Forensic Archeology
Relatively new in the forensic world, forensic archeology is the use of archeological methods by
experts to exhume crimes scenes, including bodies. These forensic experts are trained to
methodically excavate and record their dig. They document the recovery of artifacts (evidence),
such as human remains, weapons, and other buried items, that may be relevant to the criminal
event. Forensic archeologists will often work in concert with other forensic experts in DNA,
physical matching, forensic entomology, and forensic odontology in the examination of
evidence.
Forensic Entomology
Forensic entomology is a very narrow field of forensic science that focuses on the life cycle of
bugs. When a dead body has been left out in the elements and allowed to decompose, the
investigative challenge is not only to identify the body, but to establish the time of death. Once a
body has decomposed, the process of determining time of death can be aided by a forensic
entomologist. As discussed in a previous chapter, these experts look at the bugs that live on a
decomposing body through the various stages of their life cycle. From these life-cycle
calculations, scientists are sometimes able to offer and estimate relative time of death.
Forensic Odontology
To paraphrase the description provided by Dr. Leung (2008), forensic odontology is essentially
forensic dentistry and includes the expert analysis of various aspects of teeth for the purposes of
investigation. Since the advent of dental x-rays, dental records have been used as a reliable
source of comparison data to confirm the identity of bodies that were otherwise too damaged or
too decomposed to identify through other means. The development of DNA and the ability to use
DNA in the identification of badly decomposed human remains has made identity through dental
records less critical. That said, even in a badly decomposed or damaged corpse, teeth can retain
DNA material inside the tooth, allowing it to remain a viable source of post-mortem DNA
evidence (Gaytmenn, 2003).
Beyond the identification of dead bodies, forensic odontology can sometimes also provide
investigators with assistance in confirming the possible identity of a suspect responsible for a
bite mark. This comparison is done by the examination and photographic preservation of the bite
mark on a victim or an object, and the subsequent matching of the details in that bite mark
configuration to a dental mould showing the bite configuration of a known suspect’s teeth.
Although bite mark comparison has been in practice for over fifty years there remain questions
to the reliability for exact matching of an unknown bite mark to a suspect (Giannelli, 2007).
Forensic Engineering
Forensic engineering is a type of investigative engineering that examines materials, structures,
and mechanical devices to answer a wide range of questions. Often used in cases of car crashes,
forensic engineers can often estimate the speed of a vehicle by examining the extent of damage
to a vehicle. They can also match damage between vehicles and road surface to determine the
point of impact and speed at the time of impact. Many police agencies now have specialized
traffic personnel trained in accident analysis and accident reconstruction. These officers utilize a
variety of forensic engineering techniques to examine and document the dynamics of car crashes
to establish how and why a crash occurred.
In cases of building collapses, forensic engineers can conduct analyzes to determine the cause of
a structural failure and, in the case of an intention explosion, such as in acts of terrorism, this can
point to the location of the planted explosive device. The investigative possibilities for forensic
engineering are too extensive to elaborate here, but if damage to a building, an object, or a piece
of equipment poses an investigative question, the tools of forensic engineering should be used to
seek answers.
Criminal Profiling
Criminal profiling, also referred to as psychological profiling, is the study of criminal conduct to
develop the most likely social and psychological profile of the person who may have committed
the crime based on the actions of known criminals who have committed that same type of crime
in the past (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2015). Criminal profiling draws on information
from many sources, including historical criminal statistics of known criminals. Additionally,
other information is collected about violent criminals and their modus operandi. This kind of
information can shed light on details, such as preferences for luring victims, taking trophies,
abduction methods, bondage preference, torture methods, means of killing, and displaying a dead
body after death. With information and specific data collected from a wide assortment of
offenders, psychological profilers work with investigators to examine the details of a criminal
investigation, and, based upon the known historical criminal conduct data, they determine
probable descriptors and characteristics that might be expected in a current suspect’s profile.
For investigators, this kind of profiling can be helpful in focusing the investigation on the most
likely persons. As an extension of these profiling techniques, a database known as Violent Crime
Linkage Analysis System (ViCLAS) has been in place in Canada since the 1990s. This system
documents the criminal conduct of convicted violent offenders and sex offenders, as well as
certain unsolved cases, with a goal of documenting crime types and criminal conduct into a
searchable database where unsolved crimes can be linked to offenders with matching profiles.
According to the ViCLAS system web page, “Since the implementation of ViCLAS across the
country, the database continues to swell with cases. As of April 2007, there were approximately
300,000 cases on the system and over 3,200 linkages have been made thus far,” (Royal Canadian
Mounted Police, 2015). Criminal profiling provides a valuable tool for sorting and prioritizing
suspects identified for further investigation. In some cases, a new suspect may even be identified
through the existing data within the ViCLAS database.
Geographic Profiling
Geographic profiling is similar to psychological profiling in that it seeks to focus on the possible
conduct of an unknown criminal based on the data collected from the known past criminal
conduct of others. Unlike psychological profiling, geographic profiling is focused specifically on
where a suspect might reside relative to the location where his or her crimes are currently being
committed.
In the late 1980’s, police Detective Inspector Kim Rossmo developed a mathematical formula
that began the evolution in the new forensic science of geographic profiling. Dr. Rossmo
validated his mathematical formula from his observation that criminals generally seemed to live
within an identifiable proximity to the chosen locations where they committed their crimes
(Rossmo, 1987). Applying this method, when a criminal is suspected of committing a series of
offences, it is possible to have the locations of those offences examined by a geographic profiler
to estimate where that suspect most likely resides. This assessment can be helpful in searching
for and identifying new suspects by prioritizing suspects based on the location of their residence
relative to the identified area with the highest probability for a suspect to be found.
Forensic Data Analysis
In today’s digital world, criminal conduct frequently includes evidence in the form of digital
data. The collection of data from cellular phones as proof of a criminal conspiracy, or the
message tracking of images passed in the distribution of child pornography, all require
significant levels of specialized technological knowledge to collect, preserve, and analyze the
exhibits. Some crimes, such as identity theft and the subsequent fraudulent misappropriation of
funds, are almost entirely digital data crimes, and they cross over several fields of technological
expertise. It is now incumbent upon ordinary investigators to understand the basics of how to
preserve digital evidence, and to know when and if digital evidence may be present. An ordinary
investigator without forensic data skills and qualifications should never attempt to recover digital
data evidence without help. The destruction of evidence would be like an untrained investigator
trying to lift fingerprints at a crime scene.
Forensic Document Analysis
Forensic document analysis is typically done by certified forensic document examiners working
as independent contractors or as employees within the service of government funded crime
detection laboratories. Most often tasked within the scope of fraud investigations, these
specialists examine items, such as wills, land titles, contracts, deeds, seals, stamps, bank checks,
identification cards, handwritten documents and documents from photocopiers, fax machines,
and printers. These documents are often examined to authenticate them as genuine or unaltered
original documents where an allegation of misrepresentation or fraud has been made. Original
signatures are also sometimes called into question, and these examiners can make a
determination of authenticity by comparing the signature sample to samples known to be
genuine. Forensic experts are also called upon to analyze threatening letters, ransom letters, or
hold-up notes to make a connection to an identified suspect.
Forensic Identification Sections
Forensic identification sections are the frontline forensic specialists typically working within
their own police agency. Usually, these specialists are experienced police officers who have
taken forensic training in photography, fingerprint examination, physical matching, evidence
collection, and crime scene management to work within this type of section. The daily work of
forensic identification sections involves attending crime scenes, and conducting a variety of
examinations using special fingerprint dusts, chemical fuming agents, and ultraviolet light
sources to uncover impressions of fingerprint, shoeprints, tool marks or even body fluid stains
not visible to the naked eye. Once the stain or the image of a forensic impression is found, these
specialists can record, preserve, and recover the exhibit using photography and specialized tools
for lifting the exhibit from a surface or removing the entire imprinted surface as an exhibit.
Crime Detection Laboratories
Crime Detection Laboratories, such as the RCMP labs across Canada, provide a range of
specialties, including;
•Biology – Comparison of the suspect’s and victim’s body fluids and hair; most often DNA
analysis
•Chemistry – Identifying non-biological substances found at a crime scene, such as
paint, glass, liquids, fuels, and explosive substances
•Toxicology – The examination of body fluids to determine the level of alcohol present
in the body, and providing expert opinions in relation to the extent of intoxication
•Documents Examination – The analysis of documents to determine authenticity for fraud
allegations. Can also provide handwriting comparison
•Firearms Ballistics – Matching shells, casing, and fired bullets to a weapon and making a
determination of bullet trajectory
•Tool mark examination – Matching tool impressions to an originating suspect tool
Scientists hired to work in these crime detection laboratories require a four year specialized
degree in the field of their choice. Once hired, they undergo an understudy period of 12 to 18
months in a laboratory with an expectation that they will become proficient enough in their
chosen field to achieve expert qualification from the court. This expert status will allow them, on
a case-by-case basis, to render expert opinion evidence on their examination of forensic exhibits.
For an investigator wishing to engage the services of the Crime Detection Laboratory, it is
necessary to complete a request for analysis of the exhibit they wish to have examined and
deliver that exhibit, either in person or by double registered mail, directly to the Crime Detection
Laboratory to ensure continuity of the exhibit. Once examined, the analyst will return the exhibit
again either by calling for a personal pick up or by double registered mail along with a certificate
of analysis detailing the result of the examination. The certificate of analysis can become an
exhibit for disclosure to the defense in a criminal case, and, if uncontested, will be accepted by
the court as evidence. If contested, the Crime Detection Laboratory Scientist will be called to
attend court and provide testimony of the examination and the results as an expert witness. They
are generally cross examined by the defense to validate their expert qualifications and analyzes.
Summary
This chapter outlined a wide variety of forensic tools and services available for criminal
investigators. For any investigator, knowledge of forensic tools and services provides him/her
with the ability to recognize and seize on evidence opportunities that would not otherwise be
possible. The picture of physical evidence found at any crime scene only has face value as a
collection of objects to be viewed and considered in their existing connection to the event.
Analysis of those same objects using forensic tools can add significant information, making a
circumstantial connection between the players and the event, and adding new insights. Forensic
analysis can make the difference between solving a crime and it becoming a cold case.
