TheRelationshipofDiversityEducationonPerceptionsofCrimina.pdf

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

United States society has become increasingly diverse, especially in the states of

New Jersey and New York. According to the U.S. Census Bureau between 2000 and

2010, New Jersey reported a decline of 14.1% for European Americans and increases of

4.0% for Latinx, and 2.9% for Asian Americans, and stabilization at 13.6% of the

population for African Americans. For the same period, New York City reported a

decrease of 23.9% for European Americans and 2.9% for African Americans, and an

increase of 2.2% for Latinx and 3.1% for Asian Americans. With an ever-changing

society, it is essential for criminal justice practitioners to progress at the same rate as our

changing society. Despite the establishment of community partnerships with criminal

justice practitioners, community opinions have become increasingly negative due to civil

disturbances in the United States (Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016).

Criminal Justice education began in 1916 with the first baccalaureate degree

granting program established at the University of California in collaboration with a local

police chief, August Vollmer. The degree was titled Criminology and included courses on

police practice, criminal law, biology, chemistry, and toxicology (Oliver, 2015). This

criminology degree developed into the modern criminology and criminal justice

programs currently offered over 100 years later. Historically, criminal justice education

focused on police practice and criminology and was considered a liberal arts program.

Exploring if the inclusion of diversity courses into the core criminal justice

curriculum will change the perceptions of cultural diversity starts a conversation.

Modifications to the core criminal justice courses across the curriculum can result if the

data analysis reveals a statistical significance. Students better prepared to enter the

workforce and interact with society have the potential to change community relationships

for the better. Reducing tensions between criminal justice professionals and the

communities they serve could address the historical dilemma of the us-versus-them

mentality (Allen & Parker, 2013). Diversity education raises awareness and promotes an

understanding of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, and other differences between

individuals in society.

This study was guided by the social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2002) as the

framework to quantitatively measure the effects of a diversity course on the perceptions

of diversity of criminal justice majors. This study included surveying criminal justice

majors who had taken a diversity course and those who had not taken a diversity course

to determine if there is a significant difference in their perceptions of cultural diversity.

Bandura’s theory, which was initially defined in 1963, suggests that leaning is a cognitive

process set in a social context and not solely behavioral.

Bandura (2002) suggested that learning occurs in a social arena with mutual

interaction that includes the environment, personal experiences, and the actions of others.

The theory explains how individuals learn attitudes, behaviors, and values. Directly

related to the study, students learn in a classroom while interacting with peers and

instructors. Experiences are shared, which impact those who are exposed to the

educational arena. A key factor is that the behavior of the observer may resemble the

actions observed but is not identical.

It is important to measure the effects of diversity courses on the perceptions of

diversity of criminal justice students because the demographics of the United States are

changing rapidly and are predicted to be significant. According to the U.S. Census

estimated report (2015), populations are expected to increase for Asian Americans,

African Americans, and Latinx, while European Americans are expected to continue to

decline. Since 2010, the U.S. Population has increased by 5.96%. Additionally, criminal

justice programs have grown substantially over the past 40 years (Finckenauer, 2005). It

is also sensible to surmise that criminal justice majors will become criminal justice

practitioners and in varying capacities will serve these diverse populations and

communities.

Background of the Study

Criminal Justice education is over 100 years old and has evolved from police

training to formal education. Historically rooted in the early 1900s, this field has seen an

advanced evolution that has included police academy training, the impact from the Law

Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) and college degree programs at both

undergraduate and graduate levels (Oliver, 2015). Based on the climate of our current

society and needs of individual communities, training and education must evolve to meet

those needs and remain abreast of future trends.

One such trend is the diversification of today’s society as indicated by the U.S.

Census Bureau data between the years 2000 and 2010. The 2020 census was conducted;

however, the data has yet to be released. Sereni-Massinger and Wood (2016) discussed

past civil disturbances which resulted from the growth of multiculturalism that had

negatively impacted the opinion of criminal justice practitioners. They believed this to be

the result of the lack of cross-cultural competencies, which would be mitigated via

continued education.

Research shows that diversity education is being explored at the college level with

populations that include students with different majors and career aspirations (Brown,

2004; Hirschinger-Blank et al., 2009; Kernahan & Davis, 2007; & Paone et al., 2015.)

Additional research shows studies conducted with police officers and recruits (Allen &

Parker, 2013; Conti, 2006; Schlosser, 2013.) Researchers have concluded that student

input is an essential aspect of curriculum while questions remain regarding the

perceptions of police officers and the communities they serve (Birzer, 2004; Chan 2010;

& Kelley, 2004.) There is a gap in the research that examines the relationship between

diversity courses and the effects on the diversity perspectives of undergraduate criminal

justice majors. Additionally, previous studies focused on qualitative and mixed methods

approaches rather than quantitative.

A primary goal of education is to provide students with the intellectual tools and

self-regulatory capabilities to use throughout their lifetime. Bandura’s (2002) social

cognitive theory examines personal, proxy, and collective agencies, which essentially

addresses individual actions, acting to secure desired outcomes, and group actions. This

theory directly relates to acquired knowledge through the process of learning and the

utilization and interpretation of the material that will yield a decision and outcome that

affects a specific faction of society. Education and learning are rooted in pedagogy;

however, Knowles (1980) advanced the theory of andragogy in the 1970s, which looked

at learning beyond the years of a child. Knowles introduced six assumptions: self-

directedness, need to know, use of experience in learning, readiness to learn, orientation

to learning, and internal motivation. This theory directly targeted adult learners and the

way they learn, thereby opening a new path of exploration for adults that not only

addresses how they learn but also posits the notion of lifelong learning.

Statement of the Problem

Research suggests that diversity education affects attitudes and perspectives of

students across many disciplines (Brown, 2004; Case, 2007; Kernahan & Davis, 2007;

Mistry et al., 2012; Paone et al., 2015; Saleh & Boating, 2010). Historically, criminal

justice education focused on police practice and criminology and was considered a liberal

arts program (Oliver, 2015). The problem that I explored is the lack of cultural diversity

education involving criminal justice majors and the communities they serve as

practitioners. Kernahan and Davis (2007) found that undergraduate students who

participated in a Psychology of Prejudice and Racism course demonstrated an increased

awareness of racism, white guilt, and white privilege. Graduate students in a counseling

program produced positive growth in the increased awareness of the costs of racism,

increased awareness of white privilege, a reduction in levels of color blindness, and

positive racial identity growth (Paone et al., 2015). Students look at a college education

as preparation for becoming part of the working world and expect to learn the necessary

skills. How and what students learn is critical in preparing them for employment (Chan,

2010). Research concerning cultural diversity and learning theories indicates that the

delivery method has a more notable impact than the course materials themselves.

According to Brown (2004), the method by which students learn is just as

significant as the subject matter. Hirschinger-Blank et al. (2009) measured the differences

in service-learning outcomes for students that showed positive increases to political

awareness and course value and a decrease in problem-solving and long-term and short-

term participation. Service-learning also impacted attitudes regarding, intellectual,

personal, and interpersonal development around diversity. However, there is a gap in the

research that examines the relationship between diversity courses and the effects on the

diversity perspectives of undergraduate criminal justice majors. Additionally, previous

studies focused on qualitative and mixed methods approaches rather than quantitative

(Conti, 2006; Hirschinger-Blank, et al. 2009; Williams et al., 2016). Particular attention is

lacking when it comes to the criminal justice population and the impact of diversity

education. Furthermore, learning theories present different avenues for exploration

regarding behavior, environment, and personal/cognitive factors. However, careful

consideration should reflect the effect of these factors on the criminal justice field. What

is unknown is if the inclusion of a diversity-focused courses will change the perceptions

of cultural diversity for undergraduate criminal justice majors.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this nonexperimental quantitative study was to ascertain the

relationship between perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at

a Northeast U.S. college who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. The

sample population consisted of undergraduate criminal justice majors at a Northeast U.S.

college with locations on site and online. The dependent variable in the study was

perceptions of diversity and the independent variables included a diversity course and

gender. Student’s perceptions of diversity were measured through the use of the

Perceptions of Criminality self-administered electronic survey.

I calculated the sample size using statistical power analysis G*Power 3.1.9.7. I

made a written application to the Northeastern college to send criminal justice majors

online surveys using their student email accounts via SurveyMonkey. All invitees were

actively enrolled in the criminal justice program at the Northeastern college, 18 years of

age or older, and were attending classes either onsite or online at the time of the survey

distribution.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

To compare the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students at a

Northeastern college who took a diversity course to the criminal justice students at the

same Northeastern college who did not take a diversity course, I used a nonexperimental

quantitative research study. I addressed the following research questions and hypothesis:

RQ1: Is there a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who did

not?

H01: There is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

H11: There is a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

RQ2: Is there a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives?

H02: There is no significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

H12: There is a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework is the foundation that supports and provides structure

to any dissertation study. The literature review process has identified several theories that

may be appropriate for the proposed topic. Because this problem includes criminal justice

majors, diversity education, learning, and practitioners, the focus for the theoretical basis

was learning. Education is a foundation of training and guidance that is the precursor and

gateway to employment (Chan 2010). The social cognitive theory supports the goal of

education and self-efficacy, which is essential to successful employment. A cursory

explanation of the theory is provided in this section with a detailed clarification provided

in Chapter 2.

Social cognitive theory suggests that people contribute to and are products of

social systems. The focus is on personal agency including proxy and collective agency.

Bandura (2002) described the social cognitive theory from several aspects including

cross-cultural theoretical generalizability and development and cultural context. For this

topic, the goal of education is to provide knowledge and skills to use in the future as a

practitioner. A significant goal of education is to impart intellectual tools and self-

regulatory powers to continue education throughout the life span (Bandura, 2002).

Because cultures are diverse and customs are established, the knowledge and skills

learned in a higher education setting have the potential to change the perspective and the

abilities of each practitioner. Social cognitive theory addresses the moral self as moral

reasoning linking to moral conduct. According to Bandura (2002), a strong sense of self-

efficacy will manifest itself when a person is faced with a dilemma and will provide the

required restraining power. With students better prepared to enter the workforce and

interact with society, the education has the potential to change community relationships

for the better and reduce tensions between criminal justice practitioners and the

communities they serve.

Nature of the Study

In this study, I compared the cultural diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students at a Northeastern college who took a diversity course to the criminal justice

students at the same Northeastern college who did not take a diversity course.

Quantitative research methods emphasize objective measurement and the statistical,

numerical, or mathematical analysis of data (Babbie, 2017). Of the four types of

quantitative research designs, correlational, descriptive, experimental, and

nonexperimental, I selected the nonexperimental design. A researcher using a

nonexperimental design seeks to establish a relationship between two or more variables.

Identified control groups are exposed to a variable and compared to the group that was

not exposed to the variable. This research design was appropriate because I attempted to

determine the differences between two groups and not individuals (Rudestam & Newton,

2015). I used a quantitative nonexperimental design and focused on the research

questions, which made comparisons of two variables such as differences in diversity

perspectives between the two groups and gender. The best way to answer the research

questions and hypotheses was by using quantitative analysis.

I received permission from the vice president for academic affairs, and

Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the Northeastern college. For data collection I used

the Perceptions of Criminality survey developed by McMorris (2001), which was

designed to assess a participant’s perceptions of race in relation to crime and

demographic information. The Perceptions of Criminality survey is a reliable and valid

measure of student perceptions of cultural diversity based on previous field testing. This

study was conducted in accordance with the Walden University’s IRB to make sure the

necessary ethical protection of the participants was established. Prior to the data

collection, I contacted the Criminal Justice Department assistant chair to coordinate the

data collection. I provided the invitation to participate letter and copy of the consent

form, which was distributed electronically to all the criminal justice majors. The reason

why the students were sent the consent form was a proactive gesture guarding against

technical difficulties of printing and saving the documents on SurveyMonkey. This

ensured that the participants could access the consent form and contact the Walden

University representative if they had questions or to speak candidly about participants’

rights.

The consent form was the first step of the survey process, and acknowledgment of

the reading of the form allowed advancement to the actual survey on SurveyMonkey.

Participants gave implied consent as opposed to signed consent as they were notified in

the consent form. Completing the web-based survey constituted their voluntary consent to

participate in the study. The SurveyMonkey account used the complete anonymity setting

so I was not able to uncover the participants’ identities based upon their submitted

responses, thereby making their identity anonymous.

I used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 25.0 to analyze

the data. Analysis included descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and chi-

square tests. Data will be housed in a secure fire and waterproof locked safe and on a

password protected computer in my home office for the required 5 years as dictated by

the Walden University’s guidelines. I am the only one with access to the safe and

computer. In Chapter 3, I discuss the nature of the study in additional detail.

Operational Definition of Terms

Criminal justice major: An interdisciplinary course of study that includes the

areas of law, public administration, sociology, psychology, and more (College Board,

2019).

Criminal justice practitioner: An individual who works in federal, state, or local

jurisdictions within the smaller systems of the courts, corrections, and law enforcement

(Tarver, 2003).

Cultural diversity: A variety of ethnic groups within a society (Blakemore et al.,

1995).

Delivery method: A mode of instruction that can be traditional, as in face-to-face,

or innovative, with the use of technology (Danver, 2016).

Diversity: “The condition of having or being composed of differing elements:

Variety” (Merriam-Webster, 2019).

Perception: A mental impression based on a person’s interpretation of their

senses. (Merriam-Webster, 2019).

Perspective: a point of view (Kernahan & Davis, 2007)

Self-efficacy: An individual’s confidence in their own ability to execute a specific

behavior (Bandura, 2002).

Stereotype: An untrue or unfair belief about a person or thing with a specific

characteristic (Allen & Parker, 2013).

Student motivation: Stimulation to engage in specific activities related to learning

and increased awareness of importance related to a specific topic. (Williams et al., 2016).

White guilt: An emotion felt by some European American individuals for harm of

racial treatment of ethnic minorities (Kernahan & Davis, 2007).

White privilege: Unearned benefits and advantages that are not seen by a

dominant group (Case, 2007).

Assumptions

Assumptions of this study were as follows:

1. The perceptions of diversity can be measured by a previously validated tool.

2. The McMorris (2001) Perceptions of Criminality survey is an accurate

measure of what it was intended to measure.

3. The format and phraseology of the survey is clear for the participants to

understand what is expected and asked of them.

4. Participants will answer the survey questions freely and honestly.

5. Perceptions of diversity matter to society as a whole to improve the

relationship of criminal justice practitioners and the communities they serve.

6. Participants will be future criminal justice practitioners.

7. The findings from the study may be generalized to other institutions of higher

education with undergraduate criminal justice programs.

8. The results of the study will lead to positive social change.

Scope

This study’s participants included undergraduate criminal justice majors at a

Northeastern college with locations onsite and online who took a diversity course and the

criminal justice students who had not taken a diversity course. The focal point of the

study centered on the perceptions of cultural diversity for the criminal justice students.

This study did not include other institutions of higher education or other program majors.

Generalizations based on the findings of this study were limited to similar populations in

higher education institutions and geographical locale. To address ethical concerns, I did

not include anyone in the study with whom I held a professional or personal relationship.

As a higher education professional, I did not have any direct contact with the population

and did not have an authoritative position over any of the participants.

Delimitations

Delimitations are certain characteristics that limit the scope of a study

(Burkholder et al., 2016). Researchers have the ability to control delimitations. Once such

delimitation was the narrow focus on the survey group. This study was confined to only

enrolled criminal justice majors at a Northeastern college with locations on site and

online. As a result, findings from this study were only generalized to enrolled criminal

justice majors at a Northeastern college and not other college majors in other

geographical locations.

Limitations

Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled

by the researcher (Babbie, 2017). This nonexperimental quantitative research study had

some limitations. Generalization of the findings was one such limitation due to the

purposive sampling of the number of criminal justice students who had taken a diversity

course and the number of criminal justice students who had not. The findings are limited

to criminal justice students at a Northeastern college that can only be generalized to a

similar population in higher education. To address this limitation, the replication of future

studies should include students with other majors and levels of academia so the findings

could be compared to those of this study.

A second limitation stems from the self-reporting of students’ perceptions of

diversity, which were needed to obtain the information. Additional measures of criminal

justice students’ perceptions of diversity should be integrated in future studies. Based on

the nonexperimental design, there was only one measurement for each variable and each

participant. However, this design assisted in determining the strength and direction of the

association between the variables.

Thirdly, social desirability bias was contemplated because participants may have

wanted to be perceived positively. As such, they may not have answered the questions

honestly. To address this limitation, I assumed the participants did answer the survey

questions freely and honestly. Additionally, participants may not accurately or thoroughly

self-evaluate when completing self-report data. However, this bias was addressed with

the survey instrument, which used a selection of response choices, thereby not allowing

participants to provide additional information they may have felt would be of importance.

A possible fourth limitation stems from the platform SurveyMonkey, which was

used to collect the anonymous data. Although a method considered acceptable by Walden

University’s IRB, online surveys are not infallible. Typically, response rates are affected

by the method of administration and the length of the survey. Additionally, follow-up can

be burdensome due to complete anonymity of the survey participants.

Finally, the study had a limited scope because students’ perceptions were solely

examined for diversity and not other concepts or areas in the criminal justice arena. The

overlapping circles of criminal justice, the police, courts, and corrections, present other

areas where perceptions can have an impact on the way practitioners approach their day-

to-day tasks. This suggests that future studies could focus on undergraduate criminal

justice perceptions of these internal organizations and potentially improve internal and

interdepartmental relationships.

Significance of the Study

This nonexperimental quantitative study has extensive social change implications

by presenting value and significance to the world of academia, local communities, the

United States, and possibly globally. Despite the establishment of community

partnerships with criminal justice practitioners, community opinions have become

increasingly negative due to civil disturbances in the United States (Sereni-Massinger &

Wood, 2016). Exploring if the inclusion of diversity courses into the core criminal justice

curriculum will change the perceptions of cultural diversity starts a conversation.

Modifications to the core criminal justice courses across the curriculum can result if the

data analysis reveals a statistical significance. With students better prepared to enter the

workforce and interact with society, the study has the potential to change community

relationships for the better. Reducing tensions between criminal justice professionals and

the communities they serve begins to address the historical dilemma of an us-versus-them

mentality (Allen & Parker, 2013).

Along with the area of public policy and administration, a broad scope of other

areas may benefit from the research findings, including but not limited to criminal law,

education, forensic psychology, and sociology. The findings are also relevant to

organizations and agencies, including but not limited to the Department of Education,

criminal justice agencies, police academies, and community and neighborhood

organizations. Research findings may be of particular interest to leaders in higher

education, including but not limited to provosts; vice presidents of academic affairs;

school deans; department chairs of Criminal Justice, Pubic Administration, and

Sociology; academic advisors; and career services placement associates.

Summary

In this Chapter, I included the introduction, background of the study, statement of

the problem, purpose of the study, research questions and hypothesis, theoretical

framework, nature of the study, operational definition of terms, assumptions, scope and

delimitations, limitations, significance of the study, and summary. In Chapter 2, I include

the introduction, literature search strategy, theoretical framework, literature review,

summary, and conclusions. In Chapter 3, I include the introduction, research design and

rationale, methodology, data analysis plan, threats to reliability and validity, informed

consent, and ethical considerations. In Chapter 4, I will include the introduction, data

collection, results, and a summary. In Chapter 5, I include the introduction, interpretation

of findings, limitations of the study, recommendations, implications, and a conclusion to

the study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

The purpose of this nonexperimental quantitative study was to ascertain the

relationship between perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at

a Northeastern college who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. The

sample population consisted of undergraduate criminal justice majors at a Northeastern

college with locations onsite and online. Researchers have found diversity education is

being explored at the high school and college levels with populations that include

students with different majors and career aspirations (Brown, 2004; Case, 2007;

Kernahan & Davis, 2007; Mistry et al., 2012; Paone et al., 2015; Saleh & Boating, 2010).

Additional areas of diversity education include police recruits and police officers (Allen

& Parker, 2013; Blakemore, et al. 1995; Conti, 2006; Conti & Doreian, 2010; Schlosser,

2013; Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016). Recognizing and understanding differences is

an area that we should embrace in times when our society is becoming more diversified.

It would be beneficial to society.

A significant number of researchers have explored the effects of diversity

education on attitudes and perspectives of students across many disciplines (Brown,

2004; Case, 2007; Kernahan & Davis, 2007; Mistry et al., 2012; Paone et al., 2015; Saleh

& Boating, 2010). This research suggests that diversity education affects student attitudes

and perspectives; however, studies are sparse in regard to criminal justice majors. Oliver

(2015) asserts that criminal justice education has focused on policing and crime. Core

criminal justice program requirements lack diversity courses. These courses are

categorized as electives for students to select; however, they are required to fulfill the

degree requirements of the program. Criminal Justice programs at the associate and

bachelor’s degree levels lack cultural diversity courses that could be beneficial for

preparing criminal justice majors to become practitioners in the communities they will

serve.

U.S. society has become increasingly diverse. According to the U.S. Census

Bureau for two Northeastern states, between 2000 and 2010, New Jersey reported a

decline of 14.1% for European Americans, an increase of 4.0% for Latinx and 2.9% for

Asian Americans, and stabilization at 13.6% of the population for African Americans.

For the same period, New York City reported a decrease of 23.9% for European

Americans and 2.9% for African Americans, and an increase of 2.2% for Latinx and

3.1% for Asian Americans (Table 1). With the results of the 2020 census pending, the

historical data continues to support the potential for substantial changes in the

demographic construct of the United States.

Table 1

United States Census Demographic Changes 2000-2010

European

American

Latinx

Asian

American

African

American

New Jersey

-14.1%

4.0%

2.9%

13.6%

New York

-23.9%

2.2%

3.1%

-2.9%

Strong community ties and relationships between criminal justice practitioners

and the communities they serve are increasingly tested and are trending in a downward

pattern. U.S. society is becoming multicultural at a rapid pace (U.S. Census, 2000 & U.S.

Census, 2010). Despite the establishment of community partnerships with criminal justice

practitioners, community opinions have become increasingly negative due to civil

disturbances in the United States (Sereni-Massinger & Wood, 2016). Contact with

criminal justice practitioners, specifically police officers, play a role in citizen opinions

and perceptions. Education is an available mechanism to address the issues and explore

the root causes of the disconnect in an attempt to improve the relationships between

criminal justice practitioners and the communities they serve.

In the literature review, I explored the social cognitive theory, which was the

theoretical foundation for the study. Historical information related to criminal justice

education in the United States; criminal justice curriculum; teaching methods and

practices, specifically different methods by which individuals learn; and pedagogy and

andragogy are also explored. Finally, other diversity research including those which

specifically address perceptions of diversity were synthesized.

Literature Search Strategy

The literature search strategy included a comprehensive mining of the Walden

University Library research databases including ProQuest and ProQuest Criminal Justice,

EBSCOhost databases, such as Sage premier, and Google Scholar. The search words

included criminal justice, criminal justice students/majors, diversity, cultural diversity,

education, college curriculum, criminal justice curricula, police education, gender, race,

and class, higher education, social cognitive theory, social learning theory, and social

cognitive career theory. The research for this study commenced approximately 6 years

ago, although some sources date back to publications in the early 1970s. Review of

selected peer-reviewed scholarly articles and dissertations included a review of the

reference sections to secure additional literature.

Theoretical Foundation

Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory served as the theoretical foundation for

this study. Derived from his social learning theory in the 1960s Bandura expanded the

social learning theory by including social influence and its prominence related to internal

and external behaviors. In this section I discuss the theoretical constructs and how they

relate in ways that are similar to this study. This section is organized in the following

subsections: Social Cognitive Theory, Social Learning Theory, and the Social Cognitive

Career Theory.

Overview

Bandura (1986) used the social cognitive theory to clarify how individuals

synchronize their behavior through control and strengthening to attain a determined

behavior over a period of time. Born from the social learning theory, with the social

cognitive theory Bandura theorized that inner forces do not move individuals but rather

they are influenced by the environment. Individuals partake in a reciprocal interaction

between behavior and controlling conditions (Bandura, 1971). Expanded further, the

social cognitive career theory addresses the development of career interests, education

and career choices, and obtaining academic and career success (Lent et al., 1994). These

theories pertain to individuals from infancy to adulthood and speak to the ways in which

people learn and make choices in life, including academic and career decisions.

Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura’s social cognitive theory dates back to 1986 and is an expansion of the

previous social learning theory. Social cognitive theory suggests that individuals are

products of the social systems in which they make contributions. The theory is focused

on personal agency, which includes proxy and collective agency. Bandura (2002)

developed the social cognitive theory from several concepts including cross-cultural

theoretical generalizability and development and cultural context. For this research, I

posit that the goal of education is to provide knowledge and skills for use in the future as

a criminal justice practitioner. A significant goal of education is to impart intellectual

tools and self-regulatory powers to educate individuals throughout their life (Bandura,

2002). Because cultures are diverse and customs are established, the knowledge and skills

learned in a higher education setting have the potential to change the perspectives,

attitudes, and actions of each practitioner.

Social cognitive theory addresses the moral self as moral reasoning linked to

moral conduct. According to Bandura (2002), a strong sense of self-efficacy will manifest

itself when faced with a dilemma and will provide the required restraining power. With

criminal justice students better prepared to enter the workforce and interact with society,

the result would be the potential to change community relationships for the better and

reduce tensions between criminal justice practitioners and the communities they serve.

The social cognitive theory has served as the theoretical framework pertaining to

studies addressing behavioral change, self-efficacy, cross-cultural training, cognitive

skills, social justice outcomes, and pedagogical practices. Based on past experiences and

knowledge, individuals make decisions and react using preconceived notions (Bhawuk,

1998). Providing new knowledge and gaining innovative experiences can directly affect

choices and actions. Studies have supported that education affects awareness and cultural

knowledge (Allen & Parker, 2013, Brown, 2004, Conti, 2006, Hirschinger-Blank, et al.,

2009, Kernahan & Davis, 2007, Mistry et al., 2012, Paone, et al. 2015, &, Schlosser,

2013).

Past researchers applied the social cognitive theory to areas of academic rigor and

changing attitudes and behaviors. According to Black and Mendenhall (1990), as rigor

increases, so does the level at which students learn. Retention of the material and skills

learned is correlated with the level of rigor. Challenging individuals to expand their

knowledge and accept new ideas suggests that changes in behaviors and actions are

attainable.

Social Learning Theory

Bandura’s social learning theory dates back to the 1960s when he conducted

several experiments on observational learning. These studies were known as the Bobo

doll experiments and focused on social behaviors, specifically aggression. Bandura’s

theory suggested that social behaviors can be gained through observation and imitation.

In its most straightforward form, individuals learn from one another; they observe, ape,

and model. Others’ attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes of those behaviors are how

individuals learn.

Bandura (2002) posited effective modeling as the culmination of the following

components: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. He introduced the

concept of reciprocal determination as a direct correlation to his social learning theory.

Reciprocal determination is the idea that a person’s behavior and the environment cause

each other. In his study of adolescent aggression, he asserted that, behavior also causes

environment.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

The social cognitive career theory is a relatively new theory and is an expansion

of Bandura’s theories. Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s social cognitive career theory dates

back to 1994 and uses Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory as a unifying framework for

the social cognitive career theory. This theory includes the development of fundamental

academic and career interests, how educational and career choices are made, and how

academic and career success is achieved. An emphasis is placed on self-efficacy and

expected outcomes.

The social cognitive career theory’s framework is similar to Bandura’s social

cognitive theory. It focuses on how individuals implement personal agency in their career

development process along with personal factors (Lent, et al. 1994). Both theories look at

cognitive and motivational processes that stem from self-efficacy. Although the social

cognitive theory is the focus for this study, its roots and future applications are worth

mentioning to illustrate the entire scope and direction for future studies.

The selected social cognitive theory relates to the study by supporting the manner

in which we learn and are products of our environments. The research questions and

hypothesis involved education and the outcomes of learning in a higher education setting.

The selected study population, criminal justice students, added to the other population’s

studies in terms of effects of diversity education relating to their perceptions as well as

the knowledge, and skills needed in a particular employment field.

The social cognitive theory relates to the study by supporting learning through

social interaction and environment. Previous studies included behavioral change, self-

efficacy, cross-cultural training, cognitive skills, social justice outcomes, and pedagogical

practices. The research questions sought to answer if a significant differences exist in the

diversity perspectives of criminal justice students who took a diversity course and

criminal justice students who had not. Additionally answering if a significant difference

exited between male and female criminal justice students perceptive of diversity. These

questions relate to moral self, moral reasoning, and moral conduct which are necessary

characteristics for criminal justice practitioners. Past experiences and knowledge

influence decisions which can lead to a positive change in actions.

Introduction

Numerous researchers have explored the effects of diversity education on student

populations across the United States (Allen & Parker, 2013, Brown, 2004, Conti, 2006,

Hirschinger-Blank, et al., 2009, Kernahan & Davis, 2007, Mistry et al., 2012, Paone, et

al. 2015, &, Schlosser, 2013). The researchers explained that diversity education had an

effect on the perceptions of individuals regarding diversity. Areas including culture, race,

white privilege, white guilt, and gender showed positive perception changes. Awareness

and understanding played a role in the shift of perceptions of different populations who

were exposed to a course or modules in an educational setting.

In the literature review I explored the various sources of diversity education on

the perspectives of diversity of various populations, which is in line with my hypothesis.

The literature review is organized in the following sections: history of criminal justice

education, criminal justice curriculum, teaching methods and practices, diversity

education research, and summary and conclusions.

History of Criminal Justice Education

Criminal Justice Education can be traced back to the early 19th Century when

standards for police officers were nonexistent. As early as 1916, police administrators

began to look at professionalism and the role that higher education would play in the

years to come. A. Volmer, a local police chief in California, was one administrator who

was a proponent for education and police professionalism. Volmer, O.W. Wilson, and

V.A. Leonard were considered to be pioneers of police professionalism and the need for

higher education in the United States during the 1920-1930 (Finckenauer, 2005). The first

baccalaureate degree granting program was established at the University of California in

collaboration with Chief, A. Vollmer.

Volmer’s first police professor position was at the University of Chicago from

1929-1931. Vollmer returned to the University of California, Berkeley to fulfill the newly

created position of professor of police administration. It was at this institution that the

Bachelor’s Degree in Criminology was established and included courses on police

practice, criminal law, biology, chemistry, and toxicology (Oliver, 2015). This

criminology degree developed into the modern criminology and criminal justice

programs currently offered over 100 years later. Historically, criminal justice education

focused on police practice and criminology and was considered a liberal arts program.

Several events over the years have played a role in the development of police

education or criminal justice as we know it today. In 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson

formed The President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice

to study the American criminal justice system. From this study, the call for college

education for police officers was made along with other recommendations. In 1968, the

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, was passed which created the Law

Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) and its LEEP initiative. The LEEP

funding allowed police officers and criminal justice practitioners to pursue an education

at colleges and universities which was no longer focused on policing but emphasized

sociology and paid particular attention to criminological theories (Finckenauer, 2005 and

Oliver, 2015). The funding assisted in moving the programs forward by helping fund the

tuition for police officers and also adjust and create the programs to meet the supply and

demand of criminal justice practitioners and society.

Although the LEAA and funding from the LEEP vanished in 1978, the demand

for police professionalism and criminal justice programs continued. This demand

precipitated the need for criminal justice programs to stand on their own. Previously

housed in departments of sociology, political science, and public administration,

differences existed that went beyond the subject matter (Oliver, 2015). The quest for the

establishment of minimum standards and quality measures ensued with the National

Advisory Commission on Higher Education for Police Officers. Southerland (2002)

proposed that the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) initiate a procedure for

accreditation. This was a result of a comparison of his two studies conducted about the

criminal justice curricula in the United States for periods of 1988-1989 and 1999-2000.

In the latter part of 1998, the ACJS established the Minimum Standards for

Criminal Justice Education- Guidelines for College and University-Level Programs.

Designed to advance quality criminal justice education, the ACJS established a self-

examination process along with an opportunity to request external reviewers who were

experts in criminal justice curriculum. In May 2005, the ACJS Certification Standards for

College/University Criminal Justice Degree Programs were established and began

certifying programs that only meet their standards; one of which is accreditation. Having

established standards can have a positive impact on the quality of a program; however, if

they are not being met, this poses a more significant problem (Finckenauer, 2005).

Certification is a voluntary process whereby accreditation is a form of licensure and

provides a quality seal indicating that approved standards have been met.

For over 100 years, police and criminal justice practitioners have been faced with

professionalism problems and educational barriers. According to Finckenauer (2005) the

history of criminal justice education reveals that certification and accreditation are

required for the future, and the longevity of these programs relies on this premise.

Criminal justice programs are expanding which is documented by the increasing

graduation rates. Additionally, criminal justice programs continue to grow, and most

colleges and universities find that this program has consistently high enrollment.

According to Martin and Hanrahan (2004) criminology and criminal justice programs

have not witnessed a decline in enrollment when overall enrollment is declining at every

institution. Without quality standards, certification, and accreditation, there is a potential

for these programs to cease to exist in the future.

Criminal Justice Curriculum

Looking at the past five decades, the number of students interested in criminal

justice programs has increased. The demand has been met by the increasing number of

colleges and universities offering criminal justice as a major. It is estimated that between

1986 and 1987, there were 140,000 students majoring in criminal justice (Pezzella et al.,

2014). An offshoot of this occurrence has prompted researchers to study class size,

teaching methods, learning outcomes, and criminal justice curriculum.

Previous research conducted on criminal justice curricula in the United States

indicated positive and negative aspects as well as trends, and regional differences. Some

positives included required courses focusing on policing, research methods, ethics, and

juvenile justice. However courses that focus on the components of the criminal justice

system; namely the courts and corrections showed a backslide from 1989-2000

(Southerland, 2002). Trends included establishment of required courses, electives, and

the number of courses offered.

Criminal Justice programs contain core curriculum which traditionally does not

include any required diversity courses. Kelley (2004) concluded that based on student

surveys, courses including race and gender issues were found to be “somewhat” or “very”

important. With the increase of women and minorities as practitioner’s curriculum should

be multicultural and diverse. Because criminal justice practitioners provide services to

individuals and communities in diverse settings, they need knowledge and skills in these

areas which will give them the ability to be successful in their day-to-day tasks.

Teaching Methods and Practices

The manner in which individuals learn is debatable and based on the ideas of

pedagogy and andragogy. Pedagogy has a long-standing tradition of teaching and

learning. Training and learning can be traced back to the Stone Age and focuses on the

transferring of skills from parent to children (Chan, 2010). In contrast to pedagogy,

andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. The goal of pedagogy is to

collaborate via communication and establish the content and structural design that works

best for the student. This concept was propelled forward by Knowles in the 1970’s.

Knowles proposed six assumptions self-directedness, need to know, use of

experience in learning, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and internal motivation.

Addressing adult education, he believes that the needs and goals should focus on the

individuals, the institution, and society (Knowles, 1980). His focus is on lifelong learning

of adults and is supported by many scholars. Brown (2004) argues that the method of

learning is an important concept. Chan (2010) stated how and what students learn is

imperative in preparing them for employment. Individuals look at achieving a degree as

the first step in securing and establishing a career path to ultimately obtaining an entry-

level position in their major or program of study. Not all criminal justice jobs require a

degree; however, Martin and Hanrahan (2004) pointed out that having a college degree

assists in obtaining employment, enhances promotion opportunities, and increases

earning potential within the criminal justice system job arena. Krimmel and Tartaro

(1999) and Dantzker (2003) concurred that individual’s select criminal justice as a major

because of its relevance but also a means to criminal justice employment which is

perceived as exciting and interesting.

Pedagogy

For many years pedagogy was the standalone method for teaching and learning.

The literal translation of the word pedagogy is the art and science of teaching children

(Knowles, 1980). The premise was based on observation and regurgitation of information

and skills; namely reading and writing. Traditional classrooms presented a didactic

environment which, later posed a challenge for adult learners.

Pedagogy holds the teacher responsible for the learning process by determining

what is to be learned, how it will be learned, when it will be learned, and if it will be

learned at all. Learners possess an inactive role as teachers use transmitting techniques.

Didactic measures such as lecture, assigned readings, and audio-visual presentations are

age-appropriate and have been proven as effective for transferring knowledge and

developing awareness; however, they do not facilitate changes in individual actions or

behaviors and pertain to only one group of learners (Mayhew & Fernandez, 2007). With

the emergence of adult education in the 1920s, transmitting information transformed into

an idea of lifelong learning.

Andragogy

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn, which is in contrast to

pedagogy the art and science of teaching students. Adult learners are abstract thinkers and

present a thrust for knowledge beyond the transmittal of information (Knowles, 1980).

They engage in learning for various reasons such as, a requirement to start a certain

career, a means of advancing a current career, to learn something they are curious about,

or to simply gain more knowledge. Conversely, student centered classrooms allow for the

sharing of experiences beyond one individual controlling what is to be learned, how it

will be learned, when it will be learned, and if it will be learned at all. Andragogy has

found a home in higher education institutions and police academies alike.

Traditionally, undergraduate college classrooms are teacher centered as opposed

to transactional teaching and learning arenas, and this is no exception for criminal justice

students. Researchers have explored the introduction of andragogy into adult learning for

this population. Birzer (2004) found that student centered learning has been researched in

conjunction with criminal justice ethics courses and implemented in police investigation

courses. He established an anagogical guide for criminal justice programs which includes

aptitudes and qualities that are desirous in criminal justice practitioners.

A large number of criminal justice students become police officers and are

required to attend and graduate police academies before commencing employment. Due

to their militaristic nature, knowledge and skills are rooted in teacher centered training.

With a move toward community policing and improved relationships between

practitioners and communities, we see a shift toward student centered learning.

According to Birzer (2003), andragogy is a viable option to bridge the gap between

theory and practice. With the multicultural shift in society and a changing police

profession, teaching and learning strategies within police academies require adjustments

to meet the desired learning outcomes.

Diversity Course Research

Kernahan and Davis (2007) found that undergraduate students who participated in

a Psychology of Prejudice and Racism course demonstrated an increased awareness of

racism, white guilt, and white privilege. Participation in the course, showed that a change

in racial awareness is important due to a high level of existing racism denial. They were

able to validate importance and necessity of the inclusion of diversity courses. Case

(2007) concluded that diversity course in psychology appeared to increase awareness of

white privilege, and racism along with support for affirmative action. Paone, et al. (2015)

found that graduate students in a counseling program produced positive growth in the

increased awareness of the costs of racism, increased awareness of white privilege, a

reduction in levels of color blindness, and positive racial identity growth. Their findings

suggest from the beginning to the end of a race-based course, participants experienced a

positive change. Finally Saleh et al. (2011) found the addition of diversity modules made

a difference in knowledge, attitudes, or self-reported behavior for undergraduate and

graduate social work students. They suggest that time is a factor and recommend that

diversity infusion modules be introduced as early as in introductory courses as a building

block and anchor to future course throughout their academic careers.

Research suggests that the introduction of diversity courses as early as the 8th

grade has a positive impact on students. Specifically looking at poverty and inequality,

Mistry, et al. (2012) found that the implemented curriculum was partially effective in

increasing beliefs of poverty. Perhaps this is an indicator that diversity education in a

formalized setting should be implemented with more mature populations rather than

young adolescents to have a more significant impact. Brown, 2004, Case, 2007,

Kernahan & Davis, 2007, Paone, et al. 2015, & Saleh et al., 2010, achieved positive

results from the studies they conducted with populations consisting of adults.

Previous studies prove that the inclusion of a diversity course or diversity

modules resulted in a change of perspective for undergraduate and graduate students.

These studies have focused on students in majors other than criminal justice. Psychology,

Counseling, and Social Work students all provide services and interact with individuals

and communities similar to criminal justice practitioners. Learning and becoming aware

of cultural differences is an essential skill for acceptable job performance. Saleh et al.

(2011) stated learning to respect cultural uniqueness contributes to the level of

competence and ethical standards of the individual.

Prior studies varied in methodology based on the research questions or

hypothesis. All three methods; quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods presented

similar results and supported the notion of diversity courses changing in various extents

and content the perceptions of cultural diversity. One common thread was that evidence

did exist that when students from different majors were exposed to various diversity

courses all showed a change. Additionally, recommendations included additional

research. Paone et al. (2015) believes, that there is a need to increase exposure of students

to diversity curricula. They suggest inclusion in current courses and standalone courses as

well.

Other researchers studied the most vast and visible criminal justice practitioners;

police officers and recruits. Conti (2006) conducted a study to examine the process by

which individuals seek and elevation of status via selection into a police academy. He

experienced a loss of characterizes of civilian life, and adoption of characteristics of

police life via daily association while in the academy. The need to complete and graduate

became a driving force since failure to graduate would remove any chance of status

elevation and a position of power and authority. The perception that an occupation would

elevate status within society is not always reality and can play into the performance when

interacting with society. This supports the social cognitive theory, which suggests that

individuals are products of the social systems and the interactive nature of learning and

the environment.

Recruits spent approximately 20 weeks in the academy and during this time

relationships, which included friendships formed with fellow recruits. Conti and Doreian

(2010) conducted a study at a police academy that included social networking

engineering and race. Seating assignments and squads included mixed races and diversity

training sessions were implemented at the beginning and end. The recruits exhibited

divisions on issues concerning race and gender. The results showed that within the police

academy race is not a strong predictor of cultural knowledge or friendship. It is beneficial

to manage diversity issues rather than to attempt to concur it.

Researchers have studied the attitudes and beliefs of police recruits regarding race

and racism when entering and leaving the police academy. Schlosser (2013) found that at

a Midwest Police Academy, the current training was not contributing to a positive impact

on the racial attitudes of police recruits. Based on a pretest-posttest, upon entering the

academy scores indicated a great unawareness of racial privilege or high level of racial

colorblindness and institutional discrimination and the 12 week scores showed no

significant changes from the previous thereby suggesting a need for change in the

curriculum for cultural diversity training. The study further revealed that effective

diversity training is needed to be successful when working in diverse communities.

Approximately 2 years later, Zimny (2015) conducted a follow-up study at the

same Midwest Police Academy utilizing the same methodology and survey instrument.

As a recommendation from Schlosser’s 2013 study, he changed the cultural diversity

training. That said, the results were similar and showed no significant changes in the

attitudes and beliefs of the police recruits regarding race and racism. He denotes the need

for better communication skills and that more time maybe is needed to facilitate an

impact on the recruits. A possible modification that could effectuate a significant change

would include an increased time period for covering the material, possible within the

confines of pursuing a college degree.

Cultural diversity awareness training for police officers has been around for

decades. Commencing in the 1960s it was known as sensitivity training. The goal was to

teach police officers how to do their jobs without inciting society and reducing hostility.

According to Blakemore et al. (1995), emphasis was placed on improving police officers

communication and enhancing conflict resolution skills. They examined the methods and

strategies used in diversity training to establish a process for police diversity training. The

premise was based on learning and experiencing while prompting a connection between

the officer and the community they serve, thereby suggesting a change in the content and

process.

Throughout the years and with the changing demographics of society, the focus of

diversity training has turned away from skills relating to solely communication and

conflict toward knowledge and awareness of culture and societies and problem-solving.

Concurrent with societal changes opinions of the community have changed regarding

criminal justice practitioners; more specifically police officers. Sereni-Massinger and

Wood (2016) suggest that cross-cultural leadership or the lack thereof is the major reason

for conflict within society. Their research indicates that because the roles of law

enforcement officers have moved to problem-solving education and training must follow

suit. Archaic methods and topics of training should be modernized and relevant, and

showcased as formal education.

Summary and Conclusions

The notion of promoting change in an individual’s perceptions though education

is not a recent realization. Researchers have explored the various ways that diversity

education affects different types of students in an educational setting (Brown, 2004, Case,

2007, Hirschinger-Blank et al., 2009, Kernahan & Davis, 2007, Mistry et al., 2012, &

Paone et al., 2015). Additional populations and arenas of diversity education include

police recruits and police officers (Allen & Parker, 2013, Conti, 2006, & Schlosser,

2013). However, there is a gap in the research literature addressing undergraduate

criminal justice majors and the effects of a diversity course on undergraduate criminal

justice majors at a northeast college. Because criminal justice practitioners serve our

communities, it is imperative that relationships are strong, trustworthy, and positive.

Sereni-Massinger and Wood. (2016) found that despite the establishment of community

partnerships with criminal justice practitioners, community opinions have become

increasingly negative due to civil disturbances in the United States.

The demographics of the United States has demonstrated a shift in Latinx and

Asian American populations increasing in New Jersey and New York between 2000 and

2010 (U.S. Census, 2000 & U.S. Census, 2010). Our current climate indicates that a

continued change is producing a trend which will be solidified in the upcoming 2020

census. All criminal justice practitioners have frequent contact with the public, thereby

placing them in challenging situations where their actions can be misconstrued as

negative. Because they are continuing to work in diverse communities with diverse

populations it is crucial they implore the knowledge and skills needed to be effective and

productive in addition to creating a positive climate for everyone.

The social cognitive theory posits that learning is social and is a reciprocal action

between the environment, behavior, and the person (Bandura, 1971). Previous researchers

have used different arenas for learning, including the higher education setting, and police

academies. In these settings, adults learn differently than children as abstract thinkers.

Andragogy or interactive learning is the chosen method and has been explored by Birzer

in police academies as well as student centered classrooms in criminal justice programs.

Individuals react to different situations base on experiences and knowledge (Bhawuk,

1998). According to Black and Mendenhall (1990) challenging and learning are

dependent on each other. As the challenge of learning increases, so does the level of

knowledge.

Despite robust enrollment in Criminal Justice Programs, criminal justice

education has faced challenges concerning standards and accreditation. Researchers agree

that the continuance and future of this program of study are dependent on the

establishment and maintenance of such standards (Finckenauer, 2005 Martin & Hanrahan

2004, and Oliver, 2015). Examining current criminal curriculum as well as individual

courses, has proven fruitful. Kelley (2004) found that student input is vital to their

learning as they indicated the topic of diversity as meaningful. Southerland (2002)

identified trends that included a decline in two of the essential circles of criminal justice;

the courts and corrects. Courses about the police remained constant over time.

Perceptions of diversity are just that, perceptions or the state of awareness of

something through seeing and hearing. Research has proven that awareness increases

when it comes to students taking a diversity course. For Case (2007) it was white

privilege and racism for a psychology diversity course. For Kernahan and Davis (2007) it

was racism, white guilt, and white privilege for undergraduate students. For Paone et al.

(2015) it was the cost of racism, white privilege, color blindness, and racial identity for

graduate students in a counseling program. Other researchers found positive changes and

increases in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs in various areas among pre-college

students, and undergraduate and graduate social work students (Mistry et al., 2012, and

Saleh, et al., 2011). However, research was sparse concerning if a diversity course had an

effect on the perceptions of diversity of criminal justice majors at a northeast college.

This study assisted in fulfilling the gap relating to a quantitative study of criminal justice

students and the differences in their perceptions of diversity between those who had taken

a diversity course and those who had not at a northeast college in the existing body of

literature.

In Chapter 2, I included the introduction, literature search strategy, theoretical

foundation, introduction to the literature review, history of criminal justice education,

criminal justice curriculum, teaching methods and practices, diversity education, and a

summary and conclusions. In Chapter 3, I include the introduction, research design and

rationale, methodology, data analysis plan, threats to validity and reliability, informed

consent and ethical considerations, and a summary. In Chapter 4, I include the

introduction, data collection, results, and a summary. In Chapter 5, I include the

introduction, interpretation of findings, limitations of the study, recommendations,

implications, and a conclusion to the study.

Chapter 3: Research Method

Introduction

The purpose of this nonexperimental quantitative study was to ascertain the

relationship between perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at

a Northeastern college who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. The

sample population consisted of undergraduate criminal justice majors at a Northeastern

college with locations onsite and online. I received permission to use the Perceptions of

Criminality survey developed by McMorris (2001) to measure the perceptions of

diversity of the criminal justice majors. This survey has been used on several occasions

with different populations including police recruits and students. McMorris (personal

communication, January 22, 2019), has used the survey instrument at the following

institutions:

 Capital University of Economics & Business (Beijing, China) in 2001/2002

 Beijing Polytechnic University (Beijing, China) in 2002/2003

 Ferris State University (Michigan) in 2001

 City University of New York (CUNY)- Kingsborough Community College in

2019

Using SurveyMonkey, the students who had taken a diversity course and those

who had not had the opportunity to complete the survey. This allowed for the

participants’ identities to remain anonymous. I used SPSS to analyze whether there is a

significant difference in the perceptions of diversity between the students who had taken

a diversity course and those who had not. Additionally, I analyzed participants’ gender in

relation to their perceptions of diversity. I conducted the study according to the guidelines

set by Walden University’s IRB to make certain the ethical protection of the participants.

In Chapter 3, I include the research design, rationale, methodology, data analysis plan,

threats to reliability and validity, informed consent, ethical considerations, and a

summary.

Research Design and Rationale

I used a nonexperimental quantitative research design in this study. This research

design was selected because it was not solely experimental due to the lack of random

assignment for the sample population. An intact group; active criminal justice majors at a

Northeastern college, were the participants; some had taken a diversity course and others

had not. The design was selected to show a relationship between two or more variables.

A variable is a logical set of attributes that can be observed or measured (Babbie,

2017). Variables can be independent or dependent based on a cause-and-effect

relationship. The identified control group of criminal justice students was exposed to the

treatment variable, in this case a diversity course, and compared to the criminal justice

students who had not been exposed to the treatment variable. In this study, the two

independent variables were a diversity course and gender. The dependent variable was

the perceptions of diversity. I used McMorris’ (2001) Perceptions of Criminality survey

in this study. A chi-square test was run to determine if a relationship existed between the

variables for each of the two groups, those who took a diversity course and those who

had not. I used SPSS Version 25.0 to analyze the data.

Methodology

The methodology is discussed in this section. For study replication purposes

sufficient depth of the methodology is provided. I organized the section using the

following subsections: population, sampling and sampling procedure, recruitment

procedure, participation, data collection, and the instrument.

Population

For this study, I employed a purposive sample of criminal justice students who

were18 years of age or older from a Northeastern college who took a diversity course and

criminal justice students who had not. A total of 72 criminal justice students’ perceptions

from the Northeastern college were surveyed and compared to see if there was a

statistical significance between the perceptions of the criminal justice students who had

taken a diversity course to those who had not. All students were actively pursuing their

Criminal Justice Degree at the time the study was conducted.

Sampling and Sampling Procedures

Purposive sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling that is a

nonrepresentative subset of a larger population (Babbie, 2017); it was used in this study.

For this study the selection was based on my knowledge of the existing population,

criminal justice students. This type of sampling allows for a researcher to rely on

subjective judgment; therefore, I made every effort to select participants who represented

the population. Only criminal justice majors who were 18 years of age or older and

actively enrolled at the time the study was conducted were invited to participate in the

study. This information was provided by the Criminal Justice Department assistant chair

at the Northeastern college. The sample size for the treatment and control groups was

determined once the study site was approved. The participant pool included all students

actively enrolled in the criminal justice program who were 18 years of age or older at the

Northeastern college and were attending classes either onsite or online at the time of the

survey distribution. The sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1.9.7. I conducted

an a priori power analysis to determine the sample population. Statistical power was set

at .80 and alpha (α) was set at .05, which are the standard values used for calculation.

I completed the National Institute of Health Office of Extramural Research human

research protections training prior to approval to start data collection (Appendix A).

Additionally, I complied with all federal and state regulations, including protection of

human research participant requirements. I submitted the required research application,

including all requested documentation to the IRB at the Northeastern college to request

permission to conduct the study.

I received final approval from the Walden University IRB (10-28-19-0595488)

and contacted the chair of the Institutional Review Board Department as well as the

Criminal Justice Department assistant chair to coordinate the data collection. I provided

an invitation to participate letter and copy of the consent form, which was distributed

electronically to the active criminal justice majors at the Northeastern college. The reason

why the students were sent the consent form was a proactive gesture guarding against

technical difficulties of printing and saving the documents on SurveyMonkey. This

ensured that the participants could access the consent form and contact the Walden

University representative if they had questions or wanted to speak candidly about

participants’ rights.

The consent form contained the link to the SurveyMonkey survey

(https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/WB759ZV). Participants had to read the form before

access to complete the survey was granted. The link to access the survey was included at

the end of the consent form. Implied consent was given by each participant rather than a

written or signed consent because participants were informed that accessing the web link

to the survey implied their voluntary consent to participate in the study. There were

several advantages to using SurveyMonkey, and one such advantage was the ability to

collect anonymous data. The SurveyMonkey account was set to complete anonymity so

that participants could not be identified based on their responses. Although demographic

information was asked, to maintain anonymity no information was asked that would

identify the participants; therefore the participant’s identity remained anonymous.

Another reason for using SurveyMonkey related to the data storage. Data collected was

stored and available in the Excel format. This was the preferred format because it is

compatible with the SPSS data analysis package. Data was scrubbed prior to uploading

into SPSS. Because the survey was set to answer each question before moving on, there

was no missing data for any of the questions. I was able to ascertain if the participant

took a diversity course or not because this was asked of them on the survey.

It was not likely that the participants in the study would experience any discerning

discomfort; however, to address guarding against distress from psychological harm, the

informed consent included information regarding free counseling from the college

counselors in case they experienced any negative effects from the participation in the

research project. I analyzed data obtained from SurveyMonkey using SPSS. Once the

study was completed and final approval was obtained, I emailed a summary of the

findings to the chair of the Institutional Review Board, and Criminal Justice Department

assistant chair at the Northeastern college. Because the identities of the participants were

unknown, it was impossible to only provide those who participated directly with the

results. In this case, the findings were made available to criminal justice students who

chose not to participate as well as those who did with copies available in the Criminal

Justice Office through a notification post. I also shared the results of the study via the

dissertation process. Data will be housed in a secure, fire and waterproof, locked safe and

password protected computer in my home office for the required 5 years as dictated by

the Walden University guidelines.

Instrument and Operationalization of Constructs

A comprehensive mining of the literature was conducted to determine if a survey

instrument was available to measure the perceptions of diversity of undergraduate

criminal justice students who had taken a diversity course to those who had not.

McMorris’ (2001) Perceptions of Criminality survey was created and used in his study,

titled, Perceptions of Criminality: Michigan Police Recruits Rank Likely Criminal Types.

McMorris’ study was designed to examine if stereotyping by recruits existed, if racial

profiling and criminal stereotyping was encouraged in the academy setting, and to

determine if training enabled recruits to effectively serve a diverse society. McMorris

administered the survey to police recruits. Specifically, the participant’s consisted of 135

preservice, men and women, police recruits selected from three Michigan Police Training

Schools.

Undergraduate criminal justice students who had taken the diversity course and

those who had not had an opportunity to complete McMorris’s (2001) survey. McMorris’

survey was validated by a panel of experts who were identified along with their

comments regarding reliability and validity; summaries were provided indicating the

survey instrument is valid. Regarding reliability a test/retest was conducted and the

results were explained with Tables provided for Chronbach's Alpha and paired t

tests. Based on the Chronbach's Alpha, t tests, and the panel of experts the survey was

found to be valid and reliable. The survey used a modified Likert scale format ranging

from least likely to most likely. Students completed the survey via SurveyMonkey for

anonymity purposes. The estimated time to complete the survey was 7 minutes.

Permission to use the survey was requested and granted from McMorris (see Appendix

B). Although demographic information was included in the survey, items that could

potentially identify participants were not included so participant’s identity could not be

revealed. SurveyMonkey had several advantages including a complete anonymity setting.

Additionally, the data was saved in an Excel format which was compatible for uploading

to SPSS for data analysis. Because the survey asked if the participant took a diversity

course or not, I was able to ascertain the participants in the control group from the onset

of the study data analysis.

It was not likely that the participant’s in the study would experience any

discerning discomfort; however to address guarding against distress from psychological

harm, the informed consent included information regarding free counseling from the

college counselors in case they experienced any negative effects from the participation in

the research project. The data obtained from the completed surveys was collected via

SurveryMonkey, scored and analyzed using SPSS using a nominal scale of measurement.

Once the study was completed and approved, a summary report was distributed to the

stakeholders.

Data Analysis Plan

In this section, I discuss the data analysis plan. I also provide comprehensive

information of how the research questions and hypothesis were analyzed. This section is

organized in the following subsections: data analysis, and research questions and

hypotheses.

Data Analysis

To compare the perceptions of diversity of criminal justice students at a northeast

college who took a diversity course, to the criminal justice students at the same northeast

college who had not, a total of 46 questions were be asked from the McMorris (2001)

Perceptions of Criminality survey. Included were, 10 demographic questions to determine

the participant’s race, gender, age, family income, participation in the course or lack

thereof, and delivery method of the diversity course. Cronbach’s alpha was computed on

the items in McMorris’ survey after the summation of the scales. This step ensured that

the survey results were reliable and added statistical support.

The data obtained from the surveys was analyzed using SPSS to determine the

degree of statistical significance between the variables. The survey was structured so that

each question needed a response before moving forward; thereby ensuring there was no

missing data. To answer the two research questions, statistical analysis included

descriptive statistics and chi-square. To meet the assumption of the 2 X 2 contingency,

diversity course taken Online or onsite was recoded as 1 yes response. To meet the

assumption of each cell ≥ 5 some questions were recoded. To test the two hypothesis I

used chi-square to test the differences in the sample mean for perceptions of diversity for

the two groups: criminal justice students who took the diversity course and the criminal

justice students who had not. I also used chi-square to compare the difference between

the male and female criminal justice students who participated. Post hoc tests were not

conducted because there were less than three groups of the independent variable.

Research Questions and Hypothesis

To compare the cultural diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students at a

northeast college who took a diversity course to the criminal justice students at the same

northeast college who did not take a diversity course, a nonexperimental quantitative

research study was used. I addressed the following research questions and hypothesis:

RQ1: Is there a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who did

not?

H01: There is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

H11: There is a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

RQ2: Is there a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives?

H02: There is no significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

H12: There is a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

Threats to Validity and Reliability

Validity relates directly to the survey instrument measuring what it is designed to

measure (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). The validity of this study relied on the

accuracy of the McMorris modified likert scale survey that was used to measure the

perceptions of diversity of the criminal justice students. The Perceptions of Criminality

survey has been field tested and is a valid and reliable measure of student perceptions of

crime and diversity. Although this is a strong, and reliable instrument based on previous

use and study findings, there are some weaknesses. One such weakness speaks to the

inflexibility of surveys. The instrument is a modified Likert scale containing basic

demographic questions. According to Babbie (2017) this survey format can sometimes

produce resistance as questions can be viewed as ambiguous. Because this survey was

electronic, I was not available to answer any questions that participant’s may have had.

Another weakness associated with utilizing a standardized instrument was bias. In an

attempt to look good or provide answers participants think they should, social desirability

bias may have caused responses to be dishonest. It was assumed that participants were

honest and did not exhibit any bias when they answered the questions. The specific

threats to external validity, internal validity, and construct validity are discussed below.

External Validity

External validity relates to the generalizability of the study results to other

populations of individuals who possess the same characteristics of the study participants.

According to Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) external validity is ensued when

the characteristics of the sample population are representative of the overall population. It

is crucial that the researcher select a population of participants that meets this criteria.

Representativeness of the sample is a major known threat to external validity in any

study. There are other know threats such as testing effects, multiple treatment inferences,

and reaction of awareness of being studied which were not be applicable to the outcome

of this study. The main threat to external validly for this study was selection bias. This

study was intended to measure the perceptions of diversity of criminal justice students

who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. Because the selected design could

not accommodate random sampling other methods of sampling were researched

regarding bias. To address selection bias, purposive sampling of criminal justice students

was used to select the population.

The selection of purposive sampling was appropriate for this study because the

sample population included a specific predefined group. In this case, active criminal

justice students at a northeast college who had taken a diversity course and others who

had not. Rather than using a random sample, the purposive sample eliminated the

likelihood of a population that was nonrepresentative of the intended population. This

type of nonprobability sampling, which was a nonrandomization approach was to ensure

the responses to the survey questions, were from a targeted group. Because the sample

was representative of the targeted population, the results of the study were generalized to

the criminal justice students.

Internal Validity

Concerning internal validity, the findings from the survey must address if a

change in the independent variable did, in fact, cause a change in the dependent variable

(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). In this case, the independent variables were a

diversity course and gender, while the dependent variable was the perceptions of

diversity. Changes to the element investigated which occurred during the period of

testing produced a significant threat to the internal validity of the study. Nonexperimental

designs present a threat to internal validity from confounding factors. Campbell and

Stanley (1963) stated that confounding variables need to be identified and controlled for

so as not to affect the internal validity of a study.

The first confounder was the self-reporting of criminal justice students’

perceptions of diversity. Because there was only one measurement for each variable and

each participant, the design assisted in determining the strength and direction of the

association between the variables. Second was social desirability bias. To be perceived

positively, the participants may not answer the questions honestly. To address this factor,

it was assumed the participants answered the survey questions freely and honestly.

Additionally, instructions included a sentence stating that there were no right or wrong

answers to the survey questions. Lack of participants to possibly not accurately or

thoroughly self-evaluate themselves when completing self-report data was addressed with

the survey instrument. The survey was designed to use a selection of response choices,

thereby not allowing participants to provide additional information they may feel was of

importance. There were not any threats caused by maturation for this study.

History could be a third confounder. According to Campbell and Stanley (1963),

events independent of the data collection have the potential to affect the results. Social

contamination and the impact of demographics were addressed by the selected site. The

proposed northeast college was a commuter college. Criminal Justice students commuted

to class rather than live on campus. Typically, students continued to reside at home while

attending college and continued to be exposed to their current environmental and social

factors. There were no threats to internal validity, such as maturation for this study since

the survey was taken one time, and criminal justice student perceptions were not

measured over time.

Construct Validity

Construct validity is inspired by a logical relationship between the variables and is

obtained when the study’s theoretical concept is related to the instrument (Frankfort-

Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). Theoretically speaking, it is how we think or believe how

the variable in question will relate the other variables. For this study, construct validity

pertained to measuring the comparison between the perceptions of diversity of

undergraduate criminal justice majors who had taken a diversity course at a northeastern

college to those who had not, as well as the difference between participants’ gender.

Informed Consent and Ethical Considerations

This study was conducted within the perimeters set forth by the Walden

University IRB to ensure the ethical protection of the research participants. I took all

steps necessary to ensure that the participants were protected during the course of this

study. Participants of this study were the result of a purposive sample of criminal justice

students at a northeast college. I completed the National Institute of Health training.

Approval for the study was secured through the chair of the Institutional Review Board at

the Northeastern College, and the approval letter was sent to the Walden University IRB.

The data collection phase began after approval was garnered from the Walden University

IRB. I provided an electronic copy of the Informed Consent to the Chair of the

Institutional Review Board at the northeast college in the event the participants were not

able to save or print a copy. This ensured they had the contact information for the Walden

University representative who was able to answer any questions or concerns regarding

participant’s rights.

The consent form outlined the minimal to nonexistent risks; psychological or

physical that participants could experience. It was also noted that although they were

invited to participate in the study, they were not obligated to do so or to complete any

part of the survey that they did not feel comfortable doing. The SurveyMonkey account

used the complete anonymity setting so I was not be able to uncover the identity of the

participants based upon their submitted responses thereby making their identity

anonymous. Additionally, the demographic information requested did not identify the

participants. It was unlikely that any of the participants who were in the study

experienced any acute discomfort. As a precaution, the informed consent advised

participant’s they could avail themselves of free counseling at the college counseling

office if they experienced any negative effects as a result of taking part in the study. This

reasonably protected the participant’s from undo psychological harm and distress. Once

the study was completed and approved a summary of the findings was shared with the

chair of the Institutional Review Board, and the Criminal Justice Department assistant

chair at the northeast college. Findings were also be made available to the participants.

Data is housed in a secure; fire and waterproof, locked safe and password protected

computer in my home office for the required five years as dictated by the Walden

University’s guidelines. I am the only one with access to the safe and computer.

Summary

The purpose of this nonexperimental quantitative study was to ascertain the

relationship between perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at

a Northeastern college who had taken a diversity course to those who did not. Using

SPSS, data was analyzed using various types of statistical analysis including descriptive

statistics, Cronbach’s alpha, and chi-square. This study was conducted in accordance with

the parameters set forth by the Walden University IRB for assurance of ethical protection

of the research participants. A purposive sample of criminal justice students was used

from the northeast college. The consent form provided the contact information of the

Walden University representative who they could speak with privately concerning

participant rights.

In Chapter 3, I included the introduction, research design and rationale,

methodology, data analysis plan, threats to internal validity and reliability, informed

consent and ethical considerations, and a summary. In conclusion this chapter

summarized what the study was thought to accomplish, how the research was conducted,

and the strides that were made to ensure ethical procedures. In Chapter 4, I include the

introduction, data, collection, results, and a summary. In Chapter 5, I include the

introduction, interpretation of the findings, limitations of the study recommendations,

implications, and a conclusion.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction

The purpose of this nonexperimental quantitative study was to ascertain the

relationship between perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at

a Northeastern college who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. The

sample population consisted of undergraduate criminal justice majors at a Northeastern

college with locations on site and online. The dependent variable in the study was

perceptions of diversity, and the independent variables were a diversity course and

gender. Two research questions were examined. The first question determined if there

was a significant difference in the diversity perspectives between the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course and students who had not. The second question

determined if there was a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ perceptions of diversity. I used SPSS to analyze the data. In Chapter 4, I present

the data collection, results, and summary.

Data Collection

I only invited actively enrolled criminal justice majors who were 18 years or older

who had either taken a diversity course or who had not to participate in the study. They

were directed, after giving implied consent, to proceed to the SurveyMonkey link noted

in the informed consent. The survey was available for 4 months, and during that time,

reminders regarding the study were sent three times after the initial invite by the Criminal

Justice Department assistant chair. These reminders were prompted by the participation

rates to increase the response rate. There were 410 students who met the study sample

criteria of being an actively enrolled criminal justice majors who were 18 years and older

at the Northeastern college who were invited to participate anonymously in the study.

The study’s response rate consisted of 72 actively enrolled criminal justice majors from a

Northeastern college who took a diversity course and those who did not take a diversity

course.

The summaries of the demographic information can be found in Table 2. There

were slightly more female students (n = 39; 54.2%) compared to male students (n = 33;

45.8%). Over half were between the age of 18-21 (n = 43; 59.7%) compared to age range

22-25 (n = 11; 15.3%) with the remaining quarter over the age of 25 (n = 18; 25.05%). A

majority of the students were European American (n = 44; 61.15%), followed by Latinx

(n = 15; 20.8%), with equal proportions of African American and Other (n = 5; 6.9%) and

the remaining participants Asian American (n = 3; 4.2%). The family’s household income

while growing up showed a majority were middle class (n = 59; 81%) with lower class

numbers significantly lower (n = 12; 16.7%), as were those for upper class (n = 1; 1.4%).

The participants mostly resided in suburban areas (n = 59: 81.9%) followed by rural (n =

7: 9.7%), with the remaining from urban areas (n = 6; 8.3%). Lastly, for those who had

taken a diversity course, less than half (n = 32; 45.8%) out of the 72 students had taken a

diversity course, while more (n = 40; 55.6%) had not.

Table 2

Frequency and Percentage Summary of Demographic Information

Frequency

Gender

Male

45.8

Female

54.2

Age

18-21 years

59.7

22-25 years

15.3

Over 25 years

25.0

Race

White

61.1

Black

6.9

Hispanic

20.8

Asian American

4.2

Other

6.9

Family Household Income

Upper Class

1.4

Middle Class

81.9

Lower Class

16.7

Geographic Community

Rural

9.7

Urban

8.3

Suburban

81.9

Taken a Diversity Courses

Yes

44.4

55.6

Note. (N=72).

Results

In this section, I discuss the descriptive statistics that appropriately characterize

the sample. I also discuss the statistical analysis findings, which are organized by the

research questions. I organized this section with the following subsections: Descriptive

Statistics of the Study Variables, cronbach’s alpha results, chi-square results, and

research questions and hypotheses.

Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables

Table 3-Table 32 depict the descriptive statistics for the dependent variable of

perceptions of diversity of the criminal justice students. There were five scores for the

perceptions for the FBI Type I Index Crimes, Type II Selected Offenses, and

Miscellaneous Criminal Offenses: (a) Black, (b) White, (c) Hispanic, (d) Native

American, and (3) Asian American. For the 15 crimes for those most likely to commit,

the perception was that African Americans were most likely to commit eight and

European Americans were most likely to commit seven of the crimes. For the 15 offenses

for those least likely to commit, the perception was that Native Americans were least

likely to commit four, and Asian Americans were least likely to commit 11 of the crimes.

Table 3

Race for Murder Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

54.2

White

30.6

Hispanic

15.3

Total

100

Figure 1

Race for Murder- Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 4

Race for Murder-Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

4.2

White

11.1

Hispanic

6.9

Native American

29.2

Asian American

48.6

Total

100

Figure 2

Race for Murder- Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 5

Race for Forcible Rape Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

19.4

White

54.2

Hispanic

25.0

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 3

Race for Forcible Rape- Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 6

Race for Forcible Rape Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

6.9

White

8.3

Hispanic

4.2

Native American

20.8

Asian American

59.7

Total

100

Figure 4

Race for Forcible Rape- Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 7

Race for Robbery Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

73.6

White

8.3

Hispanic

16.7

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 5

Race for Robbery- Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 8

Race for Robbery Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

2.8

White

15.3

Hispanic

2.8

Native American

33.3

Asian American

45.8

Total

100

Figure 6

Race for Robbery- Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 9

Race for Aggravated Assault Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

51.4

White

31.9

Hispanic

13.9

Native American

1.4

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 7

Race for Aggravated Assault- Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 10

Race for Aggravated Assault Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

5.6

White

15.3

Hispanic

1.4

Native American

34.7

Asian American

43.1

Total

100

Figure 8

Race for Aggravated Assault Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 11

Race for Burglary Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

51.4

White

26.4

Hispanic

20.8

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 9

Race for Burglary Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 12

Race for Burglary Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

5.6

White

12.5

Hispanic

2.8

Native American

37.5

Asian American

41.7

Total

100

Figure 10

Race for Burglary Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 13

Race for Larceny/Theft Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

37.5

White

31.9

Hispanic

29.2

Native American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 11

Race for Larceny/Theft Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 14

Race for Larceny/Theft Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

2.8

White

11.1

Hispanic

5.6

Native American

36.1

Asian American

44.4

Total

100

Figure 12

Race for Larceny/Theft Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 15

Race for Motor Vehicle Theft Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

45.8

White

33.3

Hispanic

19.4

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 13

Race for Motor Vehicle Theft Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 16

Race for Motor Vehicle Theft Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

6.9

White

15.3

Hispanic

8.3

Native American

22.2

Asian American

47.2

Total

100

Figure 14

Race for Motor Vehicle Theft Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 17

Race for Arson Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

12.5

White

75.0

Hispanic

6.9

Native American

4.2

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 15

Race for Arson Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 18

Race for Arson Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

12.5

White

11.1

Hispanic

4.2

Native American

22.2

Asian American

50.0

Total

100

Figure 16

Race for Arson Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 19

Race for Fraud Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

8.3

White

70.8

Hispanic

13.9

Native American

1.4

Asian American

5.6

Total

100

Figure 17

Race for Fraud Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 20

Race for Fraud Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

11.1

White

12.5

Hispanic

9.7

Native American

51.4

Asian American

15.3

Total

100

Figure 18

Race for Fraud Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 21

Race for Embezzlement Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

9.7

White

79.2

Hispanic

5.6

Native American

2.8

Asian American

2.8

Total

100

Figure 19

Race for Embezzlement Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 22

Race for Embezzlement Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

23.6

White

5.6

Hispanic

8.3

Native American

37.5

Asian American

25.0

Total

100

Figure 20

Race for Embezzlement Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 23

Race for Drug Law Violations Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

48.6

White

12.5

Hispanic

36.1

Native American

1.4

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 21

Race for Drug Law Violations Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 24

Race for Drug Law Violations Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

5.6

White

4.2

Hispanic

4.2

Native American

30.6

Asian American

55.6

Total

100

Figure 22

Race for Drug Law Violations Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 25

Race for DUI Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

2.8

White

83.3

Hispanic

12.5

Native American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 23

Race for DUI Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 26

Race for DUI Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

5.6

White

9.7

Hispanic

6.9

Native American

23.6

Asian American

54.2

Total

100

Figure 24

Race for DUI Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 27

Race for Weapons Violations Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Back

68.1

White

18.1

Hispanic

9.7

Native American

1.4

Asian American

2.8

Total

100

Figure 25

Race for Weapons Violations Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 28

Race for Weapons Violations Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Back

6.9

White

9.7

Hispanic

4.2

Native American

38.9

Asian American

40.3

Total

100

Figure 26

Race for Weapons Violations Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 29

Race for Kidnapping Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

8.3

White

75.0

Hispanic

15.3

Asian American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 27

Race for Kidnapping Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 30

Race for Kidnapping Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Back

6.9

White

5.6

Hispanic

5.6

Native American

54.2

Asian American

27.8

Total

100

Figure 28

Race for Kidnapping Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 31

Race for Hate Crime Most Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Black

18.1

White

70.8

Hispanic

9.7

Native American

1.4

Total

100

Figure 29

Race for Hate Crimes Most Likely to Commit Bar Chart

Table 32

Race for Hate Crime Least Likely to Commit

Race

Frequency

Percent

Back

15.3

White

12.5

Hispanic

4.2

Native American

36.1

Asian American

31.9

Total

100

Figure 30

Race for Hate Crimes Least Likely to Commit Bar Chart

I used McMorris’s (2001) survey instrument in this study. Cronbach’s alpha was

the statistical method used to measure the validity and reliability of the survey

instrument. Test results displayed in Table 33 verified that the internal consistency of

construct to measure the dependent variable of perceptions of diversity of the criminal

justice students. An alpha of .7 denotes an acceptable level of consistency for the denoted

items. Whereas an alpha of .8 demotes a good level of consistency for the denoted items.

The level of internal consistency for the 30 items in the McMorris survey were all

acceptable. The level of consistency for effort expectancy (.82) as well as the level of

constancy for performance expectancy (.82) was more than acceptable and was in the

good level of consistency. This indicated that the reliability of the 30 items on the

McMorris survey instrument was established in this study.

Table 33

Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient for McMorris’s Survey

Number of Items

.823

Note. α = Cronbach’s alpha

Research Questions and Hypotheses

In this subsection, I discussed the results of the two research questions. The

findings are organized by research questions, where the chi-square Cramérs V results for

perceptions of diversity by diversity course and gender results of the differences of

perceptions of diversity of taking a diversity courses and gender are discussed. This

subsection is organized in the following areas: Research Question 1 and Research

Question 2.

Research Question 1

RQ1: Is there a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who did

not?

H01: There is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

H11: There is a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who

did not.

Chi-square results for diversity perspectives between those who took a diversity

course and those who had not. A chi-square test of independence was conducted to

determine whether there was a significant association between the diversity perspectives

and a diversity course. To meet the assumptions of chi-square questions 2-30 were

recoded to ensure that each cell was ≥ 5. The dependent variable of those who had taken

a diversity course and those who had not was also recoded because yes had two

categories; onsite or online. For the purpose of this study, the mode of delivery did not

need to be differentiated. The recoding was necessary to meet the qualification of a 2 X 2

contingency because I compared two groups with a dichotomous dependent variable. The

results of the analysis are shown in Tables 34-63. The results of the chi-square test of

independence for RQ1 showed that there was a significant difference in the diversity

perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the

criminal justice students who had not regarding 4 different crimes; Larceny/Theft least

likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 4.82, p = .03, Fraud least likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72)

= 7.00, p = .01, Weapons Violations most likely commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.06, p = .01,

and Kidnapping least likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.06, p = .01 as represented in

Tables 34-37 below. This was because the p values were all less than the level of

significance value of .05. With this result for these 4 crimes and likelihood of

commission, the null hypothesis for Research Question 1, that there is no significant

difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a

diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not, was rejected. Thus,

the null hypothesis was rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Post hoc

tests were not conducted because there are less than three groups of the independent

variable. The results of the chi-square test of indepenence for the remaining crimes that

did not show a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

are illustrated in Tables C1-C26 and can be found in Appendix C.

Table 34

Q12 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Larceny/Theft Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

enrollment

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

4.816

.028

Black, White,

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a significant association

between the diversity perspectives of larceny/theft least likely to commit and a diversity

course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 4.82, p = .03 (as shown in Table 34). Thus, I concluded that there

is an association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit

larceny/theft and enrollment in a diversity course, and the null hypothesis that those who

took a diversity course are least likely to commit larceny/theft with equal proportions can

be rejected.

Table 35

Q18 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Fraud Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

6.950

.008

Black, White,

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a significant association

between the diversity perspectives of fraud least likely to commit and a diversity course:

χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.00, p = .01(as shown in Table 35). Thus, I concluded that there is a

statistically significant association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely

to commit fraud and a diversity course, and the null hypothesis that those who took a

diversity course are least likely to commit fraud with equal proportions can be rejected.

Table 36

Q25 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Weapons Violations Most Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

7.056

.008

White, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a significant association

between the diversity perspectives of weapons violations most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.06, p = .01 (as shown in Table 36). Thus, I concluded

that there is a statistically significant association between the diversity perspectives of

those most likely to commit weapons violations and a diversity course, and the null

hypothesis that those who took a diversity course are most likely to commit weapons

violations with equal proportions can be rejected.

Table 37

Q28Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Kidnapping Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

7.276

.007

Black, White,

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a significant association

between the diversity perspectives of kidnapping least likely to commit and a diversity

course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.28, p = .01 (as shown in Table 37). Thus, I concluded that there

is a statistically significant association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit kidnapping and a diversity course, and the null hypothesis that those

who took a diversity course are least likely to commit kidnapping with equal proportions

can be rejected.

Research Question 2

RQ2: Is there a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives?

H02: There is no significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

H12: There is a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives.

Chi-square results for diversity perspectives between gender; male and female.

Chi-square test of independence was conducted to determine whether there was a

significant association between the diversity perspectives and gender. To meet the

assumptions of chi-square questions 2-30 were recoded to ensure that each cell was ≥ 5.

The dependent variable of gender had two categories and was not recoded as it met the

criteria of a 2 X 2 contingency because I compared two groups with a dichotomous

dependent variable. The results of the chi-square are presented in Tables D1-D30 (see

Appendix D). The results of the chi-square showed that there was no significant

difference between male and female criminal justice students’ diversity perspectives. The

chi-square analysis did not find any relationship between the independent variable gender

and the perceptions of diversity for the offenses murder, forcible rape, robbery,

aggravated assault, burglary, larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, arson fraud,

embezzlement, drug law violations, driving under the influence, weapons violations,

kidnapping, and hate crimes. This was because the p values were all greater than the level

of significance value of .05. With this result, the null hypothesis for Research Question 2

that there is no significant difference between male and female criminal justice students’

diversity perspective was not rejected. Thus, the null hypothesis was accepted, and the

alternative hypothesis was rejected. Post-hoc tests were not conducted because there were

less than three groups of the independent variable.

Summary

In this nonexperimental quantitative study, I determined the relationship between

perceptions of diversity of undergraduate criminal justice majors at a Northeastern

college who had taken a diversity course to those who had not. The results of the chi-

square test of independence for RQ1 showed that there was a significant difference in the

diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course

between the criminal justice students who had not regarding four different crimes and

likelihood of commission; Larceny/Theft least likely to commit, Fraud least likely to

commit, Weapons Violations most likely commit, and Kidnapping least likely to commit.

Thereby rejecting the null hypothesis. The results of the chi-square test of independence

for RQ2 showed that there was no significant difference between male and female

diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course and

those who had not. Thereby accepting the null hypothesis. In Chapter 4, I included the

introduction, data collection, results, and summary of the chapter. In Chapter 5, I include

the introduction, interpretation of findings, limitations of the study, recommendations,

implications, and a conclusion to the study.

Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction

In this nonexperimental quantitative study, I compared the perceptions of

diversity of undergraduate criminal justice students at a Northeastern college who took a

diversity course to those who did not take a diversity course. The instrument for this

study was McMorris’ (2001) survey. This study was designed to answer two research

questions:

RQ1: Is there a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and the criminal justice students who did

not?

RQ2: Is there a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ diversity perspectives?

The results of the study indicated that there was a significant difference for least likely to

commit Larceny/Theft, least likely to commit Fraud, most likely to commit weapons

violations, and least likely to commit Kidnapping in the perceptions of diversity between

students who had taken a diversity course and students who had not. Additionally, the

results indicated that there was no significant difference between male and female

criminal justice students’ perceptions of diversity. In Chapter 5, I discuss the

interpretation of the findings, limitations of the study, recommendations, implications,

and a conclusion to the study.

100

Interpretation of Findings

To compare the perceptions of diversity of criminal justice students who took a

diversity course to criminal justice students who did not take a diversity course, in this

nonexperimental quantitative research study I examined two research questions. The

findings are interpreted in the context of the literature review and the theoretical

foundation. This section is organized in the following subsections: Research Question 1

and Research Question 2.

Research Question 1

RQ1: Is there a significant difference in the diversity perspectives of criminal

justice students who took a diversity course and students who did not?

The chi-square results showed that the perceptions of diversity were significantly

different for Larceny/Theft least likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 4.82, p = .03, Fraud

least likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.00, p = .01, Weapons Violations most likely to

commit χ2(1, N = 72) = 7.06, p = .01, and Kidnapping least likely to commit χ2(1, N = 72)

= 7.28, p = .01, between the two groups of criminal justice students who had taken a

diversity course and those who had not taken a diversity course. Therefore, the null

hypothesis was rejected for these four different offenses and the likelihood of

commission.

The research results revealed that criminal justice students who took a diversity

course were more likely than criminal justice students who did not take a diversity course

to have a significant difference in their perceptions of diversity for four of the crimes.

The findings may be attributed to Bandura’s (2002) social cognitive theory, which

101

suggests the social arena with mutual interaction supports learning. Students learn in the

classroom while interacting with peers and instructors. Bandura’s theory suggests that

learning is a cognitive process set in a social context and not solely behavioral.

Accordingly, the information, knowledge, and experiences of others provide an exposure

beyond a person’s thoughts and beliefs that offers an opportunity to increase their breadth

of knowledge.

Research Question 2

RQ2: Is there a significant difference between male and female criminal justice

students’ perceptions of diversity?

The respondents included slightly more females, 39 (54.2%) than males, 33

(45.8%). The result of the chi-square showed that there was no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice students’ diversity perspectives. This was

because the p values were all greater than the level of significance value of .05.

Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted, and the alternative hypothesis was rejected.

The findings may be attributed to Bandura’s (2002) social cognitive theory, which

suggests that learning is social and is a reciprocal action between the environment,

behavior, and the person. Perceptions of diversity are just that, perceptions, or the state of

awareness of something through seeing and hearing. Perceptions can change over time or

be based on certain circumstances.

Findings from the study may be attributed to past experiences and knowledge

influencing decisions that can lead to a positive change in actions. It is possible that the

male and female criminal justice students’ perspectives are similarly based upon these

102

factors as commuter students who reside in a specific geographical location and their

interaction or lack of interaction with cultural diversity. Decision-making and individual

reactions are based on preconceived notions (Bhawuk, 1998). Therefore, these criminal

justice students, both male and female, may have similar perceptions of diversity when it

comes to the commission of crimes.

Limitations of the Study

Limitations are shortcomings, conditions, or influences that cannot be controlled

by the researcher (Babbie, 2017). This nonexperimental quantitative research study had

several limitations. Generalization of the findings was one such limitation due to the

purposive sampling of the number of criminal justice students who had taken a diversity

course and the number of criminal justice students who had not. The findings were

limited to criminal justice students at a northeast college, which can only be generalized

to a similar population in higher education and not students with declarations of different

majors or levels of academia. To address this limitation, the replication of future studies

should include students with other majors and levels of academia so the findings could be

compared to those of this study.

A second limitation stems from the self-reporting of students’ perceptions of

diversity which were needed to obtain the information. Additional measures of criminal

justice students’ perceptions of diversity should be integrated into future studies. Based

on the nonexperimental design, there was only one measurement for each variable and

each participant. However, this design assisted in determining the strength and direction

of the association between the variables.

103

Thirdly, social desirability bias was contemplated because participants may have

wanted to be perceived positively. As such, they may not have answered the questions

honestly. To address this limitation, I assumed the participants did answer the survey

questions freely and honestly. Additionally, participants may not accurately or thoroughly

self-evaluate when completing self-report data. However, this bias was addressed with

the survey instrument, which used a selection of response choices, thereby not allowing

participants to provide additional information they may have felt would have been of

importance.

A possible fourth limitation stems from the platform SurveyMonkey, which was

used to collect the anonymous data. Although a method considered acceptable by Walden

University’s IRB, online surveys are not infallible. Typically, response rates are affected

by the method of administration and the length of the survey. Additionally, follow-up can

be burdensome due to the complete anonymity of the survey participants.

Finally, the study had a limited scope because students’ perceptions were solely

examined for diversity and not other concepts or areas in the criminal justice arena. The

overlapping circles of criminal justice, the police, courts, and corrections, present other

areas where perceptions can have an impact on the way practitioners approach their day-

to-day tasks. This suggests that future studies could focus on undergraduate criminal

justice perceptions of these internal organizations and potentially improve internal and

interdepartmental relationships.

104

Recommendations for Future Research

I discussed some of the recommendations for future research in the limitations of

the study section. Limitations included the recommendation to replicate the study with

students with other majors and levels of academia, and the results could be compared to

the findings in this study. In this study, participants were all criminal justice majors who

attended a Northeastern community college. It is recommended that in future studies,

researchers examine criminal justice majors’ perceptions of diversity in the four other

geographical locations, such as Southwest, West, Southeast, and Midwest. In addition,

future studies could be conducted using a different data collection procedure, such as

collecting data in the classroom, which would ensure a more robust participation rate.

The surveys could be coded to protect the participants’ identities. In future studies,

researchers could include other measures of criminal justice majors’ perceptions of

diversity, as well as expand the scope to include the other two areas in the criminal

justice system, the courts and corrections.

Findings indicated that there was a significant difference in the diversity

perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the

criminal justice students who had not regarding four crimes and likelihood of

commission; Larceny/Theft least likely to commit, Fraud least likely to commit,

Weapons Violations most likely commit, and Kidnapping least likely to commit. Thereby

rejecting the null hypothesis. In addition, findings indicated that there was no significant

difference between male and female diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students

who took a diversity course and those who had not. Thereby accepting the null

105

hypothesis. It is recommended that in future studies, a specific diversity course is selected

because previous research indicated that students in a Psychology of Prejudice and

Racism course demonstrated an increased awareness of racism, white guilt, and white

privilege (Kernahan & Davis, 2007) and a Psychology course demonstrated an increased

awareness of white privilege, racism, and affirmative action support (Case, 2007).

Additionally, a pretest-posttest design where students would be measured in terms of the

dependent variable before taking the course and remeasured after course completion

would also determine any differences that would be attributed to the independent

variable.

The McMorris (2001) Perceptions of Criminality survey was used for this study

and several times between 2001 and 2020. It is recommended that this study be replicated

using a modified version of the survey instrument based on the ever-changing

demographic construct of the United States. The 2020 U.S. Census was recently

completed, which will encompass the demographic period of 2011-2020. The current

survey includes five distinct categories of race and should be updated to include those

reflected in the new census data, once available, or at the very least include a category of

“other” for the participants to select. Additionally, the categories of Offenses should also

be updated to reflect those that are new, increased, or viewed as a future threat to the

safety and wellbeing of the citizens of the United States of America.

Implications for Positive Social Change

Even though the findings indicated that there was only a significant difference in

the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course

106

between the criminal justice students who had not regarding four crimes and their

likelihood of commission; Larceny/Theft least likely to commit, Fraud least likely to

commit, Weapons Violations most likely commit, and Kidnapping least likely to commit,

and no significant difference between male and female diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course and those who had not, this

nonexperimental quantitative study has far-reaching implications concerning social

change at individual, familial, organizational, societal, and political levels. Findings from

the study advanced knowledge related to diversity perspectives and added to the existing

literature by filling a gap in public policy and administration literature regarding criminal

justice major’s perception of diversity. Even though a significant difference in the

diversity perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course

between the criminal justice students who had not regarding four crimes and their

likelihood of commission; Larceny/Theft least likely to commit, Fraud least likely to

commit, Weapons Violations most likely commit, and Kidnapping least likely to commit,

and no significant difference between male and female diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course and those who had not, education

policymakers may be encouraged to continue to look for ways to improve criminal justice

students perceptions of diversity, and the relationships between law enforcement personal

and communities, but not utilizing a specific course may not be the best way to

accomplish this task. As previous researchers Case, 2007 and Kernahan and Davis, 2007

found that utilizing a specific course with a specific population of students demonstrated

an increase in awareness based on a denial of racism validated the need to include

107

diversity courses. Additionally, specific programs or diversity modules within a program

yielded an increase in awareness as documented by Paone et al. (2015), and Saleh et al.

(2011).

In addition, along with the field of public policy and administration, a variety of

other fields might be interested in the research findings, including criminal law,

education, forensic psychology, and sociology. The findings are also applicable to several

organizations and agencies, including but not limited to the department of education,

criminal justice agencies, police academies, and community and neighborhood

organizations. Research findings may be of particular interest to leaders in higher

education, including but not limited to provosts, vice presidents of academic affairs,

school deans, department chairs of criminal justice, public administration, and sociology,

as well as academic advisors, and career services placement associates. Findings from

this study will lead to positive social change by assisting students, parents, educators,

government officials, and law enforcement professions to better understand the

relationship between criminal justice students perceptions of diversity and a diversity

course, which in turn can be used to develop policies and programs geared towards

improving the relationships between law enforcement and the communities they serve.

Conclusion

The chi-square results showed that the perceptions of diversity were significantly

different, for Larceny/Theft least likely to commit, Fraud least likely to commit,

Weapons Violations most likely to commit, and Kidnapping least likely to commit,

between the two groups of criminal justice students who had taken a diversity course and

108

those who had not taken a diversity course. These findings may be attributed to

Bandura’s (2002) Social Cognitive Theory which has served as the theoretical framework

pertaining to studies addressing behavioral change, self-efficacy, cross-cultural training,

cognitive skills, social justice outcomes, and pedagogical practice. Additionally, the

teaching method of andragogy, focusing on adult abstract thinkers, assists in sustaining

the path between theory and practice (Birzer, 2003). Findings in this study are

encouraging as past research on the effectiveness of diversity education on adult learners

have yielded positive increases in awareness (Brown, 2004, Case, 2007, Hirschinger-

Blank, et al., 2009, Kearnan & Davis, 2007, Mistry et al. 2012, & Paone et al., 2015).

Therefore, professionals should seek to modify criminal justice curriculum to include

diversity courses or at the very least require one diversity course. By doing this, criminal

justice students will be introduced to new knowledge and experiences which affect future

choices and actions.

Even though there were some significant findings in this study, education should

be used to enhance the learning experiences of criminal justice students and better

prepare them for the careers they desire to pursue upon graduation. Numerous researchers

have examined the effects of diversity education on attitudes, perceptions, behaviors, and

awareness of undergraduate and graduate students, and police recruits (Allen & Parker,

2013, Brown, 2004, Case, 2007, Conti, 2006, Hirschinger-Blank, et al., 2009, Kearnan &

Davis, 2007, Mistry et al., 2012, & Paone et al., 2015, Saleh et al., 2011,& Schlosser,

2013). Therefore criminal justice educators, policymakers, and leaders should continue to

look for ways to include diversity courses into the core criminal justice curriculum. This

109

will lead to students who are better prepared to enter the workforce and interact with

society. The end product has the potential to change community relationships for the

better by reducing tensions between criminal justice practitioners and the communities

they serve.

110

References

Allen, T. T., & Parker, M. M. (2013). Police officers and their perceived relationships

with urban communities: Does living in the community influence police

decisions? Social Development Issues, 35(3), 82-95.

Babbie, E. (2017). Basics of social research (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Bandura, A. (1971). Social learning theory. General Learning Press.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.

Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology,

51(2), 269-290. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00092

Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory in cross-cultural training. A

multimethod study of culture-specific, cultural-general, and culture theory-based

assimilators. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29(5), 630-655.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022198295003

Birzer, M. L. (2003). The theory of andragogy applied to police training. International

Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 26(1), 29-42.

https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510310460288

Birzer, M. L. (2004). Andragogy: student centered classrooms in criminal justice

programs. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 15(2), 393-411.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250400086041

111

Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review

and a theoretical framework for future research. The Academy of Management

Review, 15(1), 113-136. https://doi.org/10.2307/258109

Blakemore J. L., Barlow D., & Padgett D.L. (1995). From the classroom to the

community & colon; introducing process in police diversity training. Police

Studies: International Review of Police Development, (1), 71.

https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004470

Brown, E. L. (2004). What precipitates change in cultural diversity awareness during a

multicultural course: the message or the method? Journal of Teacher Education,

55(4), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487104266746

Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., & Crawford, L. M (2016). The scholar practitioner’s

guide to research design. Laureate Publishing.

Campbell, D. T., Stanley, J. C., & Gage, N. L. (1963). Experimental and quasi-

experimental designs for research. Houghton, Mifflin and Company.

Case, K. (2007). Raising white privilege awareness and reducing racial prejudice:

Assessing diversity course effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology. Autumn 2007,

34(4), 231-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280701700250

Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy in multi-disciplined teaching and learning.

Journal of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-35.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ930244.pdf

112

College Board. (2019, March 3). Major spotlight: What is a criminal justice major.

https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/majors/security-protective-services-criminal-

justice-corrections-criminal-justice

Conti, N. (2006). Role call: Preprofessional socialization into police culture. Policing &

Society, 16(3), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460500309865

Conti, N., & Doreian, P. (2010). Social network engineering and race in a police

academy: A longitudinal analysis. Social Networks, 32(1), 30–43.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2009.08.001

Dantzker, M. L. (2003). Criminal justice: why major, employment goals, and perceptions

of situations: an exploratory examination among criminal justice students. Police

Forum, 13(1): 1-4.

Danver, S. (Ed.) (2016). The SAGE encyclopedia of online education (Vols. 1-3). SAGE

Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483318332

Finckenauer, J. O. (2005). The quest for quality in criminal justice education. Justice

Quarterly, 22(4), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820500364635

Frankfort-Nachmias, C. & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences

(7th ed.). Wadsworth.

Hirschinger-Blank, N. B., Simons, L., & Kenyon, A. (2009). An evaluation of a service-

learning model for criminal justice undergraduate students. Journal of

Experiential Education, 32(1), 61-78.

https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590903200106

113

Justice Center: The Council of State Governments. (2014). Second Chance Act.

http://csgjusticecenter.org/nrrc/projects/second-chance-act/

Kelley, T. M. (2004). Reviewing criminal justice baccalaureate curricula: the importance

of student input. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 15(2), 219-237.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250400085961

Kernahan, C., & Davis, T. (2007). Changing perspective: How learning about racism

influences student awareness and emotion. Teaching of Psychology, 34(1), 49-52.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280709336651

Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to

andragogy (revised and updated). Cambridge Audit Education.

Krimmel, J. T. & Tartaro (1999). Career choices and characteristics of criminal justice

undergraduates. Journal of Criminal Justice Education; 10(2) 227-289.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10511259900084591

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive

theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of

Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79-113. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027

Martin, J. S. & Hanrahan, K. (2004). Criminology freshmen: Preparation, expectations,

and college performance. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 15(2), 287-309.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250400085991

Mayhew, M. J., & Fernandez, S. D. (2007). Pedagogical practices that contribute to

social justice outcomes. The Review of Higher Education, 31(1), 55– 80.

https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2007.0055

114 
 
McMorris, M. A. (2001). Perceptions of Criminality: Michigan Police recruits rank 
likely criminal types year 2000 exploratory study [Doctoral dissertation]. 
https://about.proquest.com/en/products-services/pqdtglobal/ 
Merriam-Webster.com. (2019). Diversity. https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/diversity  
Merriam-Webster.com. (2019). Perception. https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/perception  
Mistry, R. S., Brown, C. S., Chow, K. A., & Collins, G. S. (2012). Increasing the 
complexity of young adolescents’ beliefs about poverty and inequality: results of 
an 8th grade social studies curriculum intervention. Journal of Youth and 
Adolescence, (6), 704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9699-6  
Oliver, W.M. (2015). Celebrating 100 years of criminal justice education, 1916-2016. 
Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 27(4), 455-472, 
https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2016.1186992 
Paone, T. R., Malott, K. M., & Barr, J. J. (2015). Assessing the impact of a race‐based 
course on counseling students: A quantitative study. Journal of Multicultural 
Counseling and Development, 43(3), 206-220. 
https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12015 
Pezzella, F. S., Paladino A., Zoller, C., & Mandery, E. (2014). The efficacy of student 
learning in large-sized criminal justice preparatory classes. Journal of Criminal 
Justice Education, 25(1), 106-130. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2013.875214  

115

Rudestam, K. E., & Newton, R. R. (2015). Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive

guide to content and process (4th ed.). Sage.

Saleh, M. F., Anngela-Cole, L., & Boateng, A. (2010). Effectiveness of diversity infusion

modules on students’ attitudes. Behaviors, and knowledge. Journal of Ethics &

Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 20(3), 240-257.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2011.594995

Schlosser, M. D. (2013). Racial attitudes of police recruits in the United States Midwest

Police Academy: A quantitative examination. International Journal of Criminal

Justice Sciences, 8(2), 215–224.

https://www.sascv.org/ijcjs/pdfs/schlosserijcjs2013vol8issue2.pdf

Sereni-Massinger, C. Wood, N (2016). Improving law enforcement cross cultural

competencies through continued education. Journal of Education and Learning,

5(2) 258-264. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n2p258

Southerland, M. D. (2002). Criminal justice curricula in the United States: A decade of

change. JQ: Justice Quarterly, 19(4), 589.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820200095361.

Tarver, M. L. (2003). Criminal justice practitioners. In E. Hickey (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

murder and violent crime (pp. 99-101). SAGE Publications.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950619.n104

U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Census 2000 data from the State of New Jersey and the State

of New York: General demographic characteristics.

https://data.census.gov/cedsci/

116

U.S. Census Bureau (2010). Census 2010 data from the State of New Jersey and the State

of New York: General demographic characteristics.

https://data.census.gov/cedsci/

U.S. Census Bureau (2015). Comparing 2015 American Community Survey data.

https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/guidance/comparing-acs-

data/2015.html

Williams, S., Lutz, B., Hampton, C., Matusovich, H., & Lee, W. (2016). Exploring

student motivation towards diversity education in engineering. 2016 IEEE

Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), Erie, PA, USA, 2016, pp. 1-5.

https://doi.org/10.1109/fie.2016.7757565

Zimny, K. (2015). Racial attitudes of police recruits at the United States Midwest Police

Academy: A second examination. International Journal of Criminal Justice

Sciences, 10(1), 91-101.

https://www.sascv.org/ijcjs/pdfs/zimnyijcjs2015vol10issue1.pdf

117

Appendix A: National Institute of Health (NIH) Certificate

118

Appendix B: Email Permission to Use Instrument

Deborah Palicia

Reply all|

Tue 11/6/2018, 3:50 PM

Sent Items

Hello Dr. McMorris,

My name is Deborah Palicia and I am a doctoral student at Walden University working

on my dissertation entitled: The Relationship of Diversity Education on the Perceptions

of Criminal Justice Majors. While conducting my research I found your dissertation and

survey. I am seeking permission to use your survey for my study.

If you would like to speak with me regarding the details or have any questions, please

let me know when would be a good time to talk or feel free to call me on my phone

number below.

I thank you for your time and hope to hear back from you.

Enjoy the day!!

Deborah Palicia

Michael McMorris

Reply all|

Sat 12/8/2018, 10:02 AM

Deborah Palicia

Good morning Deborah,

I have received the $200 payment, via PayPal. Please enjoy using my survey

instrument to assist you in your research, for your Dissertation.

Please let me know if there is anything else I can do for you.

Feel welcome to contact me anytime via email or cell

Thank you,Michael

P.S. What is the title of your Dissertation?

Dr. Michael A. McMorris

119

Appendix C: Research Question 1 Chi-Square Analysis

Table C1

Q1 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Murder Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most

likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

2.203

.332

White

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of murder most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 2.20, p = .33 (as shown in Table 38). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit murder and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

120

Table C2

Q2 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Murder Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

1.282

.527

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of murder least likely to commit murder

and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 1.28, p = .53 (as shown in Table 39). Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit murder and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null

hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

121

Table C3

Q3Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Forcible Rape Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

2.840

.242

White

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of forcible rape most likely to commit and

a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 2.84, p = .24 (as shown in Table 40). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit forcible rape and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

122

Table C4

Q4Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Forcible Rape Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Asian American

.185

.667

Black, White,

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of forcible rape least likely to commit and

a diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .19, p = .67 (as shown in Table 41). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to

commit forcible rape and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

123

Table C5

Q5 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Robbery Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race- Most Likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

.701

.403

White, Hispanic,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of robbery most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .70, p = .40 (as shown in Table 42). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit robbery and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

124

Table C6

Q6 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Robbery Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Asian American

0.25

.874

Black, White,

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of robbery least likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .025, p = .87 (as shown in Table 43). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to

commit robbery and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

Table C7

Q7 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Aggravated Assault Most Likely by

Diversity Course.

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

0.44

.833

White, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

125

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of aggravated assault most likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = .44, p = .83 (as shown in Table 44). Thus,

I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most

likely to commit aggravated assault and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the

null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

Table C8

Q8 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Aggravated Assault Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

4.179

.124

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of aggravated assault least likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 4.18, p = .12 (as shown in Table 45) .

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

least likely to commit aggravated assault and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore,

126

the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of

the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

Table C9

Q9 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Burglary Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

3.44

.179

White

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of burglary most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 3.44, p = .18 (as shown in Table 46). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit burglary and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

127

Table C10

Q10 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Burglary Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Asian American

3.111

0.78

Black, White,

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of burglary least likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ212, N = 72) = 3.11, p = .08 (as shown in Table 47). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to

commit burglary and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

128

Table C11

Q11 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Larceny/Theft Most Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

0.18

.991

White

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of larceny/theft most likely to commit and

a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = .20, p = .99 (as shown in Table 48). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit larceny/theft and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

129

Table C12

Q13 Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Motor Vehicle Theft Most Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

.101

.751

White, Hispanic,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of motor vehicle theft most likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .10, p = .75 (as shown in Table 49). Thus,

I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most

likely to commit motor vehicle theft and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the

null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

130

Table C13

Q14 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Motor Vehicle Theft Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

1.162

.559

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of motor vehicle theft least likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 1.16, p = .56 (as shown in Table 50).

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

least likely to commit motor vehicle theft and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore,

the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of

the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

131

Table C14

Q15 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Arson Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

1.200

.273

Black, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of arson most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 1.20, p = .27 (as shown in Table 51). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit arson and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

132

Table C15

Q16 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Arson Least Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Asian American

.900

.343

Black, White

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of arson least likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .90, p = .34 (as shown in Table 52). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to

commit arson and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

133

Table C16

Q17 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Fraud Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

1.936

.164

Black, Hispanic,

Native, American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of fraud most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 1.94, p = .16 (as shown in Table 53). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit fraud and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

134

Table C17

Q19 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Embezzlement Most Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

.038

.846

Black, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of embezzlement most likely to commit

and a diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .04, p = .85 (as shown in Table 54). Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most

likely to commit embezzlement and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null

hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

135

Table C18

Q20 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Embezzlement Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

.375

.829

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of embezzlement least likely to commit

and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = .38, p = .83 (as shown in Table 55). Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit embezzlement and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null

hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the

criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

136

Table C19

Q21 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Drug Law Violations Most Likely by

Diversity Course

Race- Most

Likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Black

1.471

.225

White, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of drug law violations most likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 1.47, p = .23 (as shown in Table 56).

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

most likely to commit drug law violations and enrollment in a diversity course.

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity

perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the

criminal justice students who had not cannot be rejected.

137

Table C20

Q22 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Drug Law Violations Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likley

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

.720

.698

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of drug law violation least likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ22, N = 72) = .72, p = .70(as shown in Table 57). Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit drug law violations and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the

null that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal

justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who

had not cannot be rejected.

138

Table C21

Q23 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Driving Under the Influence Most

Likely by Diversity Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

.180

.671

Black, Hispanic,

Native American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of driving under the influence most likely

to commit and a diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .18, p = .67 (as shown in Table 58).

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

most likely to commit driving under the influence and enrollment in a diversity course.

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity

perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the

criminal justice students who had not cannot be rejected.

139

Table C22

Q24 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Driving Under the Influence Least

Likely by Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

3.265

.195

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of driving under the influence least likely

to commit and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 3.27, p = .20 (as shown in Table 59).

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

least likely to commit driving under the influence and enrollment in a diversity course.

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity

perspectives of the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the

criminal justice students who had not cannot be rejected.

140

Table C23

Q26 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Weapons Violations Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

1.401

.496

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ26 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of weapons violations least likely to

commit and a diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 1.40, p = .50 (as shown in Table 60).

Thus, I concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those

least likely to commit weapons violations and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore,

the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of

the criminal justice students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice

students who had not cannot be rejected.

141

Table C24

Q27 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Kidnapping Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

.000

1.0

Black, Hispanic,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of kidnapping most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = .00, p = 1.00 (as shown in Table 61). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit kidnapping and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

142

Table C25

Q29 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Hate Crimes Most Likely by Diversity

Course

Race-most likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

White

3.661

.056

Black, Hispanic,

Native American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of hate crimes most likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(1, N = 72) = 3.66, p = .06 (as shown in Table 62). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to

commit hate crimes and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

143

Table C26

Q30 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Hate Crimes Least Likely by

Diversity Course

Race-least likely

Diversity

course

Yes

Total

χ2

Native American

3.685

1.58

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ1 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of hate crimes least likely to commit and a

diversity course: χ2(2, N = 72) = 3.69, p = .16 (as shown in Table 63). Thus, I concluded

that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to

commit hate crimes and enrollment in a diversity course. Therefore, the null hypothesis

that there is no significant difference in the diversity perspectives of the criminal justice

students who took a diversity course between the criminal justice students who had not

cannot be rejected.

144

Appendix D: Research Question 2 Chi-Square Analysis

Table D1

Q1 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Murder Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

.346

.841

White

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of murder most likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .35, p = .84 (as shown in Table 64) . Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

murder and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D2

Q2 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Murder Least Likely by Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

1.590

.452

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

145

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of murder least likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = 1.59, p = .45 (as shown in Table 65). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

murder and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D3

Q3 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Forcible Rape Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

.907

.635

White

Hispanic, Native

American, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of forcible rape most likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .91, p = .64 (as shown in Table 66). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

forcible rape and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

146

Table D4

Q4 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Forcible Rape Least Likely by Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Asian American

1.706

.192

Black, White,

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of forcible rape least likely to commit and

gender: χ2(1, N = 72) = 1.71, p = .19 (as shown in Table 67). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

forcible rape and gender. Therefore the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D5

Q5 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Robbery Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

.840

.359

White, Hispanic,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of robbery most likely to commit and

gender: χ2(1, N = 72) = .84, p = .36 (as shown in Table 68) . Thus, I concluded that there

147

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

robbery and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D6

Q6 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Robbery Least Likely by Gender

Race-least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

.375

.829

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of robbery least likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .38, p = .83 (as shown in Table 69). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit

robbery and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

148

Table D7

Q7 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Aggravated Assault Most Likely by

Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

2.072

.150

White, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of aggravated assault most likely to

commit and gender: χ2(1, N = 72) = 2.07, p = .15 (as shown in Table 70). Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most

likely to commit aggravated assault and gender. Therefore, null hypothesis there is no

significant difference between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity

perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D8

Q8 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Aggravated Assault Least Likely by

Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

.151

.927

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

149

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of aggravated assault least likely to

commit and gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .15, p = .92 (as shown in Table 71) . Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit aggravated assault and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no

significant difference between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity

perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D9

Q9 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Burglary Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

.906

.636

White

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of burglary most likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .91, p = .64 (as shown in Table 72). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

burglary and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

150

Table D10

Q10 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Burglary Least Likely by Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

.436

.804

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of burglary least likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .44, p = .80 (as shown in Table 73). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit

burglary and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D11

Q11 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Larceny Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

.656

.720

White

Hispanic, Native

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of larceny most likely to commit and

151

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .66, p = .72 (as shown in Table 74). Thus, I concluded that there

is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit

larceny and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference

between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be

rejected.

Table D12

Q12 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Larceny Least Likely by Gender

Race-least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

.629

.730

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of larceny least likely to commit and

gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = .63, p = .73 (as shown in Table 75) Thus, I concluded that there is

no association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit larceny

and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference between male

and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be rejected.

152

Table D13

Q13 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Motor Vehicle Theft Most Likely by

Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Black

1.031

.597

White

Hispanic, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of motor vehicle theft most likely to

commit and gender: χ2(2, N= 72) = 1.03, p = .60 (as shown in Table 76) . Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those most

likely to commit motor vehicle theft and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is

no significant difference between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity

perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D14

Q14 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Motor Vehicle Theft Least Likely by

Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

2.678

.262

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

153

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of motor vehicle theft least likely to

commit and gender: χ2(2, N = 72) = 2.68, p = .26 (as shown in Table 77) . Thus, I

concluded that there is no association between the diversity perspectives of those least

likely to commit murder and gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant

difference between male and female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives

cannot be rejected.

Table D15

Q15 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Arson Most Likely by Gender

Race- most

likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

White

3.152

.076

Black, Hispanic,

Native

American, Asian

American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of arson most likely to commit and gender:

χ2(1, N = 72) = 3.15, p = .08 (as shown in Table 78) . Thus, I concluded that there is no

association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit arson and

gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference between male and

female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be rejected.

154

Table D16

Q16 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Arson Least Likely by Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

2.316

.314

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of arson least likely to commit and gender:

χ2(2, N = 72) = 2.32, p = .31 (as shown in Table 79). Thus, I concluded that there is no

association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit murder and

gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference between male and

female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D17

Q17 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Fraud Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

White

1.06

.745

Black, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of fraud most likely to commit and gender:

χ2(1, N = 72) = 1.06, p = .75 (as shown in Table 80). Thus, I concluded that there is no

association between the diversity perspectives of those most likely to commit fraud and

155

gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference between male and

female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D18

Q18 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Fraud Least Likely by Gender

Race- least likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

Native American

.287

.866

Asian American

Black, White,

Hispanic

Total

The results of the chi-square analysis for RQ2 revealed a nonsignificant

association between the diversity perspectives of fraud least likely to commit and gender:

χ2(2, N = 72) = .29, p = .87 (as shown in Table 81) . Thus, I concluded that there is no

association between the diversity perspectives of those least likely to commit fraud and

gender. Therefore, the null hypothesis there is no significant difference between male and

female criminal justice student’s diversity perspectives cannot be rejected.

Table D19

Q19 Cross Tabulations and Chi-Square Results for Embezzlement Most Likely by Gender

Race- most likely

Gender

Male

Female

Total

χ2

White

1.192

.275

Black, Hispanic,

Native American,

Asian American

Total

Students also viewed