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Title: Single Parenting and Related Health Risks
Samuel Yant
School of Behavioral Sciences, Liberty University
CCOU 304: Christian Counseling for Women
Dr. Amy Feigel
October 12, 2020
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Single Parenting and Related Health Risks
Introduction
The past 50 years has revealed drastic changes in single parent households within the
United states. Defining this nucleus, Babalis (2018) presents single parenting as “uncoupled
individuals who [carry] most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities [while also] raising…
children” (p. 43). Meera brings light to this broken family escalation, stating, “[single parent
households] have risen from 9% in 1960 to 28% in 2014” (2020, p. 200). This increase seems to
align with Dlugonski’s affirmation of the 2011 U.S. Census Bureau which shows “single [parent]
households making up more than 25% of all households with children in the United States”
(2016, p. 311). Babalis shows teenage pregnancy as a contributing factor to this growing crisis
with “more than 300,000 children [being] born to teenage mothers [each year]” (2018, p. 4). He
also presents another disheartening figure of “23% of single mothers [under the age of thirty]
living in poverty” (p. 52). Expounding on this dilemma, Shester states, “the share of births to
unmarried women [from 1950 to 2010 has] increased from 4% to 40.8%” (2019, p. 370).
Repercussions from this family crisis include single mothers (and fathers) absorbing the difficult
task of balancing work and family. Dlugonski relays that, “[an estimated] 86% of single
parents place their children’s needs and… responsibilities before their own [health]” (2016, p.
313). Shouldering external demands coupled with internal stress including lack of finances,
time, energy, and (many times) education, single parents find themselves struggling physically,
distressed mentally, depressed emotionally, disrupted socially, and demoralized personally.
McClafferty (2019) relates, “there are many physical, mental and emotional consequences that
emerge in [the health of single parents]” (p. 47). Single parenting has shown an increase in
health risks in women’s physical, mental/ emotional, and social well-being.
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Health risks in woman’s physical well-being
Single mothers find themselves depleted physically as they take on multiple roles
and added responsibilities. This issue of provision deprivation can come by simply attempting
to accomplish individually (as a single parent), what normally may be difficult in a two-parent
household. It also can come as single moms try to meet social expectations which can become
the basis for overextending their limitations. Williams states, “sometimes [their efforts of filling
demands of life become a] question of “perpetuating systems [single parents] are trying to defy”
(2018, par 10). The economic stress bears weight on single mothers who give themselves to
provide for their children and (sometimes) their extended family. Babalis states, “low
socioeconomic status, coupled with unemployment and poverty has serious consequences for
mothers raising their children alone” (2018, p. 50). In addition to provisionary struggles,
priority tension between work needs and family needs adds additional perplexity to the single
mother’s predicament. Dlugonski states, “research has suggested that poor health among single
mothers may be due to role overload, conflict between work and home responsibilities, and
increased stress” (2016, p. 311). Looking for possible assistance, a single mother encounters the
need for external support as she attempts to maintain her work schedule and accommodate
caregiving demands for her children. Babalis states that a “lack of the father’s involvement in
childcare is another significant work obstacle” (2018, p. 151). He further shows a “lack of
willingness from family and friends to provide childcare [to enable] them to engage in work
related activities...[which hinders] single mothers from [succeeding] in the labor market” (p.
151). By combining their dual family/work roles, their low socioeconomic status, and their
limited external support, single mothers may begin to encounter additional health tolls effecting
other areas of their lives.
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Atkins (2010) affirms, “health promotion focused on [increased] levels of wellbeing, by
increasing activities which result in improved health, optimize functional ability and better
quality of life throughout a lifespan” (par 5). Many times, however, working mothers may not
have the energy or willingness to prioritize such physical wellness. Physical fitness seems to
help counterbalance the negative effects of high stress felt by single mothers. Hislop states, “an
effective tool to help the body as well as provide mental and emotional recharge is physical
exercise” (2010, p. 79, Kindle). Single mothers may know the positive effects, but they also
tend to focus on the immediate demands around them in attempt to survive as a provider and
caregiver. Dlugonski emphasizes this realization by stating, “regardless of activity levels, most
single mothers expressed the need to [simply] get through each day one day at a time” (2016, p.
316). With a day-to-day mentality as they face continued demands, single mothers may look at
their limitations and feel the impossibility of adding other burdens to their overtasked existence
and under-replenished needs. Babalis states in his study that “60% of single mothers never
exercised regularly (2018, p. 46). Financial hinderances and time limitations on mothers living
in hardship may also affect their physical well-being. Dlugonski states, a lack of physical
activity has been attributed to, “fatigue, lack of social support, lack of childcare, family
responsibilities, and guilt (2016, p. 311). She maintains in her study that “all the single
mothers… reported ‘lack of time’ as a barrier to their participation [to enhance physical
wellness]” (p. 313). Of those interviewed who seemed to cross this hurdle, “57% reported
[receiving] social support …[which included] having encouragement for physical activity or
having someone to provide childcare” (p. 314). Outside support seems essential for single
mothers who increase their physical activity and self-care. Dlugonski maintains that “behavioral
interventions need to be “designed...to promote physical activity that are tailored to the motives
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and needs of single and working mothers” (p. 315). This proactivity can produce positive
effects. Hislop (2010) states, “physical workouts affect us emotionally …[because] the body
typically feels sluggish, lethargic, and achy” (p. 79, Kindle). She continues advising that
“exercise releases endorphins, the ‘feel-good’ hormones, as well as provides an outlet for
stress… [which makes a way to battle and] defeat depression (p. 79, Kindle). Single mothers,
who do not exercise physically, may inadvertently open the door to other corpulent issues
causing more serious health conditions. McCafferty asserts, “there is a negative physical effect
on [single mothers, including] increased blood pressure, cortisol levels, and heart rate.” (2019, p.
57). Dlugonski maintains, “single motherhood has been associated with negative health
consequences such as… cardiovascular disease...and diabetes” (2016, p. 311). Babalis quotes
Helferich who writes, “single mothers reported allergies, renal and liver disease, and
unhealthy nutrition more frequently than married mothers” (2018, p. 46). High stress, lack of
energy and motivation, and physical health decline tend to correlate with other chronic issues.
Babalis states, “several studies have shown that mothers who are parenting alone are at risk of
chronic physical illness” (2018, p. 45). Physical pain may become a chronic condition
developed by the overtaxed lifestyle or by a depressed mental state. Fitzpatrick (2010) explains,
“[conditions] may include exhaustion, sickness, chronic pain, thyroid problems, or lack of
sleep.” (p. 114). Regarding physical rest, Babalis affirms that, “single parents...have the worst
sleep on almost all measures” (2018, p. 47). This downward cycle does not seem to remain
stagnant. Chronic illnesses can extend to cognitive issues. Babalis concludes that “chronic
stress [will] likely affect…a single mother’s mental health” (2018, p. 42). With increased
pressures and decreased health, these developing conditions may lead towards an embracement
of imbalanced, unhealthy, and unchecked thoughts and behaviors as guilt and depression may
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begin to develop. Atkins reports that “health behaviors in chronic illnesses…are influenced
by… variables [predicting] the frequency of disruption of normal routines, coping skills,
perception of control, social support, and health and illness beliefs” (2010, par. 6,7). These
behaviors and conditions attributed to single motherhood seem to lead to additional risks in a
woman’s mental and emotional health.
Health risks in women’s mental/emotional well-being
Babalis states, “mental health is an integral part of general health,
reflecting equilibrium between the individual and their environment” (2018, p. 44). He then
divides mental health in “two dimensions: positive and negative” (p. 45). In earlier days,
attention given to mental health appears to have focused on mental illness. However, according
to Babalis, “In recent years, the concept of mental health has been expanded to include not only
mental illness, but also focuses on the important aspects of positive mental health” (2018, p. 45).
Relating to positive mental health, he continues by identifying those “individuals who
demonstrate positive effects and personality traits, such as high levels of self-esteem, sense of
mastery, sense of coherence…[ability] to cope with adversity, and avoidance of breakdown from
stressful situations” (2018, p. 45). In opposition to mental and emotional stability, Babalis
asserts that “chronic stress is likely to have a negative impact on the physical and mental health
of single parents” (2018, p. 45). Atkins expands the subjectivity of mental/emotional instability
to include: “mood and thoughts, subjective negativity, somatic disturbances, and a desire for
self‐harm and social withdrawal” (2010, par. 1). Reasons for this may be connected to certain
deficiencies. Self-dimension, expressed as one’s self-esteem, seems to find itself in the top rung
of one’s identity and homeostasis of psychological balance or imbalance. Although no one can
say he or she has more value than the next person, a mother who sees her life continue in
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external oppression and internal depression may deem herself as less than valuable. Babalis
affirms this tendency, stating, “due to the multiple roles single parents have to play, they are
more prone to low self-esteem and may have difficulty accepting their family and their own
situation” (2018, p. 48). He interconnects a single mother’s self-dimension with her
environment when he writes, “low socioeconomic status, coupled with unemployment and
poverty has serious consequences for mothers raising their children alone” (2018, p. 50). Liss
shows that “guilt and shame are emotions commonly associated with motherhood” (2013, p.
1112). She refers to Higgin’s “Self-Discrepancy Theory” which purports “the degree of
discrepancy (between the actual and ideal self) relates to a variety of mental health outcomes”
(p. 1113). Maternal guilt may find its way into the woman’s psyche as women “experience a
discrepancy between their actual sense of self and their ideal sense of who they think they
should be as a mother” (Atkins, 2010, par. 6). As single mothers succumb to this subjective
tendency, they tend to glaze their personal identity with guilt ridden thoughts. Liss shows that
“society sets a very high standard for being a perfect, intensive mother, [which continues to be]
internalized by women” (2013, p. 1113). In this conflict between the real and ideal, a single
mother may envision her perfect world and become disenfranchised as her ideal economic
provision and her ideal relationship provision remain disconnected. Desiring to overcome the
odds, single parents may find themselves overridden with the guilt of not measuring up as they
compare their situations to dual parent households. Slobodin (2020) extends this tendency of
“parental guilt...[as becoming] closely related with both parental distress and parenting
behaviors.” (p. 1915). She relates this to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), introduced by
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, which “posits that all individuals are endowed with three
universal psychological needs: the need for autonomy; the need for competence, and the need
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for relatedness” (2020, p. 1915). Self-determination directs attention to “human motivation,
development, and wellness” (Deci, 2008, p. 182). Slobodin continues, “SDT suggests that
“guilt-based, introjected motivation may be detrimental to [an] individual’s well-being...and
may further exacerbate feelings of need frustration and may ultimately lead to a deficient cycle
in the relationship between parent and child” (2020, p. 1915). Strong self-determination
translates to healthy parenting. Slobodin suggests, “supportive parents take the child’s frame of
reference, encourage volition function in their children, provide a meaningful rationale for limits
and demands, give choices within these limits, and acknowledge their child’s feelings” (2020, p.
1915). Contrarily, weak self-determination can cause unhealthy parenting. Slobodin gives the
example that “single parents [will] likely engage in controlled...parenting when they feel
pressured themselves by not having their psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness satisfied” (2020, p. 1915). This condition tends to cause parents to “ignore their
child’s opinions, threaten or punish if the child does not comply, and use intrusive and
manipulative strategies such as guilt induction and shame” (Slobodin, 2020, 1915). The
tendency to respond to relational situations out of controlling behavior caused by a lack of self-
dimension, self-discrepancy guilt, and lack of self-determination tends to further advance
unhealthy mental and emotional effects.
Babalis identifies internal and external influences on a woman’s health, stating, “several
factors influence mental health, such as the family structure, contentment in life, [and] chronic
stress” (2018, p. 48). For single mothers, these areas of her life may seem out of balance and can
affect their value of self-worth. Restating Babalis’ observation, “single parents “prone to low
self-esteem may have difficulty accepting their family and their own situation” (2018, p. 48).
Their sense of identity can be affected by a lack of confidence and control, and also may be
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expressed in unhealthy self-evaluation and destructive self-talk. Babalis states, “A common
[issue] among single parents is not having enough time to achieve balance [to overcome self-
discrepancy] in life...[which causes] significant psychosocial stress and feelings of loss” (2018,
p. 53). Spawned by stress and guilt, polarized realities of work/family ideals attack the soul of
single motherhood. Slobadin observes that “[single mothers feel] guilty for their inability to live
up to either their own expectations or their societal expectations for high maternal investment in
their children” (2020, p. 1112). These feelings of failure and unworthiness may lead to anxieties
producing an ineffectual outlook on life as they live it. Liang asserts that, “abundant evidence
highlights single parenthood as a common risk factor for depression [and] anxiety” (2019, p.
242). Facing unreconciled realities between the two ideal worlds of work and family appear to
undermine self-dimension, reveal self-discrepancy, and take away from self-determination while
thoughts of unworthiness, feelings of anxiety and disheartenment may negatively depress the
outlook of single mothers. These mental and emotional causes and effects may also lead to
another risk factor.
Health risks in women’s social well-being
A woman’s social value as a person can be traced back to the biblical account of creation.
God placed her power of presence in the dynamic of human relationships (Genesis 2:18 ESV).
Contrasting this value with the social vacuum attributed to single motherhood, her deficiencies
may be related to several factors caused by additional family burdens, personal ideals, and stress
over her limitations. First, institutional inflexibility seems to present conditional limitations
which lead to greater stress or guilt as single mothers attempt to live up to the demands they face.
McClafferty defines guilt as “the self-critical [emotion]...of shame, embarrassment, remorse, and
regret...self-depreciation, and depression...[and] an overall feeling of stress” (2019, p. 63).
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Rigidity in the workplace impedes career development, advancement, and imposes a
minimalistic outlook for single parents. Babalis affirms this by saying, “the vast majority of…
mothers…deal with additional difficulties…in the labor market” (2018, p. 143). They need
“flexible hours to be able to look after their children and they have to adjust their work schedule
to their children’s daily program” (Babalis, 2018, p. 145). These limitations foster feelings of
inadequacy and guilt. Henderson maintains, “guilt for not meeting… expectations is
significantly associated with an increase in stress for contemporary mothers” (2015;2016,
p. 516). Religious institutions do not exempt themselves from contributing to single parent guilt.
Single moms look to receive church support, but instead they may find additional expectations
incurring greater burdens to their current situations. McClafferty states that “58% of those who
are plugged into their church felt the organization was a frequent source of guilt“ (2019, p. 70).
Another factor affecting single parent’s social well-being may include her inadequate view of her
identity as a person. McClafferty goes on to say that “feelings of inadequacy were [one of the]
most common feelings that emerged from single parent’s emotion of guilt” (2019, p. 61). Hislop
states that a single mother may “feel like a failure [and]…can no longer attend certain [social
activities]” (2010, p. 258, Kindle) as she had done in the past. A single mother may begin to
minimize her importance in the social arena. As she feels the crunch of institutional inflexibility,
and as she begins to form an identity of inadequacy, she may take another step downward
towards ideological insufficiency. Williams (2018) states, “Qualitative research on maternal
guilt paints a picture of mothers who feel as though they must fully devote themselves to their
children and feel completely responsible for how their children develop” (Par 3). As discussed
in the “Self-Discrepancy Theory,” (Liss, 2013, p. 1113 ), single mothers, who place the
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work/home ideals as a requirement for them to be considered acceptable mothers, may view their
lack of achievement with shame which may lead them to reclusive behavior.
Health risks from social deficiencies may include a single mother’s emotional and mental
well-being. These deficiencies can spring from social and institutional marginalization. Society
seems to discount a single mother’s plight of social imbalance relating to income and family
needs. Babalis argues, “single mothers are often marginalized in society both economically and
emotionally, leading to higher unemployment rates, poverty and dependence on governmental
support” (2018, p. 52). By becoming dependent on welfare, single mothers face condescension
and feel out of control of their lives as they rely on that which barely meets the basic necessities
for the single parent family. Babalis reveals that “Welfare benefits received by single mothers
“are not sufficient to meet the needs of raising a child and the support that single parents have for
the transition from welfare to work” (2018, p. 145). This can easily lead to a demoralized sense
of hopelessness for single mothers. Liss speaks to the tendency of single parent guilt. “Fear of
being evaluated…negatively by others may enhance potential guilt...[resulting from a failure to]
live up to internalized standards of ideal motherhood” (Liss, 2020, p. 1113). This internal
disconnect with what may be considered as “societal norms” seems to affirm the third area of the
“Self-Determination Theory—the need to relate “ (Slobodin, 2020, 1915). Without a sense of
confidence and comfortability in new relationship settings, feelings of humiliation can overcome
single mothers as they continually see their circumstances discrediting sensitive areas of their
lives. Depression can result from this hidden reality. Babalis expounds by saying, “[Social
support or social isolation either] increase a sense of coherence and belonging [and counteracts]
the feeling of loneliness...[or has been the cause for] single mothers to spiral into depression.”
(2018, p. 53). Hislop defines depression as “an illness that involves the body, mood, and
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thoughts, and that affects the way a person eats, sleeps, feels about himself or herself, and thinks
about things” (2010, p. 75, Kindle). She describes depression symptoms as “feelings of
hopelessness, worthlessness, or inappropriate guilt [and] low self-esteem” (P. 75, kindle). Atkins
(2010) states, “The more specific signs of… subjective negativity includes… dysphoria,
helplessness, hopelessness, apathy, and guilt” (par 1). This mental instability seems to coincide
with other dynamics constraining single mothers to unhealthy emotional conditions. McClafferty
(2019) states, “depression, lack of incentive, no motivation and feelings of inadequacy were the
most common feelings that emerged from [single mother’s] emotion of guilt” (p. 61). Babalis
sheds sobering light on the imbalanced state of some single mothers encumbered with guilt and
depression, stating, “lifetime prevalence of suicidal ideation and attempts was also found to be
higher among single mothers...and [a] higher mortality [was also found] due to violence or
alcohol abuse” (2018, p. 49). Social disconnectedness and the effects of unhealthy social well-
being seem to mark single motherhood (in general) with unhealthy dependency expressed in an
outlook of despondency.
Conclusion
As the increase of single parenthood continues to climb, the health and wellbeing of
single mothers seem to proportionally decline. Single mothers find themselves depleted
physically because of dual demands of providing a livelihood and prioritizing family unity as
they look for help from family or friends. This three-dimensional struggle can begin a
downward cycle creating corpulent, chronic, and cognitive health risks. Stress over limited
resources and overbearing needs can create a guilt factor affecting their mental and emotional
stability as self-dimension, self-discrepancy, and self determination are taken to task affecting
their anxiety, acceptance, and their hope for the future. These symptoms of helplessness,
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unworthiness, and hopelessness can lead to unhealthy social well-being as their dismal outlook
integrates with institutional inflexibility, identity inadequacy, and ideological insufficiency.
Their conditions seem to limit every area of their life causing feelings of marginalization,
demoralization and potential depression. These realities, however, should cause believers to
realize this situation facing this generation, to respond to the needs of the fatherless, and to reach
out to families providing intentional long-term inter-relational presence and support. Scripture
reminds each believer, “Religion that is pure and undefiled before God the father is this: to visit
the orphans and widows in their affliction…” (James 1:27).
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