300,000. Also, musicians who rendered income from
download singles generated $906 million, those who profited from download albums
generated $875 million, and musicians who made money from SoundExchange generated
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$883 million collectively (RIAA, 2017). After the expansion of the Internet and Napster,
the music industry slowly declined.
Musicians have sought different ways to generate revenue in the music industry.
Naveed et al. (2017) defined the music industry as an industry that sells compositions,
recordings, and music performances. The Recording Industry Association of America
(2017) described SoundExchange distributions as estimated payments in dollars to
performers and copyright holders for digital audio services under statutory licenses, and
synchronization royalties include fees and royalties from synchronization of sound
recordings with other media. The individuals and organizations that operate in the music
industry are musicians (artists) who perform and compose music, companies, and
professionals that create and sell recorded music and agencies that are involved with
music performances (Naveed et al., 2017).
Additionally, other individuals in the music industry are professionals that
manage musicians with their careers, broadcasters of music, music journalists, music
educators, and manufacturers of musical instruments (Naveed et al., 2017). Manners,
Kruger, and Saayman (2016) stated that when referring to the primary purpose of
organizing a live performance, generating income is the most important role, and the
artist is the critical success factor for individuals buying tickets or not. Furthermore,
Naveed et al. (2017) explained from 2010 to 2015 the decline in music industry revenue
changed from 15% to 30% due to the renaissance of the live music industry. This
includes performances at nightclubs, music theaters, arenas, amphitheaters, and
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local/regional music festivals. There are many avenues for artists to generate revenue in
the music industry. In addition, the way people listen to music has changed.
The traditional way of listening to music has evolved from CDs towards digital
technology formats such as the MP3 and iTunes. Rogers (2014) explained that since
recorded music sales have declined since 1999, major record labels have intensified their
focus on licensing platforms. Major record label and music publishing copyright owners
have increased their efforts to maximize revenue potential from different avenues
illustrated through an advertising relationship. In contrast, Renard, Faulk, and Goodrich
(2013) gave examples of new sources of income with an economic impact in the music
industry since 2000. These include ringtones, interactive service payments, digital
performance royalties, YouTube advertisement revenues, fan funding or crowdfunding,
digital aggregators such as TuneCore or CD Baby, and non-profit organizations such as
SoundExchange. In addition, other traditional revenue services include songwriters,
composers, performers, record labels, recording artists, producers, publishers, art
administrators, ensemble bands, and teachers.
A top new ranking revenue stream is the digital aggregator such as CD Baby and
TuneCore. In addition, Rogers (2014) clarified beyond copyrights, music trademarks
offer lucrative income for their owners. Also, television, radio, and film have become
more important for financial health, for promotion, and for direct revenues generated
from licensing (Rogers, 2014). Organizations who use configuration theory contend that
organizational design elements are connected and are mutually dependent; and
individual, organizational elements can be understood by referencing the organization as
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a whole (Walker et al., 2015). Artists in the music industry can use the television, radio,
and film as configuration resources to generate revenue. Music artists can choose to
remain independent or sign to a major record label. It is crucial for artists to stay aware
of the trends in the music industry.
The music industry has expanded in the past 30 years. The market peak of pre-
recorded cassettes reached its peak in the late 1980s, and CDs replaced sales in the 1990s
(Guidolin & Guseo, 2015). Sales of a musician’s CDs reached their peak in 2000, but
have declined with the arrival of music downloads from the Internet. In contrast to major
record labels, Etinger (2016) described how digital audio workstations (DAWs) allow
music artists to compose, record, mix and master their music. Small business music
artists are innovative and use digital audio workstations to create at home studios with
technological resources including a MacBook laptop, music production software such as
Logic Pro, studio speakers, microphones, and vocal booths with microphone shields.
Digital audio workstations create competition for major record labels’ commercial
studios and cause a re-evaluation of the production method and recording at home, versus
a commercial studio and by whom (Etinger, 2016). These technological resources
present a competitive advantage for music artists to compose, record, and produce which
can help them generate revenue on the Internet.
Music artists have created, distributed, marketed, collected royalties, used
crowdfunding, and promoted tours on the Internet, allowing them to connect more with
fans. In contrast to Logic Pro music production software, Carrier (2015) discussed a
popular program called GarageBand. Additionally, a service called Topspin gives
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musicians the marketing tools to sell concert tickets, collect fan data, distribute MP3’s
and merchandise for themselves (Carrier, 2015). Small business music artists can receive
royalties through distribution services such as CD Baby Pro and TuneCore.
Small business music artists can use crowdfunding sites such as Kickstarter,
SellaBand, PledgeMusic, and Indiegogo to raise money. Kickstarter helped raise $1
billion from seven million people as of 2014 and funded 73,000 creative projects
(Carrier, 2015). Similarly, Carrier (2015) revealed when CD sales declined from 2000-
2010, live performances did well with an increase from $1.5 billion to $4.6 billion
between 1999 and 2009. Musicians who travel on tour have an opportunity to obtain
sponsorship. Small business music artists have the tools to create, distribute, market,
fundraise, and have greater control over their work without the reliability of a record
label.
Independent artists have used crowdfunding to allocate funds through an open call
on the Internet. Belleflamme, Lambert, and Schwienbacher (2014) discussed
crowdfunding as an open call-mostly through the Internet for the provision of financial
resources in donations, or in exchange for a future product, or some form of reward to
support initiatives for specific purposes. The two types of crowdfunding are pre-ordering
and profit sharing. Music artists use pre-ordering by inviting customers to pre-order a
product and collecting revenue to start a project. Music artists use profit sharing by
soliciting people to provide money in return for a future share of profits or equity
securities (Belleflamme et al., 2014).
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Small business music artists are using crowdfunding as a strategy to generate
funds on the Internet. Entrepreneurs and musicians are using crowdfunding as a way to
help raise the funds they need to succeed in their business operations (Younkin &
Kashkooli, 2016). Younkin and Kashkooli (2016) also detailed how crowdfunding
allows people to overcome coordination problems and works as a way to reduce
transaction costs allowing individuals to overcome traditional barriers. Marketers can use
crowdfunding, enabling diverse people with a preexisting interest to collaborate. Small
business music artists also use intellectual property rights (IPR) to protect their music.
Musicians have received protection under intellectual property right laws,
containing both monetary and non-monetary elements of the value concept (Albinsson,
2013). The financial issue is an economical standard, and the non-monetary aspects are
moral rights. Both of these aspects discuss how the consumer/listener attributes to a
musical work. On the other hand, trade groups such as the Recording Industry
Association of America (RIAA) and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
are dependent on copyright protection and are creating norms to change lenient attitudes
towards copyright infringement (Fishman, 2014). Albinsson (2013) described the
stakeholders of intellectual property rights include originators of artistic projects,
performers, technology providers, distribution vendors, producers of derivative works,
consumers, and society as a whole. It is essential for music artists to protect the value of
their music. In the next section, I will go into a more in-depth analysis of professional
music artists and marketing.
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Music Artists & Marketing
Small business music artists may consider themselves as independent artists in the
music industry. Small businesses are based on the number of employees or the measure
of annual receipts a business has (SBA, 2018). Dicola (2013) explained the many types
of music-related works include recording, composing, performing live, teaching, doing
session work, merchandising, administering, managing, and promoting. The roles that
musicians play correspond to different categories of revenue including sales of CDs,
vinyl records, digital downloads, airplay on traditional and Internet radio, and the new
music streaming services. Music artists’ sources of revenue are changing with the
evolution of new technology.
Mainstream music and niche music are two different categories in the music
industry. Mainstream music is preferred by a mass market and likely to be publicized
and discovered through traditional media, while niche music does not get the attention of
traditional media unless it becomes widely popular (Dewan & Ramaprasad, 2014). Some
small business music artists in the niche music market may have hopes of their music
reaching a broader audience through the mainstream music market. Viral marketing is
the relationship between buzz marketing, word of mouth marketing, and online marketing
(Rollins et al., 2014). When small business music artists release an album, radio play and
song buzz can have a positive effect on record sales. Radio play can offer an efficient
traditional channel through which users discover an artist’s music. Creating blog buzz on
the Internet is usually accompanied by the supply of free, shareable music in MP3
streaming formats.
25
Developing an effective marketing strategy has helped independent music artists
generate revenue on the Internet. Gamble and Gilmore (2013) defined marketing and
gave five typologies on co-creational marketing. Entrepreneurs use a strategy called
marketing which describes a societal process where individuals and groups obtain their
wants and needs through creativity, offerings, and freely exchanging products and
services that have value with others (Gamble & Gilmore, 2013). Music artists can brand
themselves so their fans can buy into their lifestyle. The five typologies of co-creational
marketing are viral marketing, sponsored UGB (user-generated based) marketing, UGC
(user-generated content) marketing, vigilante marketing, and prosumer marketing
(Gamble & Gilmore, 2013).
Music artists are using some of these marketing strategies to generate revenue
from the Internet. In addition, viral marketing is explained as the strategic placement of
completed marketing messages online and is used to encourage or recruit consumers to
pass along to their like-minded affiliates (Gamble & Gilmore, 2013). When a music
artist creates a music video, song, or album and shares it online, it has the potential to
achieve viral status. It is vital for small business music artists to market themselves on
the Internet to generate sales revenue strategically. Moore (2013) explained how many
music artists are taking advantage of Web 2.0 as a platform for multimedia displays in
their marketing strategies. These efforts involve collaborating with web designers,
graphic artists, illustrators, and photographers to create a music artist’s presence on the
Internet. To make a music artist’s visual presence stronger in cyberspace, an artist can
26
commission designers on a monthly basis to promote and brand their presence through
new web graphics, event posters, and event logos.
Innovation has changed with the introduction of the Internet. The Internet offers a
method for small business music artists to promote themselves, their brand, events or
festivals they will be performing in, and their products online. Leenders et al. (2015)
discussed how the Internet offers a venue for music artists to promote their brand around
the world at a fraction of the costs artists would pay using traditional marketing methods.
The Internet gives artists a chance to reach their potential audiences and generate sales
directly and allows independent artists to cut out the intermediaries in the music industry.
Moreover, Gamble and Gilmore (2013) detailed sponsored user-generated branding as
when individuals actively ask for contributions from customers through blogs, contests,
voting, fan selection contributions, and other campaign forums. Music artists are using
Facebook messenger to communicate with their fans in a conversation. In addition, user-
generated content is marketing that incorporates blogs, mash-ups online, reviews, peer-
to-peer questions and answers, video clips, social networks, and second life avatars
(Gamble & Gilmore, 2013). Facebook also has a group’s page where like-minded
individuals can share content.
User-generated content is becoming more accessible with the advancement of
technology. In contrast to Moore, DiCola (2013) discussed how music artists could
generate money from sound recordings. These include sales of physical or digital
recordings from iTunes, CD Baby, traditional retail, sales at shows, and payments from
interactive services such as Rhapsody, Spotify, SoundExchange royalties, master use
27
licensing for synchs or ringtones. Music artists are using the Internet as a useful tool for
online communication, affordable costs, ease of use, and technological resistance from
surveillance and censorship. Furthermore, vigilante marketing is free advertising and
marketing efforts that are undertaken by brand loyalists on behalf of a brand (Gamble &
Gilmore, 2013).
Some consumers utilize the music streaming service Spotify which uses
advertising and commercials in the free service model. Finally, prosumer marketing is
how a consumer is involved in designing and manufacturing products and services, so
they satisfy an individual’s specifications (Gamble & Gilmore, 2013). Music artists can
use graphic arts companies to create their album covers. Sponsored user-generated
branding is a strategy that music artists can use to generate revenue from the Internet
through an album release party. Music artists can also use prosumer marketing by
collaborating with sound engineers, music producers, and other artists to market their
music products. It is vital for music artists to use different co-creational marketing
strategies.
Independent music artists are controlling their music. Technology has ushered in
an era where the artist is a free agent, both in control of his or her creative output, and
able to leverage themselves on an open market (Thomson, 2013). Music artist’s sales
from media experimentation have to lead to new strategic marketing access
configurations that generate profitable sales for survival and growth. Music artists have
benefited from using the Internet, offering new possibilities and benefits for online music
promotion and distribution. Artists have used the Internet to progress their career in
28
many different ways that are necessary to create and distribute music related work
(Thomson, 2013). Music artists that want to become successful without the help of a
record company have used social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter to
promote themselves on the Internet. Overall, the Internet has been a valuable marketing
tool for music artists.
Traditional media has served as a marketing platform for music artists. Digital
technologies have changed the traditional media industries from newspapers, books,
music, and film industries (Wikstrom, 2014). Four leading conventional media outlets
include the radio, television, magazines, and newspapers (Cheong & Park, 2015). In
comparison, Klein (2015) explained how multi-product firms have multi-sided markets
that sell products with interdependent demand. These businesses include the television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, and Internet platforms. Music artists in the mainstream
music industry have used these platforms to brand themselves and generate revenue.
Music artists have created songs that are interdependent with music videos. YouTube is
a place where consumers have watched music videos from their favorite artist on the
Internet. In comparison, the television is still considered a traditional marketing and
profit tool. Many artists create music but do not perform live for an audience.
Live performances are another performance method music artists have used to
market and promote themselves. Royalties for composers of live performances are
collected and distributed through performance rights societies. There are three major
performance rights organizations in the United States, including ASCAP (American
Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), BMI (Broadcast Music Inc.), and
29
SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers) (Speer, 2016). Some music
artists may be unaware of these performance rights organizations. Two substantial
financial components of a song are the master recording owned by a record label and the
rights to a composition belonging to a composer and a music publishing company. For
songwriters at any level of success in their career, public performance royalties remain
substantial, and most importantly a consistent source of revenue (Speer, 2016). The
mixing and mastering of a song relate to music production and engineering, while the
composition refers to the songwriter. It would benefit a music artist to learn music
production, sound engineering, and songwriting.
The intellectual property rights of a song have monetary value. For each 99 cent
download on iTunes, an artist may receive seven to ten cents after deductions from the
retailer (Swanson, 2013). The American Society of Composers Authors and Publishers
handles the collection and administration for public performance royalties, including
royalties that incur from playing a song on terrestrial or digital radio (Garcia, 2016).
However, DiCola (2013) clarified that music artists generate revenue from songwriting
and composing including publisher advances, mechanical royalties,
ASCAP/BMI/SESAC royalties, commissions, producing jingles and soundtracks, synch
licensing, ringtone licensing, and sheet music sales. Becoming a member of a
performance rights organization has benefited music artists in different ways. It is also
crucial for music artists to own the rights to their composition.
Music videos are a traditional media marketing tool for music artists. Digital
radio sites such as Pandora and Last.fm are a place where artists can market their music
30
independently, and listeners can create custom radio stations which lure audiences away
from the traditional radio (Epps & Dixon, 2017). In contrast, Dewan and Ramaprasad
(2014) discussed how radio play and traditional media have a positive effect on both
songs and album sales. Traditional radio, satellite radio, and Internet radio provided
music artists with profits and revenue from music sales. Artists in the music industry
have generated more than 30 billion dollars a year (Ward, Goodman, & Irwin, 2014).
Some mainstream music artists have used expensive cars, beautiful women, jewelry,
mansions, and exotic islands to market themselves in music videos. These music videos
have attracted more fans to help music artists generate sales.
Hip-hop is a creative style of music for many music artists. Ferguson and
Burkhalter (2015) defined hip-hop culture as shared fashion, music, dance, art, attitude,
language, and experience of anyone that participates or consumes the four hip-hop
elements, including rapping/emceeing, breakdancing, graffiti art, and deejaying. In
contrast, Burkhalter and Thornton (2014) discussed how hip-hop is a multi-billion dollar
industry influencing a variety of areas, including fashion, car designs, television
programming, and marketing. The fan base of hip-hop has been 59% Caucasian, 19%
African-American, 17% Latino, and 5% Asian with 85% of all hip-hop CDs purchased
by Caucasian youth (Burkhalter & Thornton, 2014).
After watching an audience’s reaction to Run DMC’s “My Adidas” at a
performance in Madison Square Garden, an Adidas representative signed Run DMC to
represent their brand in a 1.5 million dollar deal (Baksh-Mohammed, & Callison, 2014).
Organizations who use configuration theory argue that industries will group into clusters
31
that fit in a particular type of environment; and configuration theory examines the
relationship between strategy, marketing, and the environment (Leenders, Go, &
Bhansing, 2015). The music industry, the motion picture industry, the clothing industry,
and the technology industry are four sectors forming a configuration. Los Angeles is
well known for being an entertainment industry. Small business music artists in Los
Angeles have developed a competitive advantage in these industries as a strategy to gain
superior performance. When small business music artists use entertainment marketing
and brand placement as a strategy, consumers buy into a lifestyle and experience
associated with a name to express themselves and affiliate with a particular music artist.
There are benefits and disadvantages when artists sign to a major record label.
Many mainstream music artists have signed to major record labels. Major
corporate record labels include Bertelsmann AG (Germany), the EMI Group (Britain)
Seagram/Universal (Canada), Sony (Japan) and Time Warner (U.S.) (Nakano & Fleury,
2017). Record labels are organizations that employ music artists to create recordings that
they hope to market to the general public (Galuszka & Wyrzykowska, 2016). The
traditional method is to have an artist’s record sales and concerts managed by multiple
agents. Free samples offer consumers information about available products and can
increase their willingness to pay. The four initial costs of record companies include
recording, manufacturing, distribution, and promotion (Kowalke, 2015). However, a 360
deal is a way of monetizing a record label’s relationship with an artist, through the record
label participating in and receiving income from a range of musical activities beyond the
sales of recordings (Galuszka & Wyrzykowska, 2016). An advantage of having a record
32
label is international distribution. Many artists will either remain independent or sign to a
major record label. An independent artist can reach fortune and fame by remaining
independent. This analysis of music artists and marketing leads to the next section on
music technology.
Music Technology
There are seven technological innovations in the music industry. These include
the phonograph (cylinder) gramophone (1877-87), radio (1920), vinyl disc (1948),
audiocassette (1962), Walkman (1979), CD (1982), and Internet and information
communication technologies (the 1990s) (Hesmondhalgh & Meier, 2017). In contrast to
these technological innovations, in 1991, Michael Shalett and Michael Fine created
Soundscan. Soundscan is a market research firm that tracks music product sales
throughout the United States and Canada (Brandes, Neusch & Franck, 2016). Sinclair
and Green (2016) discussed how a music streaming service called Spotify offers users a
free service based on the freemium model, where consumers can listen to advertisements
between songs; and a second premium model where users can listen to anything they like
without ads for $9.99 a month. Spotify achieved great success with 60 million
subscribers and 25% of users choosing the premium service (Sinclair & Green, 2016).
Borja and Dieringer (2016) explained how music streaming provides two business
models for a consumer. First, consumers can listen to a track free but are subject to
advertising breaks and lower quality sounds. Consumers can use the second model which
offers a subscription fee for content without commercial breaks and high-quality sound.
Artists in the music industry have evolved from using CDs, cassettes, and vinyl, to digital
33
providers such as iTunes and Spotify. A new trend in the music industry is music
streaming.
Consumers have been listening to music digitally via music as a service (MaaS)
by subscribing to a music service. Music as a service has features where instead of
downloading a song, music streams through consumption, and consumers pay a
subscription fee instead of paying for each download (Dorr, Wagner, & Hess, 2013).
Music streaming revenues grew by 39% in 2014 to $1.57 billion, with 41 million people
paying for premium services (Sinclair & Tinson, 2017). The diminishment in
psychological ownership of music through CDs, cassettes, and vinyl amplifies through
increased use of streaming platforms such as Spotify, YouTube, and Apple Music.
In comparison to Spotify, the new name for iTunes is Apple Music which offers
music streaming services and digital downloads. Apple music has affected the streaming
industry significantly with 10 million subscribers by 2016, and with the acquisition of
Beats Music for $3 billion in 2014 (Kim, Nam, & Ryu, 2017). Digital music offers music
streaming services such as Spotify, and digital download and streaming services such as
iTunes for music artists to generate revenue. Consumers with smartphones can purchase
music digitally instead of having to buy a physical copy of a CD. Music artists can use
intellectual property rights and copyrights to protect their music.
Copyright owners can protect their intellectual property interests by using Digital
Rights Management (DRM). The Digital Millennium Copyright Act ensures that sound
recordings are adequately protected from illegal use, copyrighting, and distribution
(Tyler, 2013). Copyright protection ensures that the progress of Science and Arts secure
34
for a limited time to authors and inventors for the privilege of their respective writings
and discoveries (Mehta, 2014). Copyright law creates protection when an identifiable
author expresses an original idea in a tangible, fixed form (Zeilinger, 2014). When
consumers download music illegally through digital piracy, artists lose money, and it
violates their copyright protection. Music piracy is a significant issue in the music
industry. Revenue declines in the music industry due to music piracy.
In contrast to copyright protection, Gans (2015) explained how piracy means that
it is easy for consumers to own music without paying for it. In 1999, record sales started
declining after more than a decade of growth and profits after the release of Napster
(Gans, 2015). Music piracy drives the cost of an album down to zero, while more
consumers become familiar with an artist’s music, which drives up demand for concerts.
However, music piracy has a positive effect on the performance market for music artists
(Leung, 2015). In this instance, small business music artists can use music piracy as a
competitive advantage. Furthermore, despite the positive effects of digital piracy, it
remains a problem in the music industry.
Cesareo and Pastore (2014) noted that the increase in digital piracy has
accelerated due to the growth in high-speed Internet connections, the availability of peer-
to-peer networks, and ample storage media at low costs. A significant decline in CD
sales followed the onset of this music distribution channel which powerfully affected the
music industry. Music piracy has had both favorable and adverse effects on small
business music artists. Music piracy is a form of copyright infringement. In contrast,
35
music piracy has helped artists gain exposure. Consumers now have more options to
listen to music through music streaming.
Music consumption has changed due to the availability to purchase licensed
digital songs. Instead of having to buy an entire album on CD, the MP3 format provides
an alternative to downloading any particular digital song (Aguiar & Martens, 2016).
However, as technology is becoming more advanced and new services emerge,
consumers expect easy access and high-quality music online with little to no costs
(Swanson, 2013). Advanced music stores, music streaming administrators, and
webcasting stations have consolidated cost limitations to the displaying and conveyance
of music, giving artists the flexibility to advance and pitch their music without forfeiting
their copyrights (Thomson, 2013). Small business music artists are entrepreneurs with
many roles and responsibilities. Music artists have branded themselves on the Internet to
generate revenue. Another way music artists have promoted themselves on the Internet is
through popularity.
Small business music artists can use configuration theory to develop a
technological strategy for music streaming on the Internet. Small business music artists
that are signed to independent labels and operate their business based on album sales
opposed to touring are concerned with the royalty structure and fair returns with music
streaming revenue models. Swanson (2013) explained how famous artists who received
income from tours or have higher royalties coming from major record deals are interested
in how they can leverage music streaming to make it work for them. Artists felt that
Spotify works too much like a traditional business, but they praised Pandora for its ability
36
to match fans with new music (Swanson, 2013). Online distribution channels such as
YouTube are a prime music-listening portal with little to no cost required from
consumers. A widely popular video sharing service such as YouTube can have a
substantial sales displacement on artists, while at the same time providing benefits to
potential customers (Hiller, 2016). Small business music artists are using Spotify,
Pandora, and YouTube as a technological strategy to gain exposure. It is essential for
small business music artists to network in a business environment that involves people in
the music industry.
Organizations have used configuration theory to connect the business
environment to design options for usage and experimentation, and to gain a competitive
advantage in an atmosphere that delivers acceptable performance (Leenders et al., 2015).
However, in an organization, configurations involve a particular arrangement of multiple
parts, components, elements, mechanisms, attributes, or something similar (Belford &
Malmi, 2015). Having a massive social media fan base on Facebook may lead to more
streaming plays on Spotify. Music artists who create music videos on YouTube can
share these videos on Facebook as a marketing strategy to attract fans and generate sales
through digital downloads. Digital distribution providers such as CD Baby have
provided music artists with higher compensation for digital downloads than iTunes.
Music artists have developed configurations on the Internet by using websites that most
consumers use.
The music streaming model on Spotify offers consumers a free streaming model
and a subscription-based model, rather than having to purchase an artist’s music products
37
(CDs or downloads). Wlömert and Papies (2016) explained how artists could obtain a
share of revenue that originates from music that consumers purchase with CDs or
downloads, but music streaming revenue does not compensate for the decline in physical
CDs and paid downloads. Taylor Swift questioned the sustainability of the streaming
model and made her entire music catalog unavailable for some streaming services such as
Spotify (Wlömert & Papies, 2016). Independent artists with a goal of becoming popular
are using Spotify to gain exposure because many consumers are using the service. Music
streaming and music piracy co-exist in the music industry because they are free for
consumers. This analysis of music technology leads to the next section of social media
and technology.
Social Media & Music Technology
Music artists are using web-based social networking to advertise and advance
themselves to create income. Music artists have also used social media to engage with
customers, develop a rapport with customers, and foster an environment to accelerate
sales and awareness. Social media is helping small business music artists who seek
innovative ways to maximize productivity while keeping low costs. In 2011,
entrepreneurs used social media, for example Facebook (70.3%), MySpace (19.2%),
Twitter (39.8%), LinkedIn (58.2%), and Bing (33.2%) (Taneja & Toombs, 2014). In any
case, Gironda and Korgaonkar (2014) discussed how Facebook is the most mainstream
person to person communication site, and many individuals access it in more than 180
different nations. Marketers are using social networking sites to target selected
individuals that are within their pre-specified characteristics. Person to person
38
communication destinations gives an approach for advertisers to convey, draw in, and
cooperate with potential clients to manufacture and keep up buyer mark connections
(Gironda & Korgaonkar, 2014). Small business music artists are using Facebook for free
to promote themselves. Facebook has a musician/band page where artists can promote
their music, concerts, videos, and information about their brand.
Small business owners have many opportunities to market themselves and
generate revenue through social media. Humphreys and Wilken (2015) stated in the past
few years; social media companies are focusing on the business side of the user base,
including business owners, managers, and marketers who use social media to connect
with their customers. The owners of Facebook created Facebook Pages in 2007 to help
businesses, organizations, and brands share their stories and connect with people
(Humphreys & Wilken, 2015). According to Schaupp and Belanger (2014), the
advantages of social media marketing include generating more business exposure,
increasing traffic, and improving search engine rankings. These benefits are valuable for
small businesses who may have limited resources, perform in many areas of their
business, and have to manage their time efficiently. The advantages of online networking
incorporate expanded deal and market estimates, enhanced consumer loyalty and
connections, improved worker connections, better-specialized help, decreased advertising
costs, and enhanced Internet searcher rankings (Schaupp & Belanger, 2014). Music
artists can also promote their videos online through YouTube.
YouTube is another popular website along with Facebook. In 2010, 84.8% of the
U.S. Internet audience watched online videos, where 144.1 million viewers viewed 14.6
39
billion videos on YouTube (Hiller, 2016). Iris (2014) described viral marketing as when
consumers mutually share and spread marketing related information in the context of
emails, YouTube videos, and social media postings. To reach millions of viewers and
enjoy results, an artist must present memorable content, understand the structure of the
underlying digital social network, and achieve word of mouth pressure (Iris, 2014). If a
viewer likes an artist’s music video, they may purchase the digital download which
generates revenue for the artist. Word of mouth describes a behavioral characteristic of
those that are willing and influenced to share a message and the seeding strategy which
determines the initial set of target customers (Iris, 2014). Fans of an artist’s music may
share with their friend's network, who may also like the video and buy the digital
download. Word of mouth has helped artists become more popular and attract more fans.
It is critical for music artists to promote their music videos successfully.
Music videos have helped music artists brand themselves on the Internet. Kristin
and Sirgy (2016) discussed how a significant factor for audiences that develop a
favorable attitude towards brand placement in music videos includes the feeling of self-
congruity. Self-congruity describes actual, ideal, or social connections with brand
personality, which can be influenced by a musician and can lead to positive attitudes
towards a brand (Kristin & Sirgy, 2016). Some musicians are starting a clothing line to
brand themselves. Brand personality defines a set of associations or characteristics that
can affect a consumer’s decision-making (Kristin & Sirgy, 2016). In contrast, Valdellos,
Lopez, and Acuna (2016) stated that music videos have changed due to the online
presence and the remediation of content, which performs a dual role of visualizing music
40
and musicalizing visual content. Music videos are an accessible format in the audiovisual
sector, due to its ability of adaptation on different distribution channels and the capacity
to transform to other formats (Valdellos et al., 2016). Small business music artists are
using music videos as a social media marketing strategy to help them generate revenue on
the Internet.
Organizations create value for customers through facilitating collaborative
experiences and by engaging in dialogue through social media programs. Organizations
have used configuration theory to explain how customer value-creation co-aligns with
relationship quality, and how this co-alignment provides an increase in customer-related
business performance outcomes (Sanchez & Santos-Vijande, 2015). Toombs and Harlow
(2014) discussed how social media marketing is vital for small businesses, allowing for
low marketing budgets and an active community of customers; making business more
competitive in a local, regional, and global market. Social media channel usage has
affected an entrepreneur’s effectual cognitions, and there is evidence that these channels
like Twitter are helping entrepreneurs create and capitalize on opportunities (Toombs &
Harlow, 2014). Artists have used other social networking websites such as Instagram and
SnapChat to connect with their fans and determine customer satisfaction.
Different forms of social media include networks, forums, microblogs, podcasts,
and online virtual communications. Firms that use social media obtain tangible benefits
in return such as sales increases, site optimization, and improvement of customer
relationships. Leenders et al. (2015) discussed how the Internet gives music artists the
ability to reach their potential audience and generate sales, and the Internet gives music
41
artists the opportunity to cut the middle-men out in the music industry. Relationships,
networks, and interactions represent different variables associated with a social network.
Communication in social media is beneficial to create resonance, guaranteeing a
possibility of frequent daily encounters, or feedback between consumers and a brand
(Zailskaite-Jakste & Kuvykaite, 2013). Music artists are building value in social
networks through visibility, reputation, popularity, and authority. Music technology,
small business music artists, traditional media, and social media all relate to the research
on configuration theory.
Some consumer’s favorite social media websites may include Twitter, Facebook,
LinkedIn, Google+, Tumblr, Pinterest, and FourSquare. Facebook Insights, Facebook
business pages, and Twitter are three of the most well-known online networking outlets
utilized as a part of web-based social networking advertising. Consumers who use social
media websites express their individual and social identity and exert influence on their
peers, which provides marketers insightful feedback, both qualitative and quantitative
(Saboo, Kumar, & Ramani, 2016). Small businesses are using social media marketing as
a platform to expose them to potential customers and to nurture their existing customer
base inexpensively and efficiently. The advantages that organizations revealed from
utilizing web-based social networking include deal expansions and market measure,
enhanced consumer loyalty and connections, enhanced representative relationships,
better-specialized help, diminished advertising costs, and improved Internet searcher
rankings (Schaupp & Belanger, 2014). This analysis on social media leads to the
configuration perspective on the digital infrastructure.
42
Pawson and Tilley (2009; as cited in Henfridsson & Bygstad, 2013) created the
context-mechanism-outcome scheme (CMO). In the first assumption of the model
managers and leaders show how fundamental mechanisms in the digital infrastructure
provide different outcomes and depend on the combination of other tools. In the second
assumption of the model managers and leaders show how the foundations consist of
social and technical elements. Executives who use the action formation mechanism used
in the self-reinforcing socio-technical mechanism model explain how a combination of an
individual’s beliefs, desires, and action opportunities generate a particular action
(Henfridsson & Bygstad, 2013). Small business music artists have the chance to market
themselves on Facebook to a broad audience of people, and this opportunity presents the
chance to generate revenue.
Small business music artists are using SNS to advertise using geographic,
demographic, and psychographic variables because the SNS has information from all
users that fit into those categories. Marketers are using business pages which provide a
convenient platform for consumers of a brand to generate word of mouth among each
other, and it offers vital information on what customers value (Gironda & Korgaonkar,
2014). In addition, relationship marketing is a process of identifying, maintaining,
enhancing, and when necessary, terminating relationships with customers and other
stakeholders (Hajli, Shanmugam, Papagiannidis, Zahay, & Richard, 2017). The goals of
relationship marketing include customer satisfaction, customer pleasure, participation in
the volume of customer purchases, customer retention, and loyalty (Hajli et al., 2017).
The dimensions of relationship marketing include trust, commitment, cooperation,
43
interdependence, and shared values; and the instruments of relationship marketing
include direct marketing, database quality management, marketing service, partnerships
with customers, and loyalty programs (Hajli et al., 2017). Small business music artists
are using relationship marketing to configure their strategies on social networking sites.
Marketers have used social media applications (SMA) as a homepage to create
announcements, share texts, images, and videos, send messages, and set up groups to
communicate with customers and business partners. Small businesses are using social
media applications to contact clients and suppliers, build relationships and trust, and to
promote brands and assist with the creation of brand communities (Wang, Pauleen, &
Zhang, 2016). Toombs and Harlow (2014) explained ethos as the disposition, character,
or attitude that defines and distinguishes a single people, culture, or group from others.
The ethos of small business includes an organizational culture that is grounded in the
entrepreneur but develops over time in response to external and internal events and
relationships. This ethos includes a community of followers and evangelists who
recognize shared interests, supporting and defending the values and procedures
associated with that organizational culture (Toombs & Harlow, 2014). Small business
music artists have learned the structure, developed a strategy and marketed to the
environment on social media applications.
Transition
Music streaming, music videos, and social media are three technological
configurations in the music industry. Artists in the music industry have evolved from
CDs and digital downloads, and music streaming is becoming more popular.
44
Organizations are using configuration theory to explain how they use strategy, structure
and the environment to build superior performance. In contrast, organizations are using
contingency theory to compare the internal and external aspects of an organization.
Small business music artists have utilized social media as a marketing tool to promote
and brand themselves on the Internet. In Section 1 I gave an overall analysis of small
business music artists in the music industry as it relates to the conceptual framework of
configuration theory.
Section 2 contains an analysis of the research project including the purpose
statement, the role of the researcher, participants, research method and design, population
and sampling. Additionally, Section 2 contains an examination of ethical research, data
collection instruments, data collection technique, data organization technique, data
analysis, reliability and validity of the study. Section 3 details the application to
professional practice and implications for social change, including the presentation of
findings, recommendations for action, recommendations for further research, reflections
and conclusion. The next section gives details on the proposed qualitative case study on
small business music artists.
45
Section 2: The Project
In this section, I give an analysis of my qualitative research study. I adhered to
the principles outlined in the Belmont Report. I used a multiple case study analysis and
interviews to explore the research question on the technology and marketing strategies
small business music artists used to generate revenue from the Internet.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore what
technology and marketing strategies some small business music artists used to generate
sales revenues from the Internet. The specific population group for this research study
was six small business music artists in Los Angeles, California who used the Internet to
generate sales revenue. The implications for positive social change include the potential
to improve economic sustainability for small business music artists in the music industry.
Role of the Researcher
I focused on the technology and marketing strategies that small business music
artists used to generate sales revenue from the Internet. In qualitative research, a
researcher is involved in all the stages of a study including the conceptual design,
interviews, transcription, analysis, verification, and reporting the concepts and themes
(Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). My role as the primary
researcher of this study was to create an interview protocol (Appendix B), contact
potential participants, collect data from participants through face to face semistructured
interviews, and analyze the findings. The interview protocol is a tool to gather
background information on participants (Cho et al., 2017). Further, the interview
46
protocol is a guide for coordinating the researcher through the interview process. I also
ensured that I reached data saturation, and used member checking and transcript
validation and review. The research participants included six music recording artists in
the music industry. Shelton and Roulston (2015) discussed how personal bias refers to
an individual’s feelings, opinions, or preferences about a topic. To minimize bias, I had
no personal or professional relationship with any participants. Avoiding bias is a key
facet of ethical research (Yin, 2014).
My professional and personal experiences included working as an independent
artist from 2012 through 2016 and releasing two music albums. I belonged to a nonprofit
organization that gave independent entrepreneurs the opportunity to create music free.
With the help of this company, I was able to release my first album called GRADS
(Granting Resources Amongst Diverse Students). With the aid of volunteers in the
organization, I was able to have marketing promoters who helped me sell my music to the
public. When this organization dismantled, I created a digital audio workstation at home
and released my second album GRADS II Riches. I have sold more than 25,000 copies
of both albums through physical (CD) format, face to face marketing, and traveling event
promotions. I released both albums online in digital form. With the use of a marketing
strategy on Facebook, I was able to generate sales revenue from the Internet in 2015.
Furthermore, through digital distribution providers such as CD Baby, I was also able to
generate revenue. Researchers use a method called bracketing to fully disclose their past,
or consciously use their background as a research tool (Anneli, Kikkala, & Astedt-Kurki,
47
2015). As a researcher, I minimized personal bias by using bracketed conscious thoughts
and focusing on the responses of participants.
As a researcher, my role was to collect data in a way that adhered to the principles
outlined in the Belmont Report. Miracle (2016) reported that the Belmont Report uses
three fundamental standards to direct proper research including respect, beneficence, and
justice. Respect for persons involves giving participants the opportunity to determine
what shall or shall not happen to them. Beneficence involves maximizing the possible
benefits and minimizing harm to participants. The justice principle involves asking who
should receive the benefits of the research and bear the burdens. Miracle (2016) noted
that the Belmont Report is the framework of all Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) and
works by protecting participants of a research study in the most ethical manner possible.
My experience as an independent artist led me to choose the design and topic of
this study. My experience created the potential for bias, which I had to mitigate because I
had a preconceived understanding of how artists generate revenue from the Internet.
However, I am no longer an active independent artist, and I have not released an album
since 2015. I am now a housing coordinator at a nonprofit organization that helps people
experiencing homelessness. I have done a few live performances in the past from my last
album, but I have not generated any revenue from these shows. In a case study, a
researcher collects data from people and institutions in their everyday situations (Yin,
2014). I believed that I could gain more knowledge from participants who use different
Internet strategies to generate revenue. Although Facebook allows music artists to
48
promote themselves, I knew there were other technology and marketing strategies music
artists used to generate income from the Internet.
Participants
Participants in this study included six small business music artists with successful
technology and marketing strategies that they used to generate sales revenue from the
Internet. Participant eligibility included an age of 18 years or older, and status as an
independent music recording artists in Los Angeles with different music revenue
streams. I began the participant search by using Google to search for independent music
record labels and small business recording studios in Los Angeles County, California.
Yin (2014) explained how a researcher must learn to integrate real-world events with the
needs of a data collection plan. I also contacted potential participants through telephone
and email and recruited them through public related contact information on the Internet.
I developed a relationship with participants through an introductory cover letter
and an interview protocol (Appendix A & B). After members entirely comprehended the
reason for the investigation, I had them sign a consent form. Jacob and Ferguson (2012)
explained how using a protocol for the beginning of an interview should encourage the
researcher to share critical details about the study such as what is being studied, and why
the topic is being considered. Before an interview, participants should have the
opportunity to read the consent form by themselves or to review it with the interviewer
(Knapik, 2006). Doody and Noonan (2013) explained how the interaction between
researchers and participants could benefit the participant by providing them with
opportunities to explore events in their lives. The results of this study may benefit
49
participants by giving them the chance to help other independent artists sustain in the
music industry.
Research Method and Design
Research Method
Qualitative researchers use methods that include small group discussions to
investigate the beliefs, attitudes, and concepts of normative behavior; and they use
semistructured interviews to seek views on a focused topic (Hammarberg & Kirkman,
2016). Rosenthal (2016) discussed how qualitative researchers are interested in
understanding an issue from the perspective of participants to form a general analysis.
Qualitative researchers reflect on their own political and cultural background, and are
willing to question, reason, and understand their self-concepts (Yates & Leggett, 2016).
The qualitative research method was appropriate for this study to explore the technology
and marketing strategies that small business music artists used to generate revenue from
the Internet.
I did not select the quantitative method because this study did not involve
hypothesis testing or statistical analysis. Quantitative researchers develop statistical
models in an attempt to explain an observation (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). These
types of studies measure the relationship between variables (Christenson & Gutierrez,
2016). Quantitative researchers use tools such as questionnaires to collect numerical data
(McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). The quantitative technique was not suitable for this
investigation since I used interviews rather than questionnaires or surveys.
50
Mixed method researchers answer more complex research questions than those of
qualitative or quantitative research in isolation (Makrakis & Kostoulas-Makrakis, 2016).
These types of studies use quantitative and qualitative research methods simultaneously
or sequentially to understand the circumstance of interest (Venkatesh et al., 2013). In
mixed method research, qualitative and quantitative results may be divergent or
contradictory (Makrakis & Kostoulas-Makrakis, 2016). I did not select the mixed
method approach because I only used the qualitative method in isolation, instead of using
qualitative and quantitative methods concurrently.
Research Design
Qualitative researchers can use case study, narrative, phenomenology,
ethnography, and grounded theory designs. In this study, I used a multiple case study
research design to explore the technology and marketing strategies that small business
music artists used to generate revenue from the Internet. Yin (2014) explained that a
multiple case study is organized around two or more cases. Using a multiple case study
allows researchers to conduct holistic and contextualized research, enabling them to
collect a wide array of data (Battistella, De Toni, De Zan, & Pessot, 2017). The case
study design offers opportunities to contribute to the business literature by advancing a
theoretical understanding, and multiple case study enables a comparison that clarifies
whether findings are central to a single case or consistent with several cases (Grimaldi,
Marco, & Cricelli, 2016). I selected the multiple case study approach to gain an in-depth
understanding of the technology and marketing strategies small business music artists
used to generate sales revenue from the Internet.
51
Narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory designs were not
appropriate for answering the research question. Narrative researchers give an account of
a person’s life that presents a way of sharing a useful experience (Conover & Daiute,
2017). I did not focus on stories that represent human thought and action, so the narrative
approach was not selected. The objective of the phenomenological research is to
understand human experience, and it focuses on thoughts, feelings, and practices through
description and interpretation (Wilson, 2015). I did not focus on the thoughts, feelings,
and practices to understand human experiences, so the phenomenological approach was
not appropriate. Ethnography involves the study of humans; and the purpose of
ethnographic research is the discovery and understanding of social and psychological
culture existing within a group of people (Ellis, 2015). I did not focus on the language,
beliefs, or values of a cultural group, so the ethnographic approach was not a good
selection. Researchers use grounded theory to promote the discovery of a new theory
from data. It involves comparing facts from different cases to assess the similarities and
differences and discovering the generalizability of a concept (Johnson, 2015). I did not
select the grounded theory approach because I was not trying to create or find a new
theory.
I selected six music artist participants who possessed knowledge relevant to the
research question at hand. Researchers work to achieve data saturation, the point where
no new information or themes are observant in the data from completing additional
interviews or cases (Boddy, 2016). A researcher should choose a sample size that gives
the best opportunity to reach data saturation, and data saturation can happen with as few
52
as six participants depending on the scale of the population (Fusch & Ness, 2015). I
continued to interview participants until the point that no new data was discernible.
Population and Sampling
The population for this qualitative multiple case study consisted of six small
business music recording artists in Los Angeles, California. Each participant was a
music artist and small business owner. I used a purposeful sample for this study.
Purposeful sampling involves selecting participants who possess significant information
on a topic for in-depth study (Benoot, Hannes, & Bilsen, 2016). To be eligible to
participate in this study, participants must have been music recording artists who used
technology and marketing strategies to generate sales revenue from the Internet. In
qualitative research, determining a sample size depends on the research question, the data
collected, the data analysis, and the resources available (Guetterman, 2015). Some
authors argue that a multiple case study approach is appropriate for small samples (Roy,
Zvonkovic, Goldberg, Sharp, & La Rossa, 2015).
I interviewed participants until no new perspectives or explanations came from
the data. Instead of focusing on the sample size, qualitative researchers focus on data
saturation and emphasize the depth and quality of the data (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Data
saturation refers to the point in data collection when no additional relevant information is
obtainable (Fusch & Ness, 2015). I was able to reach data saturation with six
participants. If data saturation was unreachable with the six participants, I would have
continued selecting new participants until reaching data saturation.
53
Participant eligibility requirements included being 18 years or older, and being an
independent artist in Los Angeles for a minimum of 2 years with different revenue
streams including but not limited to live performances, digital download sales,
merchandising, music streaming, and publishing royalties. I conducted the interviews at
a quiet location, in a quiet room, in a relaxed environment, with minimal distractions.
The openness of an interview room can influence a participant’s propensity to open up or
be closed to information (Dawson, Hartwig, Brimbal, & Denisenkov, 2017). I set the
interview at the location of the small business music artist. I also set up the recording
equipment including laptop, microphone, and field notes in advance to stay on schedule.
Ethical Research
I included a consent form for participants along with an introductory cover letter
(Appendix B). I detailed background information on the study in the consent form,
procedures, the volunteer nature of the study, how to withdraw from the study, the risks
and benefits of participating in the study, confidentiality, and all other ethical issues. I
also detailed the purpose of the research study in the consent form, participant
expectations, and the safe storage of the data. I included language that ensured the
confidentiality of participants in the consent form and gave each participant the right to
end the interview.
Participants did not receive compensation for their participation, which was
strictly voluntary. I introduced participants to the research study through an introductory
cover letter (Appendix B). I explained the purpose and significance of the research study
in the introductory cover letter, the measures of confidentiality and the intended audience
54
who will benefit from the study. I provided participants a copy of the outcome of the
study results for general distribution. Planning for the collection of research data is an
ethics issue that needs precise identification of all data to collect before seeing the first
research subject (Hasmasanu, Bolboaca, Jantschi, Zaharie, & Durgan, 2014). Participants
also agreed to the publication of the data.
Ethics in research is a shared responsibility that depends on the history, the
researcher, the institutional review board or ethics review committee, and the research
community (Caruth, 2015). According to Murray and Farfield (2014), the core ethical
principles in the Belmont Report are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice within
the framework of modern information communication and technology research.
Compliance with the law and public interest is an additional principle to protect the
identity, privacy, and anonymity of participants.
I will secure the data (e.g., interview questions, field notes, flash drive) in a
locked cabinet for 5 years, and afterward, I will erase the data from all digital files and
shred all documents. Participants had their identity kept confidential in the research
study. There will be no link between participants and their responses when the study is
published. The names, businesses, and geographical locations did not occur in the
findings of the study. Before gathering any information, the acquired endorsement from
Walden’s institutional review board ensured proposition lined up with proper methods.
After obtaining approval from the IRB, I collected the data. The final doctoral
manuscript approval for this study was 01-22-18-0328502.
55
Data Collection Instruments
The purpose of this research study was to explore the technology and marketing
strategies that small business music artists used to generate sales revenue from the
Internet. The qualitative research method helped with the analysis and exploration of the
study. Every member signed a consent form before the meeting started. I was the
primary data collection instrument as the researcher, and I collected data through face to
face semistructured interviews and observations of participants in their workplace.
Semistructured interviews organize around a topic guide which helps to lead a
conversation in a standard way while allowing sufficient opportunity for relevant issues
to emerge (O’Keefe, Buytaert, Mijic, Brozovic, & Sinha, 2016). Semistructured
interviews are a useful approach to encourage well-informed managers, professionals,
and other practitioners to report on their attitudes, experiences, knowledge, and
understanding of work practices and processes. The semistructured interview is designed
to ascertain subjective responses from persons regarding a particular situation or
phenomenon they experienced (McIntosh & Morse, 2015). The interviews lasted
approximately an hour and took place at the location of the small business.
I did not conduct a pilot study for this research. A pilot study performs
procedures before the primary analysis (Gumbo, 2014). Using a pilot study reduces the
risks of an inappropriate selection, and serves as the first step in determining the
feasibility and implementation of a new instrument, approach, or method (Drake,
Tamburri, First, Smith, & Johengen, 2014). Pilot studies in qualitative research can be
used to develop questionnaires (Gumbo, 2014). A pilot study was not appropriate for this
56
research because I used interviews instead of questionnaires, and did not develop a new
instrument, approach, or method.
I used field notes, an interview protocol, a flash drive, and a recording device as
secondary data collection tools. Yin (2014) detailed how field notes are the most
common elements in a database and are a result of interviews, observations, or document
analysis. Tessier (2012) explained that when conducting an interview, researchers can
choose to use field notes only, a recording device, or both. Yin (2014) also described
how field notes could be handwritten, typed, audiotaped, in word processing, or other
types of electronic files. I used an interview protocol which describes an instrument in a
conversation about a particular topic in someone’s life or specific ideas and experiences
(see Castillo-Montoya, 2016). Interview protocols include pre-scripted probing questions
to identify respondents’ background and contextual information (Neuert & Lenzner,
2016). An interview protocol consists of greeting and building rapport with participants,
communicating the purpose of the study, gathering background information on
participants, targeting questions, offering strategies, and following up (Harootian &
O’Reilly, 2015). I utilized an interview protocol (Appendix B) with particular inquiries
for each member.
I conducted member checking after the interviews to enhance the reliability and
validity of this study. Member checking or respondent approval includes testing
information, examining classifications, translations, and conclusions with members from
information assembling as an essential instrument to guarantee honesty and legitimacy
(Reilly, 2013). Member checking is a procedure of taking thoughts back to participants
57
for their affirmation (Harvey, 2015). Member checking gives participants the
opportunity to correct errors and challenge what they believe is erroneous interpretations
(Reilly, 2013). Member checking upgraded the legitimacy and consistent quality of this
research study.
Data Collection Technique
The purpose of this study was to explore what technology and marketing
strategies small business music artists used to generate sales revenue from the Internet.
For this qualitative research study, the way toward gathering data was up close and
personal semistructured interviews. Oltmann (2016) discussed when using the qualitative
method many researchers use face-to-face interviews as a gold standard, or the best way
to conduct interviews. The interview protocol (Appendix B) for the study included
background information for the participants. Qualitative researchers collect data through
interviews, observations, and document review in various forms (Bennett & Grant, 2016).
I used an audio recorder to record the interview meeting. In a qualitative interview, a
researcher should build rapport with participants, establish a mutual understanding of the
researcher role and purpose of the interview, engage in acts of self-disclosure, pose
questions that are understood by participants, and sequence questions effectively
(Roulston, 2014).
Misinterpreting the information from participants can lead to disadvantages of the
research study. Yin (2014) detailed how researchers should have the capacity to decipher
the data through gathering and to know promptly if a few wellsprings of data repudiate
each other and prompt the requirement for extra proof, much like an investigator. Other
58
potential disadvantages include distractions in the interview environment and researcher
bias. Talking in a shared space will make the maintenance of subtlety and secrecy more
troublesome, while meeting in a person’s home, with all of the distractions this condition
may involve can make concentration on the meeting process problematic (Porter, 2015).
Bias may have more of an impact when it is hard to prepare conclusive evidence (East,
2016).
I used member checking to examine any erroneous information given by research
participants. Member checking is a procedure for investigating the believability and
legitimacy of results (Brit, Scott, Cavers, Campbell & Walter, 2016). Member checking
may encourage reflexive revelation through considering what these problematic
interactions themselves uncover about the phenomenon under investigation (Madill &
Sullivan, 2017). Researchers use member checking as a strategy for restoring an
interview or analyzed data (Brit et al., 2016).
Data Organization Technique
I collected data from participants using field notes, an audio recording device, and
a flash drive. Researchers who conduct in-depth interviews use field notes, and the
qualitative inquiry can deliver profound personal and relevant information (Hardy,
Hughes, Hulen, & Schwartz, 2016). Researchers can use computer software such as
Microsoft Excel and Word to transcribe interviews. Yin (2014) noted that a researcher
might use a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS), or a
conventional processing tool such as Word or Excel to arrange the narrative and
numerical data. Data collection and security is critical for research exploration (Hardy et
59
al., 2016). I will store electronic data and all documents in a locked cabinet for 5 years,
secure a password protected flash-drive after completion of the study and then destroy all
data. Five years after the study is complete, I will destroy the data for confidentiality
purposes.
Data Analysis
The goal of qualitative data analysis is to discover new ideas and their
associations (Ganapathy, 2016). I analyzed the interview responses from participants and
made observations to form themes for the study. Mayer (2015) detailed how the primary
objective of qualitative data analysis is to reduce data without losing information. To
minimize data researchers can edit and summarize in early stages, create memos in the
middle stages, and conceptualize and explain in later stages. When data was analyzed,
conclusions lead to propositions.
Methodological triangulation is a type of study design where different wellsprings
of information are coordinated and are valuable in delivering a complete assessment of
the viability of a system, program, or mediation (Drouin & Van Gorder, 2015).
Methodological triangulation involves the use of multiple methods to study a research
problem (Joslin & Muller, 2016). For example, in qualitative studies, this could include
nonparticipant observation and semistructured interviews. Multiple triangulation refers
to a situation where a researcher combines in an investigation the contribution of
numerous methods of data collection, various sources of evidence, and numerous
investigators with various areas of expertise (Johnson et al., 2017).
60
For the qualitative software analysis method, researchers can use a data software
program such as NVivo or MAXQDA. MAXQDA software helps researchers develop
themes and code lists (Elaldi & Yerliyurt, 2017). Qualitative researchers produce a
significant amount of textual data from transcripts and field notes. The preparation and
analysis of qualitative data are usually time-consuming and labor intensive. To lessen
this burden, it is essential that qualitative researchers become aware of the possibilities of
using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo, MAXQDA,
ATLAS.ti, and N6 (Zamawe, 2015). Researchers can use MAXQDA and NVivo for
coding, accessing texts, showing the finished codes, composing notices, and introducing
the outcomes as tables and diagrams (Oliveira, Bitencourt, Zanardo dos Santos, &
Teixeira, 2016). I critically analyzed the data in a graphical portrayal of categorized and
coded concepts and ideas using the qualitative software analysis method NVivo 11 Pro.
I identified key themes of the data through analysis and correlated them with the
literature and conceptual framework of organizational configuration and contingency
theories. Researchers on social media found that record labels advertise branded
entertainment concepts on fan pages (Salo, Lankinen, & Mantymaki, 2013). Researchers
conducted literature on YouTube music videos and concluded that music videos became
fully integrated into record company structures which are central to the activities of
marketing and publicity in departments (Edmond, 2014). Zaefarian, Naude, and
Henneberg (2010) noted that configuration theory details how firms with superior
performance have more organizational characteristics and structure than firms with lower
61
performance. These essential topics correlated with the literature and the conceptual
framework of the research study.
Reliability and Validity
In this section, I analyzed the reliability and validity of the investigation. I also
explained the criteria of dependability, credibility, transferability, confirmability, and
transparency of the process. These criteria helped establish qualitative methods such as
member checking.
Reliability
According to Cypress (2017), the basis of reliability is consistency and care in the
application of research practices, analysis, and conclusions. Further, reliability measures
are essential for qualitative data to determine the stability and quality of the data obtained
(Rust, 1994). I used an interview protocol (Appendix B) before, during, and after the
interview to help ensure the reliability of the study. I used the qualitative research
method, interview procedure, and interview questions to assist in the dependability of the
study. Dependability alludes to a procedure in an examination that reports enough points
of interest so others can rehash the work (Rapport, Clement, Doel, & Hutchings, 2015).
Data saturation represents the actual number of themes about a specific topic (Tran,
Porcher, Tran, & Ravaud, 2017). The redundant responses from participants ensured data
saturation.
Data analysis is a complex and mysterious phase of qualitative research; and the
goal is to rigorously and creatively organize, find patterns in, and elicit these from the
data with the logic behind the analysis and framework of the study (Houghton, Murphy,
62
Shaw, & Casey, 2015). I documented each step of the study to reach reproducibility, and
audiotaped the interview sessions and transcribed the data to ensure the reliability of the
study. I also remained open throughout the process to ensure reliability. Member
checking is a way to assess validity in qualitative research and involves consulting with
the stakeholders of research study interviews regarding research questions, recruitment,
procedures, data analysis, or implementation plans (Madill & Sullivan, 2017). To ensure
the credibility and reliability of the study, I used member checking, an interview protocol,
and triangulation methods.
Validity
Validity relates to the credibility, transferability, and confirmability of a study.
Vasco (2015) explained validity in qualitative research as the authenticity, adequacy,
plausibility, and neutrality of a study. To ensure trustworthiness and credibility,
researchers can use member checking, which refers to procedures that confirm the
veracity of data and interpretations with representations of a target population (Nastasi &
Schensul, 2005). Validity represents the precision in which the findings of a study
accurately reflect the data (Noble & Smith, 2015). Credibility refers to the
trustworthiness of a research study’s findings (Jacobson & Azzam, 2016). To ensure
transparency, I conducted interviews within a one-week period around the same
timeframe. Qualitative researchers include evidence that makes transparent how data
gathering and analysis processes informed each other and the study design to address
issues of responsiveness and transparency (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson,
63
2002). A goal of this study was to ensure that participant’s responses were
knowledgeable and valid.
According to Connelly (2016), credibility involves confidence in the truth and
findings of a study. Transferability is the extent to which findings are useful to people in
different settings, different from other research aspects, where readers can determine how
to apply the results to their situation (Connelly, 2016). Additionally, transferability
relates to the range and limitations of implementation of the study findings, beyond the
circumstances in which the study was done (Malterud, 2001). Valid qualitative research
is about credibly representing the degree to which the indicators or variables of a research
concept are measurable, and accurately represent that concept (Vasco, 2015). To ensure
the credibility of the study, I made sure all participants knew about the research topic
through the interview protocol.
A qualitative research report needs to include a detailed description of the
methods, explaining how to conduct the study and the researcher’s reasoning to address
issues of credibility, transferability, and confirmability (Fossey et al., 2002).
Confirmability centers on acknowledging the complexity of prolonged engagement with
participants, and the methods and findings intrinsically link to a researcher’s
philosophical position, experiences, and perspectives (Noble & Smith, 2015).
Confirmability represents the neutrality or the degree that results are consistent and can
repeat (Connelly, 2016). Member checking helped to clarify the data and gave
participants the opportunity to ensure their responses were valid.
64
I used triangulation as a qualitative research strategy that tested validity through
the convergence of information from different sources (see Carter, Bryant-Lukosius,
DiCenso, Blythe, & Neville, 2014). The importance of sampling is also closely related to
validity. Internal validity asks whether a study investigates what it means to explore, and
external validity asks in what context can the findings be applied (Malterud, 2001)? I left
the transferability of the findings for future researchers to determine and ensured data
saturation. Data saturation happens when there is sufficient data to reproduce an
investigation (Fusch & Ness, 2015). The validity of this study helped to justify the
conclusions found in the research.
Transition and Summary
In Section 2 I explained the purpose statement, the role of the researcher,
participants, research method and design, population and sampling and ethical research.
Furthermore, in Section 2 I detailed the data collection instruments, data collection
technique, data organization technique, data analysis, reliability and validity of the study.
Section 3 contains the findings of the completed research study and the application to
professional practice. Additionally, Section 3 gives implications for social change,
recommendations for action and further investigation, and reflections.
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Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the technology
and marketing strategies used by small business music artists to generate sales revenues
from the Internet. I collected data through face to face semistructured interviews and
observations of participants in their workplace to attain methodological triangulation.
After the interviews, I made three main observations of participants in their workplace.
The first observation was noticing how participants used a computer in their recording
studio to generate revenue from the Internet. The second observation was seeing how
participants used their cell phone to make income from the Internet. The third
observation was noticing how participants used a digital camera to generate revenue from
the Internet. A participant was able to provide company documents with a business plan
and financial projections that I used to triangulate with observations and the interview. A
purposeful sample allowed me to gather data from six small business music artists in Los
Angeles, California who met eligibility requirements. Eligibility requirements included
being 18 years old or older, and an independent music artist and business owner in Los
Angeles who had worked for a minimum of 2 years with different revenue streams on the
Internet.
After transcribing the interviews and reviewing field notes, I loaded the data into
NVivo 11 Pro software, which allowed me to develop and identify seven essential themes
from participant feedback. The seven themes that emerged from the data included (a)
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having a marketing budget, (b) social media, (c) recording studio sessions, (d) digital
distribution, (e) SoundExchange, (f) music licensing, and (g) corporate sponsorships.
Presentation of the Findings
The overarching research question was: What technology and marketing
strategies do some small business music artists use to generate sales revenues from the
Internet? The seven themes noted in the previous section emerged from six participant
interviews, observation and analysis of participants work products in their workplace, and
analysis of company documents from a participant. In this section, I discuss the
relationship between each primary theme and relating subtheme to the literature reviewed
in this study.
I labeled participants as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, and P6 in this study. P1 was a small
business music artist and producer with 7 years of experience in the music industry. P2
was a small business music artist and producer with more than 25 years of experience as
a musician. P3 was a small business music artist with more than 25 years of experience
in the music industry. P4 was a small business music artist and producer with more than
30 years of experience in the music industry. P5 was a small business music artist and
producer with more than 20 years of experience in the music industry. P6 was a small
business music artist and producer with more than 20 years of experience in the music
industry.
Theme 1: Having a Marketing Budget
The first emerging theme was to have a marketing budget. Each participant noted
the importance of having marketing money and a budget to promote themselves on the
67
Internet. Artists have branded themselves on the Internet as a strategy to generate
revenue. P1 stated that branding is more of a visual aspect when people see a logo. P3
also emphasized having a branding logo and posting consistently sometimes several
times a day on social media. P4 detailed how everything with an artist’s name on it is
expected to be great or the artist will not have a long career. These three examples show
how branding is a marketing strategy that small business music artists used to generate
revenue from the Internet.
Another way artists are branding themselves on the Internet is by having a logo.
P3 discussed how having a recognizable brand or logo will allow people to know that it is
a particular artist. P1 discussed how when people see the logo they will affiliate it with a
specific person or company. Organizational logos relate to the innovative and diversified
types in Mintzberg’s organizational configuration theory. Having a recognizable logo
also helped music artists differentiate themselves from other music artists.
The four significant subthemes in having a marketing budget included branding,
having a personal website, having a publicist or public relations, and performing live.
Researchers have investigated the lyrics of the best 100 songs of five most popular music
classifications of 2004 and found that 21.2% of all songs had brand mentions. Within the
rankings, 61.42% of rap songs had brand mentions, followed by the country music genre
(20%) and pop music genre (14.35%; Mohammed-Baksh & Callison, 2015). Firms that
exhibit a sales driven marketing configuration are characterized by a developing
marketing function that is trying to establish its foothold in the organization and is mainly
engaged in sales support activities (Malshe, Friend, Al-Khatib, Al Habib, & Al-
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Torkistani, 2017). Organizational configuration theory proposes that changes in an
organization’s processes, goals, and strategies (its configuration) are dependent on
internal and external commands (Sombultawee & Boon-itt, 2018). Table 1 shows the
different subthemes participants’ detailed in having a marketing budget. These
subthemes have helped music artists form an organizational configuration.
Table 1
Having a Marketing Budget
Branding
Personal
website
Public relations Live
performances
Participant 1
Participant 2
Participant 3
Participant 4
Participant 5
Participant 6
Another strategy that music artists are using to market and brand themselves on
the Internet is through live performances. Four out of six participants explained the
importance performing live. P1 discussed how, through a live performance strategy, he is
building relationships with booking agents as a marketing and advertising supplement to
drive record and merchandise sales. P3 explained how artists still have to perform live
for an audience. P6 stated that live performances are how she makes money via ticket
sales. Music artists also used a marketing budget for public relations.
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Public relations practitioners are helping music artists develop a relationship with
the general public. P1 discussed how having a publicist is a critical factor in creating a
brand and an actual presence online and offline to achieve success. P6 explained how she
worked with a publicist on the East Coast and had a budget of $1500 a month. P1
explained that his marketing strategy is to pay a full-time publicist $600 - $1000 a month
to secure interviews in both online and offline publications. His target market includes
college press, local magazines and newspapers, fanzines, online news, and media.
Having a public relations practitioner is a strategy music artists used to help them
generate revenue from the Internet.
A public relations practitioner adds many benefits to a music artist’s team.
Walden, Bortree, and DiStaso (2015) explained how public relations professionals seek
coverage from journalists and now bloggers to draw attention to the concerns that
organizations feel are crucial and to deliver essential company messages to the general
public. According to Tkalac, Lalic, and Vujicic (2017), the role of public relations
practitioners is to provide information subsidies to journalists and the media. According
to Mohsen and Eng (2016), a configuration is a specific group of multiple characteristics
or sets of conditions including a firm’s strategy, resources, and knowledge. Public
relations practitioners provide information subsidies to the media for their clients to
influence the media’s agenda and potentially affect public opinion; news media outlets
use more public relations information subsidies to contain costs and increase their profit
(Tkalac et al., 2017). Public relations practitioners are experts in the music industry.
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Public relations practitioners are helping music artists in several ways. Cannon
(2015) stated that public relations include strategic planning and drawing knowledge
from public opinion to direct promotion and publicity. Bloggers have an influential part
in the music industry by breaking news, discussing news, and being cited in the
traditional media, which makes them a critical stakeholder group for public relations
professionals to work with (Walden et al., 2015). Managers and leaders who use
configuration theory explain how organizations can implement different strategic
positions, each of which can be rewarding in a competitive environment (Ormrod,
Zaefarian, Henneberg, & Vries, 2015). The relationship between public relations
practitioners and news agencies result in building and shaping public agenda content in
the national and local news media (Tkalac et al., 2017). There are many other strategies
and configurations involved with music artists having a marketing budget to generate
revenue from the Internet.
Conducting research is an integral part of almost every business. P6 discussed a
strategy of doing much research to find out what the best services are, who is getting
traction, and reading what other bands and musicians have to say about their experiences.
According to P1, doing research is very important for independent artists. Knowledge is
essential for success, and the lack of knowledge can lead to failure. P4 discussed how he
is always on his phone putting out new content, talking to people, and studying his
competition. Conducting research is an essential aspect of a music artist’s career.
Music artists are also branching off into different industries such as TV and film
as a strategy to help brand themselves. P4 stated that he is also a television and movie
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actor. P2 reported that he is taking an acting class every week and was going to be in a
scene on the night of his interview. P6 stated that TV and film licensing is absolutely the
way to go now if music artists want to make money. Having a marketing budget is a
strategy music artists stated that they used to generate revenue from the Internet. This
discussion on having a marketing budget leads to the next theme of social media.
Theme 2: Social Media
The second emerging theme was social media. All participants stated that they
used social media as a strategy to market and promote themselves on the Internet. P3
indicated her plan to generate income includes Facebook marketing. P4 explained how
an artist could talk to people directly on Facebook and they can put out new content every
single day. He also stated that everything he got from movies, TV shows, acting jobs,
and his talk show was through Facebook. P1 explained how most sales conversions for
many companies when it comes to Internet marketing are achieved through Facebook
because there is way more information and they can go to a fan page. Most participants
stated that they are using Facebook as a strategy to promote themselves on the Internet.
Social media allows music artists to build relationships with their fans.
According to Saboo et al. (2016), social media websites such as YouTube, Twitter, and
Facebook offer a means for consumers to connect and engage with their brands.
Regardless of whether artists are not maintaining their profiles, choosing instead to utilize
record labels, PR firms, or consultants to deal with their social media profiles for them,
active social media profiles are critical for creating secure connections with fans and for
encouraging productive fan communities (Morris, 2014). Social media enables
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consumers to make and trade user-generated content (UGC), allowing them to associate
with the firm in addition to different consumers (Saboo et al., 2016). Musicians of many
stripes and genres are using new media/online networking to interface with their fans,
investigate variable evaluation models for their melodies, and discover new crowds
(Morris, 2014). Other social media websites that participants stated they use include
Instagram and LinkedIn.
Another strategy artists are using on social media is facilitating and growing their
audience. Three out of six participants explained the importance of growing and
facilitating their audience on social media. P3 illustrated that the more prominent an
artist’s audience is, the more an artist will monetize. P4 stated that an artist’s primary job
is to facilitate and grow their audience, and if an artist does not promote their pages, an
artist will not make money. P5 discussed that it is a good idea for an artist to get their
play count up and their number of followers, so it helps when an artist is presenting to
record labels. Having a broader audience helped music artists reach out to more people
to help them generate sales.
Figure 1 shows the social media websites participants used the most to market and
brand themselves on the Internet. Most participants stated that they are using Facebook,
YouTube, and Instagram. A few participants said that they are using Twitter, and a
participant indicated that he uses LinkedIn. Saboo et al. (2016) stated that the importance
of music artists in social media could determine from the fact that seven out of the top ten
most followed Twitter accounts are music artists. Morris (2014) explained the
widespread use of new online social media platforms and relative simplicity with which
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they are at the administrations of creative co-inventive connections makes the training a
more typical and reasonable system for rising independent artists. Henfridsson and
Bygstad (2013) discussed that the Internet as an infrastructure has proven to enable
unprecedented, innovative opportunities for individual entrepreneurs. Social media is an
opportunity for music artists to market, brand, and promote themselves to potential fans.
Figure 1. Pie graph in percentages of the most popular social media websites used by
participants in the study.
Advertising is another strategy participants stated they used on social media. Five
out of six participants reported that they are using the social media application Instagram
to advertise on the Internet. Mosley, Abreu, Ruderman, and Crowell (2017) discussed
how Instagram is a social media application that prioritizes images, where users can
upload a photo and provide an optional text caption. P1 explained how he mostly uses
Instagram because artists can perform 1-minute videos and can share pictures daily. P2
Facebook
25%
Instagram
25%
Twitter
15%
Youtube
29%
LinkedIn
6%
Social Media
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explained that when he posts something on Instagram, it also displays on Facebook and
Twitter as well. P3 stated how she has 5,000 followers on Instagram. P5 explained how
Instagram is user-friendly, has the same philosophy as Twitter, but artists get the video
and audio, and it is the most relevant social media application right now. Other strategies
participants stated they used on social media included staying consistent, viral marketing,
being creative, using psychology, facilitating their webpage, taking visual pictures, and
using facetime.
Music artists are using smartphones to gain access to their fans in the music
industry. Instagram reported that they have 400 million active users and is available on
Android and Apple mobile devices, and is continually evolving as a platform in its own
right (Leaver & Highfield, 2018). Managers and leaders who use organizational
configuration theory explain how the elements of an organization associate together and
those collaborations affect the execution of a firm (Lee, Kozlenkova, & Palmatier, 2015).
Saboo et al. (2016) discussed that in the music industry consumers engage in three social
media activities to upgrade the appeal of their brands; these include sampling music,
following music artists, and remarking on the artist's social media networking sites.
Instagram serves as a social media strategy that helps music artists generate revenue from
the Internet.
Music artists are gaining attention from record companies through their popularity
on social media. Three out of six participants explained the importance of becoming
popular on social media. P4 stated that nowadays it all about how famous an artist is and
how popular an artist’s song is. An artist can disassociate with a record label, but if an
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artist has 20 million views of a song, they will gain attention from record labels. P6
stated that an excellent strategy to increase recognition is to play with somebody famous.
P1 discussed how viral marketing is essential when trying to make money from the
Internet. Music artists that are popular may have a better chance of generating more
revenue from the Internet.
Content is another strategy music artists stated they used on social media. Four
out of six participants explained the importance of content on social media. P3 noted that
people like to watch her videos regarding the content she produces and she also sells
content. P4 stated that his strategy is to put out a substantial amount of content and he
has considerable amounts of content on the Internet. P2 explained how the more content
an artist adds to their website, the more often it will show up in search engines.
Developing creative content is a strategy music artists are using to generate revenue from
the Internet.
YouTube is another popular social media website that music artists used to market
and brand themselves on the Internet. According to Likkanen and Salovaara (2015),
YouTube is currently the most popular video service and the third most popular Internet
service used by 758 million users around the world every month; and YouTube was
founded in 2005 and acquired by Google in 2006. YouTube initially started with the
intention of allowing regular users to publish their videos, but gradually developed into a
professional media outlet mixing free and subscribed content on an advertising-friendly
platform (Likkanen & Salovarra, 2015). All participants explained the importance of
YouTube as a social media strategy for them to generate revenue from the Internet.
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Many music artists are using YouTube to promote their music videos. P1
explained how music artists are making money every time somebody watches their
YouTube video. P5 stated that having a presence on YouTube is significant and most
people are going to YouTube to find music. Music artists are taking more steps and
adding visual elements to their song which is more expensive. P3 stated the videos play a
significant role in content because YouTube is a primary source where people go to see
videos, so YouTube videos are beneficial. Many people are using YouTube as their
source of entertainment on the Internet.
Customer retention has been a challenge when artists try to generate revenue
through social media. P1 stated that customer retention is a challenge that he faces with
social media. Artists can get a person to listen to a song the first time and maybe a
second time, but to get them to continue to come and listen to a song is the only
challenge. P2 noted how customer retention is a challenge in social media and indicated
when artists are in the recording studio they respond that they love the studio, but getting
people in the studio in the first place is a struggle. Overcoming the challenge of customer
retention is helping music artists generate more sales revenue from the Internet.
Another social media strategy two participants are using is podcasting. P3 noted
that she generates money on the Internet through podcasting and she hosts over 20
podcasts at her recording studio, and a few are music based to independent artists. P2
discussed how his recording studio is excellent for podcasting. P3 stated that she uses a
social media management system called HootSuite, and HootSuite allows her to post
once, and it goes on multiple platforms. Podcasting is a new and innovative
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technological strategy that music artists are using to generate revenue from the Internet.
This discussion on social media leads to the next theme of how music artists are using
recording studio sessions as a strategy to generate revenue on the Internet.
Theme 3: Recording Studio Sessions
Music artists are advertising recording studio session costs on the Internet as a
strategy to generate revenue. P2 stated that he charges $75 an hour for recording and
engineering in his studio, and he has a green screen room to create videos. P1 offers
recording studio time for $40 an hour. He stated that he sells his produced music content
exclusively for $300 a beat, and the leased produced content where artists do not own the
beat for $10, $25, and $50 respectively. Music artists who are also professional
producers and engineers are capitalizing on their talents as a strategy to generate revenue
from the Internet.
Many music artists have a recording studio. Harkness (2014) described the
recording studio as a symbolic space and a zone where identity and meaning shape social
exchanges that occur within a culturally specific location. Recording studios also serve
as a gathering place where music artists can collaborate, network, and learn from each
other. Thompson and Lashua (2014) stated that recording studios are not considered
sociable spaces and are usually only physically accessible through an invitation from the
studio owner, the primary engineer or producer. According to Harkness (2014),
recording studios allow music artists, producers, engineers, and beatmakers to earn
additional income, which can subsidize the cost of purchasing equipment and other
capital purchases. Table 2 shows an analysis of the different prices participants charged
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for recording studio time. Some music artists also have green screen rooms in their
recording studios where their customers can create music videos.
Table 2
Recording Studio Sessions
Costs per hour Green screen
room
P1 $40 an hour No
P2 $75 an hour Yes
P3 $85 an hour Yes
P4
P5
P6
$40 an hour
$75 an hour
$500/12 hours
Yes
No
No
P3 stated that she charges $85 an hour for studio time, she has a green screen
room to create videos, and she advertises this on her website. P4 stated that he charges
$40 an hour for recording studio sessions and that he has a $500,000 recording studio and
green screen room. P5 stated that he charges $75 an hour and he creates custom-made
beats. P6 stated that recording studio time could be $500 a day for a 12-hour session.
Digital audio workstations are another strategy for music artists to generate revenue on
the Internet.
Five out of six participants stated that they are recording producers. P6 explained
how DAWs makes it fast and easy for editing and to quickly get from a single track to
another, and to get ideas down before an artist loses them. P2 explained how he has a
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DAW and if he cannot use it he cannot make any money at all. He uses it for clients
when they come in the studio to record, and he uses it to create his songs. P4 stated that
he is a record producer and won record producer of the year twice. He stated that he
creates many different types of music and uses ProTools HD to produce music. Some
participants went to school to learn how to become a record producer, while others taught
themselves how to produce music.
DAW’s are a resourceful tool for music artists. According to Walzer (2015),
flexible open-source platforms such as digital audio workstations utilized in music
production and composition are well developed, configurable, and client-driven; which
narrows the separation between novice and expert application of those devices. Bell
(2015) described digital audio workstations as an audio editing application that runs on
specialized workstation computers and has the capacity to sequence, record, and mix
music, however, progressively can be played utilizing programming synthesizers that
emulate every instrument imaginable. Walzer (2015) also discussed how millennials
introduced into open access, technology-saturated culture can help themselves to a global
compositional process incorporating programming tools that transform their creative
patterns. Figure 2 shows the different digital audio workstations participants used in their
recording studios.
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Figure 2. Pie graph and percentages of the most popular digital audio workstations
participants used in their recording studio.
Having a DAW is a technological strategy that music artists are using to help
them generate revenue from the Internet. P6 described a DAW as a tape recorder inside
of an artist’s computer where an artist can break down multiple tracks, and they can get
plugins which are all the software components that add specific features to a computer
program. There are different software programs that music artists use as a digital audio
workstation in their recording studio such as ProTools, Logic, Fruity Loops, and Reasons.
P2 explained how there is a site called Landr that allows music artists to send a track to a
mastering studio after they finish mixing, and Landr will master it for them. DAWs are a
resourceful tool that music artists are using in the recording studio.
Technology has advanced with the use of DAWs through computers. According
to Bell (2015), from approximately 2000-2010 a desktop or laptop computer was required
to utilize a DAW, so anyone wanting to learn how to use a DAW during this era had to
possess or acquire a certain level of computer literacy to operate a DAW. P1 stated that
he uses FL Studios or Fruity Loops as a DAW and he knew from the beginning that it
60%
20%
20%
Digital Audio Workstations
Protools
Logic
Fruity Loops
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was going to surpass every other music production software. P2 stated that he uses Logic
as a production software program. A majority of the music artists indicated that they are
using ProTools. P5 stated that he uses ProTools because in the digital era, ProTools is
the best and for multi-track recording, it is like having an entire band at the same time.
iPad released a new era for music production with the mobile audio workstation (MAW),
which preserved the DAW software concept with the QWERTY keyboard and mouse by
replacing them with touchscreen gestures (Bell, 2015). Overall, participants stated that
the DAW is a beneficial tool for their recording studio. This discussion on recording
studio sessions leads to the next theme of digital distribution.
Theme 4: Digital Distribution
With the evolution of technology, music artists can digitally distribute their music
on the Internet. P1 stated that he is using a digital distributor called DistroKid, which
allowed him to make a onetime yearly payment, and he has the middle version, which
allowed him to create his record label, conduct pre-order dates, and recruits up to two
artists. P5 explained how for a minimal fee, an artist could submit their music to a
company like TuneCore or CD Baby and they will distribute it across all the major
platforms, so it is easy to get on all those platforms. These platforms include iTunes,
Spotify, YouTube, Pandora, Amazon, Apple Music, and other digital music outlets. P1
stated that he used CD Baby for his first album and their compensation was very fair
because they only asked for 10 cents of every dollar, and no record label is compensating
artists in that way. Digital distribution is an essential strategy for music artists who are
trying to generate revenue on the Internet.
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There are many digital distribution outlets available for music artists on the
Internet. According to Eiriz and Leile (2017), digital distribution permits a qualification
between offline channels (stores) and online channels (web stores). Digital distribution
allows music artists to promote on Spotify which is a major music streaming outlet.
Pichl, Zangerle & Specht (2016) discussed how in the past decade, new technologies
paved the way for new distribution channels of digital content such as music streaming
platforms Spotify and Apple Music. Kouyoumdjieva and Karlsson (2016) discussed that
Spotify is a popular online peer-assisted music streaming service that offers an extensive
music catalog with over 20 million tracks for desktop, mobile, and web users. Music
artists are promoting their music on Spotify as a strategy to help them generate revenue
from the Internet.
Music streaming is a new technology in the music industry. According to Aguilar
(2017), because the settlement of music streaming royalties revolves around the effect of
streaming on different consumption channels, a good understanding of these relationships
is critical for the various parties that are involved in settlement of royalty rates and from a
public policy perspective. Spotify recently announced that the usage of their service on
mobile phone devices had surpassed the usage of desktops and web clients, and more
than 50% of their users stream music on their smartphone or tablet (Kouyoumdjieva &
Karlsson, 2016). Table 3 shows the different music streaming and downloading
platforms participants used to sell their music.
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Table 3
Music Streaming and Downloading Platforms
Spotify Apple Music YouTube iTunes
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
Most of the participants agreed that music streaming services such as Spotify are
on the rise. P1 stated that there are more than 150 stores that artists can buy music from,
and half of those will allow artists to stream. When artists combine all of that, and if they
have a big enough fan base in different places and countries, they can gain revenue from
all of these streaming services; and they will culminate a big check. Giannetti (2014)
explained how SoundCloud is a social audio platform that grants users the ability to
create and share sounds across the web. SoundCloud offers a secure, collaborative, and
customizable platform where users can upload and share audio content, access listener
statistics, and receive commentary from the SoundCloud community. P3 explained how
record labels are trying to obtain information on streaming services such as SoundCloud.
Companies like SoundCloud are what artists need to research and develop more because
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they collect digital royalties online. Smartphones are allowing more consumers to stream
music digitally.
Three out of six participants stated how music artists are not making money from
CDs and downloads anymore. Two out of six participants stated that music artists should
be using CDs, downloads, and music streaming as strategies to generate revenue. P3
stated that she thinks music artists should generate revenue from music streaming, digital
downloads, and CD sales, and they should be doing all of it as much as they can. In
comparison, P5 stated that CDs are dying out, even though some people like to have them
for their car; and downloads are okay, but why store data on a phone when people can
stream it from a different server? P1 suggested that direct downloads and CDs are
revenue streams, so music artists should generate revenue from as many sources as
possible. P6 stated that people do not buy CDs anymore because many people do not
have a CD player. CDs, digital downloads, and music streaming are all strategies that
some music artists are using, and other music artists are not using to generate revenue
from the Internet.
In comparison to music streaming, music artists can still generate revenue from
CDs and digital downloads. Aguilar (2017) stated that Pandora increases music sales by
about 2%, which provides evidence that non-interactive music streaming services can
stimulate sales. According to Im and Jung (2016), people can listen to a song through
different options including purchasing a CD, downloads, streaming, and even illegal
piracy. Aguilar (2017) also stated according to the International Federation of the
Phonographic Industry (IFPI) music streaming revenues from both premium and ad-
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supported services have increased to 45.2% in 2015 and grew more than four-fold from
2011 to 2015. Consumers have diverse options they can choose from to listen to music.
Five out of six participants stated that they are using Spotify as a strategy to
generate revenue from the Internet. P2 explained how it is a small amount from Spotify,
but if an artist gets a million streams, it starts accumulating revenue. P5 discussed how
most people are not buying from iTunes, and if they want to listen to music, they will
download Spotify. P6 also stated that her music is mainly on Spotify. Spotify is a leader
in music streaming services.
It is vital for music artists to understand the values of consumers. Pichl et al.
(2016) discussed how nowadays, many people are sharing what they are listening to at
the moment by using #nowplaying tweets on Twitter, which makes Twitter the world’s
leading microblogging platform serving more than 320 million active users. Music
streaming revenues also accounted for 43% of digital revenues in 2015, up to 32% in
2014, and 25% in 2013 (Aguilar, 2017). In comparison, Im and Jung (2016) detailed
how invisible or untouchable content may not satisfy people with high possessiveness,
who are more than likely satisfied with tangible forms of content such as CDs. In this
case, some consumers prefer CDs over digital downloads and music streaming.
Music streaming has contributed to the evolution of the music industry in many
ways. Aguilar (2017) discussed how music streaming services had become an
increasingly important segment in the recorded music industry, expanding music
consumption opportunities and making music universally available for consumers.
Participants also stated that they use SoundCloud as a strategy to promote themselves, but
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it does not generate any money for them. Pichl et al. (2016) explained how mobile
devices such as smartphones or tablets allow users to access millions of music tracks on
streaming platforms in various situations throughout the day. Streaming platforms rely
heavily on recommendation systems to accommodate users in searching the possible
extensive collections, and they also rely on human editors (Pichl et al., 2016). Music
artists are taking advantage of music streaming because many consumers are choosing
this method to listen to music. This discussion on digital distribution leads to the next
theme of SoundExchange.
Theme 5: SoundExchange
Music artists are obtaining a membership with SoundExchange as a strategy to
collect their royalties on the Internet. SoundExchange is a performance rights
organization (PRO) that administrates sound recording copyright royalties in the United
States (Ely, 2016). P3 explained how artists need to obtain a membership with
SoundExchange because they collect royalties. If an artist’s music is playing online or if
it is playing on an Internet radio station, they may have some revenue awaiting them. Ely
(2016) discussed how SoundExchange collects royalties from accounts and uses the
compulsory license, and administers these funds to artists and copyright holders under a
specific compensation breakdown. Fifty percent of performance royalties administrate to
the copyright holder of the sound recording, and 45% of performance royalties
administrate to the featured artist or artists. Also, the remaining 5% of performance
royalties administrate to non-featured artists through a fund for backup vocalists session
musicians and other non-prominent musicians who have devoted to the track (Ely, 2016).
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Figure 3 shows the administrators breakdown in compensation royalties for
SoundExchange payments.
Figure 3. Pie graph showing the SoundExhange compensation breakdown in percentages.
A few participants were familiar with SoundExchange. P5 discussed how
SoundExchange tracks digital streams for artists. In 2013 SoundExchange administered
$590 million in compensation payments to musicians and record labels, and
SoundExchange has continually distributed more money each year as the evolving
popularity of digital audio leads to higher digital music royalties (Ely, 2016). P6
discussed how SoundExchange is a newer collection agency for artists that collects
royalties for performances and they will retrieve three years of payment for an artist’s
performances. According to Whorton (2017), SoundExchange is an independent
nonprofit organization that helps protect the interests of recording artists through
advocacy efforts and the collection and distribution of royalties to members. Section 114
royalties (as well as 112 royalties) are administered by SoundExchange administrators
Copyright
Holder
50%
Featured Artist
or Artists
45%
Nonfeatured
Artists 5%
5%
SoundExchange
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under the Copyright Act. SoundExchange compensates artists that play on Internet radio
shows (Whorton, 2017). P6 discussed how if somebody types in an artist’s name on
iTunes radio station that is how music artists get paid, but if someone just turns on the
Internet radio station and an artist’s song plays they will not get paid for that.
SoundExchange is a technological strategy music artists are using to generate revenue
from the Internet. This discussion on SoundExchange leads to the next theme of music
licensing.
Theme 6: Music Licensing
Music artists are protecting the value of their music through music licensing. P4
stated that music artists become rich through licensing deals for their music. P1
explained how anyone who wishes to use his company’s songs must obtain the
company’s permission. He also stated that a film or television show needs to borrow two
of these rights: the right to use the actual recording (the master), and the right to use the
underlying components that support the master (the song). P6 discussed how television
and film synch licensing is a primary strategy for an artist who wants to make money.
Music artists are licensing their music to different websites on the Internet as a strategy to
help them generate revenue.
Music licensing is helping music artists to generate revenue. Whorton (2017)
noted that music licensing is when many entities such as broadcast radio, television
stations, digital music providers, bars, retail stores, and restaurants publicly perform
copyrighted music and must pay royalties to artists. In addition, Kobayashi (2015)
discussed how statutory license fees are administered, collected, and distributed by
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SoundExchange, a sound recording performance rights organization. The exceptions to
section 110 of the Copyright Act regarding licensing exempts certain entities from paying
royalties for public performance rights including classroom instructions, religious
services, and noncommercial performances, and does not cover reproduction or
distribution rights (Whorton, 2017). Similar to SoundExchange, there are performance
rights organizations that will pay artists for their songs playing on broadcast radio and
television.
Music artists are signing up with a performance rights organization to receive
their royalties. Four out of six participants explained the importance of being a part of a
PRO. P1 detailed that if an artist wants to collect their royalties they have to sign up with
a PRO, which is a standard in the music industry. P5 discussed how the PRO tracks the
performances and radio play in bars and jukeboxes in bars, and anytime that an artist’s
song plays. He also stated that there are three leading organizations, ASCAP, SESAC,
and BMI, but they are not going to collect an artist’s royalties unless they submit their
material. P6 stated a primary strategy an artist wants to do when they put out a record is
become a member of a performance rights organization. If music artists are not a part of
a PRO, they can lose revenue.
Music artists will need to decide which PRO they want to join for membership.
According to Whorton (2017), songwriters almost always contract with a PRO to
administer the licensing of their musical composition public performance rights, so they
do not have to individually negotiate with each music provider that wants to play their
songs. Kobayashi (2015) explained how performance rights organizations allow
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publishers and songwriters to avoid the costs of having to negotiate numerous individual
market transactions. The American Society of Composers Authors and Publishers and
Broadcast Music Inc. represent 90% of the songs in the United States and are both subject
to Department of Justice antitrust consent decrees that periodically monitor and review
operations to protect competition (Whorton, 2017). Many of the music artists stated that
they use ASCAP as their choice in PROs. Figure 4 gives detail of PROs and which PRO
participants decided to join.
Figure 4. Pie graph showing the percentage of performance rights organizations
participants joined.
Publishing is another strategy music artists are using to protect the copyrights of
their music. Whorton (2017) detailed how songwriters and composers contract with
music publishing companies to administer the copyrights for their musical works. Music
publishers are responsible for licensing and promoting the copyrighted musical work to
third parties and collecting royalties. The songwriter or composer will assign all of a
portion of his or her copyright ownership, and the publisher will pay him or her a share of
the songwriting royalties. P1 detailed that when it comes to publishing and royalties,
ASCAP
67%
BMI
33%
SESAC
0%
Performance Rights Organizations
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there are two types of licenses you need. There is the master license, and there is the
song license. The master license is the recording of the song, and then artists have the
content of the song which is the song itself, the lyrics, the music, and all of that which is
an entirely separate license. Having a publisher is a marketing strategy music artists are
using to generate revenue from the Internet.
Managers and leaders who use organizational configuration theory explain how
radio play has a relationship with live performances. Leenders et al. (2015) discussed
how applying configuration theory to young musicians and their challenges to generate
revenue posits that there are combinations of media and sales platforms such as radio
airplay and live performances. Whorton (2017) also explained how The Harry Fox
Agency is the most significant organization that administers mechanical licensing.
Mechanical rights are the reproduction and distribution rights in musical works and are
subject to compulsory licensing under the Copyright Act. There are substantial
administrative burdens imposed on the licensee. Third-party administrators such as The
Harry Fox Agency, represent music publishers when music providers wish to obtain a
license and ensure the providers comply with the administrative hurdles (Whorton, 2017).
Music artists are also generating revenue through monetization and synchronization on
YouTube.
P1 described monetization and synchronization and explained that YouTube has
monetization which are advertisements that show up in an artist’s videos. Every time
someone watches an artist’s video and goes through an advertisement, artists obtain
money from the ad on their YouTube channel. A person cannot use the copyrighted
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material because someone can complain that he or she is making money from it, but that
is how YouTubers make money from monetization. P5 explained how music artists are
not generating revenue from music videos on YouTube unless they land something in
film or TV. When they have a large viewership, then it gets many views, and then
YouTube will compensate. P1 also detailed that synchronization and a synch license is
how music artists make money from people using their song in their videos.
Monetization and synchronization are two technological strategies that music artists are
using to generate revenue from the Internet.
Music artists are also transitioning from being independent towards being a part
of a record label. Whorton (2017) explained how music artists would contract with a
record label to administer their sound recording copyrights, and these contracts will
provide that the record label owns the sound recording copyright. In exchange, the
record label will pay the artist a royalty based on a portion of the revenue generated from
the sales and licenses of the sound recording. Leenders et al. (2015) explained how
record companies are cutting back on the number of artists as CD sales are in decline and
digital download services such as Spotify are growing. Record labels will also pay music
publishers to use the musical compositions embodied in the recording, including when
they manufacture media such as CDs that make use of the musical composition
(Whorton, 2017). Music artists also discussed the importance of copyrighting their
material.
Copyrights are a form of protection for music artists. P1 detailed how artists have
to make sure they own all of the copyrights and artists have to get everything cleared
93
themselves if they use samples. P5 stated that copyrights are a lot easier right now
because everything has a time stamped on it and when an artist creates something
digitally, it says when they created it. P6 explained how digital stamps are a new form of
copyrighting and if artists create a file it is going to have that date stamped on the
computer forever which will not change, and artists can prove it this way. Copyrighting
is a technological strategy music artists are using to protect the value of their music. The
last theme will discuss corporate sponsorship as a strategy music artists can use to
generate revenue from the Internet.
Theme 7: Corporate Sponsorship
Music artists are using corporate sponsorship as a strategy to generate revenue
from the Internet. P1 explained how he is working on a deal for this independent label in
Canada and they are a subsidy with Universal Music Group. P3 explained how music
artists are also monetizing through sponsorship. If an artist has a big enough following,
or if a podcast has a big enough following, or if somebody believes in the concept of
what an artist is doing, sponsorship is another way to make money and monetize. The
hip-hop group Run DMC was able to secure a corporate sponsorship with Adidas through
their classic song My Adidas.
Innovation and creativity are vital elements when music artists are songwriting.
Music artists may mention brand names because they enjoy the brand so much or because
they know by saying the brand name can lead to monetary compensation (Van
Vaerenbergh, 2017). Brank (2014) detailed how singer and songwriter Jimmy Buffet
increased his popularity and obtained corporate sponsorship from Grupo Modelo, the
94
company that produces Corona beer. His prominent musical themes promoted deviant
behavior such as drinking alcohol, promiscuous sex, and drugs. According to Van
Vaerenbergh (2017), brand name placements in song lyrics might be on the rise because
more and more marketers are seeking partnerships with artists after having observed
increased brand awareness of brand sales for products mentioned in their songs. As
music artists become more successful in the music industry, they will have more
opportunities for corporate sponsorships.
Managers and leaders who use organizational configuration theory show how
popularity can lead to corporate sponsorships. Jezerskyte and Strumilaite (2014) detailed
how musical projects form great opportunities for advertising brands and bringing the
business closer to the consumer. Social media is a convenient way to attract funds of
business sector sponsors even for small projects because a majority of business
companies have defined priorities for sponsorship (Jezerskyte & Strumilaite, 2014).
Priorities for sponsorship include a particular field of culture, sports, and social welfare.
P4 stated that the way artists are becoming wealthy is through corporate sponsorships and
corporate deals, meaning non-music deals such as clothing, shoes, perfumes, and when
they pay an artist to be a spokesperson for cars. Marketers are considering brand name
placements in song lyrics as a valuable option which is motivating them to approach
music artists with proposals for brand name placements (Van Vaerenbergh, 2017).
Corporate sponsorship is a marketing strategy that music artists are using to generate
revenue. When these seven marketing and technology strategies are efficiently applied,
music artists can increase their sales revenue from the Internet.
95
Applications to Professional Practice
The technology and marketing strategies that small business music artists use to
generate revenue from the Internet have beneficial applications to professional practice.
The study revealed seven strategies advantageous to small business music artists to help
them generate revenue from the Internet. These strategies included (a) having a
marketing budget, (b) social media, (c) recording studio sessions, (d) digital distribution,
(e) SoundExchange, (f) music licensing, and (g) corporate sponsorships. The popularity
and usage of music streaming services have dramatically increased in recent years,
generating controversial debates around their contribution to the transformation of the
recorded music industry (Aguilar, 2017). The findings also relate to organizational
configuration and contingency theories.
According to Lee et al. (2015), configuration theory maintains that the
fundamentals of an organization take their understanding from the whole and should not
interpret in isolation. In addition, executives that use organizational configuration theory
show how the fit between an organization's key position and specific structural and
hierarchical aspects of administrations will determine performance and execution
(Ormrod et al., 2015). As reported by Kruis, Spekle, and Widenser (2016), contingency
theory recognizes six variables in management control systems including the external
environment, technology, structure, size, strategy, and culture. In addition, managers use
the technology aspect of contingency theory to explain the characteristics of an
organization’s work processes, while leaders who use the strategy aspect show how firms
that compete by cost have formalized systems based on their problem areas.
96
Many small businesses are using social media to advertise and promote
themselves on the Internet. Through social media, small businesses can increase the
growth in their number of customers, and social media helps provide insights into a
customer’s dynamics (Balan & Rege, 2017). According to Hassan, Nadzim, and
Shiratuddin (2015), social media allows small business organizations to connect with
customers at the right time directly, with lower costs and higher efficiency than other
traditional communication tools. A significant reason to have a website and a social
media presence is that these tools have direct impacts on consumers’ attitudes and
decision making. Therefore, social media is a technology and marketing strategy that
many small businesses are using to generate revenue from the Internet.
Implications for Social Change
Even though the research question asks what technology and marketing strategies
do small business music artists use to generate revenue from the Internet, this research
has implications for social change. The seven strategies presented in the findings can
help independent artists sustain in the music industry. Kuivila (2016) discussed how the
music industry as a whole had been forced to reorganize and develop profit models that
reflect music’s shifting economic value in the face of new and innovative industry
participants. As technology continues to evolve, it is important for music artists to stay
aware of the trends happening in the music industry.
The social impact of music can also have a positive influence on the lives of many
young people. Crawford, Grant, and Crews (2016) noted that adolescents are seeking
ways to create their own identities, and many of them are turning to music as the
97
foundation of community and identity formation. Youth could use music to entertain
themselves, to form their identities, to create a high sensation, to cope, and to identify
themselves as a member of youth culture (Crawford, Grant, & Crews, 2016). Creating
music can help at-risk youth in urban areas refrain from gang violence, criminal
activities, and avoid incarceration.
Recommendations for Action
Technology and marketing strategies are a standard issue for many small business
music artists. Small business music artists should develop technology and marketing
strategies on the Internet and in their daily business activities. Music artists should
develop a marketing budget to help promote their music to a broader audience, use social
media as a strategy to improve, brand, and market themselves on the Internet, and
capitalize on their recording studio by offering studio time to other independent artists at
a reasonable price. In addition, music artists should sign up with a digital distribution
outlet such as CD Baby or TuneCore, utilize SoundExchange as a strategy to recover
digital royalties, and protect the value of their music through music licensing.
Furthermore, music artists can use corporate sponsorships as a strategy to generate
revenue.
The participants of the study gave valuable responses on the technology and
marketing strategies they used to generate revenue from the Internet. Utilizing these
strategies can help other small business music artists sustain in the music industry.
Managers and leaders that use organizational configuration theory show how there are
many different ideal competencies for each of the organization's key positions (Ormrod et
98
al., 2015). Small business owners, independent music artists, stakeholders in the music
industry, and researchers need to pay attention to this study and use the findings to help
other small business music artists develop strategies to generate revenue from the
Internet. The results might be disseminated by identifying the target audience, examining
the knowledge, and presenting the benefits and solutions to the target audience.
Dissemination can follow through presentations at literature conferences, training, and
spontaneous conversations.
Recommendations for Further Research
Future research can focus on music artists in a different geographical location and
with a larger sample size. New media platforms aside from music streaming, digital
downloads, and CDs also may emerge for future researchers to explore. The themes
presented in the findings may not apply to all small business owners. Additionally,
traditional media outlets such as television, radio, newspaper, and magazine also need
further exploration for artists in the music industry. Researchers can also use a different
method besides the qualitative analysis to gather data.
The music industry was the only industry for analysis; however, studying other
sectors could provide new insights for further areas of research. Organizational
configuration theory was the conceptual framework for the study, and different
approaches could also help to answer the research question. Furthermore, it is possible
for other small business music artists in the music industry to provide strategies for
further research in the future on music artists in Los Angeles, County.
99
Reflections
The technology and marketing strategies that small business music artists use to
generate revenue from the Internet can help many music artists who are struggling to
sustain in the music industry. As a former small business music artist myself, I reflect
on being a part of a nonprofit organization that allowed independent artists to create
music for free. I had the opportunity to create a five-song EP (extended play) with free
studio time, free music production, and I received the entrepreneurial skills on how to
promote myself and my music in the community to earn income. When this organization
dismantled, I created a digital audio workstation, started a record label called Sounds
Awesome, and signed myself as the first artist. When I released my first mixtape, I
created a marketing campaign online using the digital distribution outlet CD Baby. I was
able to generate more than $600 online using a social media marketing strategy on
Facebook. The participants that agreed to be a part of this study have confirmed some of
the technology and marketing strategies that I used as a small business music artist.
Some strategies that participants mentioned that enlightened me on this research
were having a marketing budget, generating revenue through recording studio sessions,
SoundExchange, music licensing, and corporate sponsorships. A participant in the study
also informed me that a primary strategy an independent music artist has is a public
relations practitioner, and another participant also stressed the importance of having a
public relations practitioner. I know that if I had been using these strategies, I would
have been more successful as an independent artist. Additionally, I feel that if the
nonprofit organization I was a part of were using these strategies, they would still be in
100
operation. I chose this topic because I am very passionate about music, and music saved
my life when I was in a group home. I know that music can help save the lives of other
at-risk youth, and I hope this research enlightens them on the many topics they need
clarity on in the music industry.
Conclusion
The technology and marketing strategies that small business music artists use to
generate revenue from the Internet requires a vision for the future. Technology and
marketing strategies are an essential topic of discussion for the entire music industry.
Music artists need to develop strategies for long-term sustainability, profitability, and
growth. Through data collection and analysis, a total of seven themes emerged from the
study. The central themes of the study were (a) having a marketing budget, (b) social
media, (c) recording studio sessions, (d) digital distribution, (e) SoundExchange, (f)
music licensing, and (e) corporate sponsorships. The findings relate to organizational
configuration theory as introduced by Mintzberg (1978). In addition, the results relate to
contingency theory and variables in management control systems, the external
environment, technology, structure, size, strategy, and culture.
Music streaming services are on the rise and CDs, and digital download sales are
decreasing. The participants of the study discussed how Apple Music and Spotify are
two popular music streaming services that music artists are using to promote themselves.
In addition, participants discussed social media websites Facebook, YouTube, and
Instagram as essential marketing outlets music artists are using to market and brand
themselves. Furthermore, participants discussed significant digital distribution outlets
101
such as CD Baby, TuneCore, and SoundCloud as resources music artists are using to
promote themselves. When music artists successfully implement the seven technology
and marketing strategies mentioned in the findings, they should be able to increase their
sales revenue from the Internet and through their daily business operations.
102
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