1
Section 1: Foundation of the Study
Some researchers have indicated that most projects are not completed on schedule
and budget and do not meet customer’s expectations (Bhat, Gijo, & Jnanesh, 2014; Garg
& Garg, 2013). The failure of project managers to align project management processes
with business strategies is costly to business organizations (Rijke et al., 2014). Some of
the results of misaligning project management processes with business strategies include
(a) reduced business profitability, (b) loss of market share and reputation, (c) increased
turnover of management and workforce, (d) lower productivity, and (d) higher costs
(Confonto, Salum, Amaral, Silva, & Almeida, 2014; McAdam, Hazlett, & Galbraith,
2013). The purpose of this study was to explore strategies project managers use to align
project management processes with business strategies to improve project performance in
South Sudan.
Background of the Problem
Business leaders and managers face challenges arising from dynamic market
competition, slow economic growth, globalization, recession, and emerging technological
innovations (McAdam, Hazlett, & Galbraith, 2013). Business leaders and managers have
a responsibility to address the challenges they face by initiating measures that could lead
to finding solutions to project alignment problems (Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista, &
Valle 2015; Unterkalmsteiner, Gorschek, Feldt, & Klotins, 2015). Project failures are
very common due to project misalignment with business strategy (Alsudiri, Al-
karaghouli, & Eldabi 2013). Sande and Haugland (2015) stated that some firms
experienced misalignment losses of 10.3% due to failure to meet end-product demands
2
on time, and a 5.3% loss regarding cost reductions. Rijke et al. (2014) reported that
between 20% and 44% of projects failed to meet the scope, time, or cost criteria in the
infrastructure sector. Other challenges business leaders and managers encounter include
(a) waste of time, money, and opportunity, (b) diminished productivity, (c) de-motivation
of individuals and teams, (d) internal conflicts and power struggles, and (e) ultimate
project failure (Shepherd, Haynie, & Patzelt, 2013; Shepherd, Patzelt, Williams, &
Warneke, 2014). Through this research, business leaders and project managers may
implement strategies to address project misalignments resulting in project delays and cost
overruns.
Problem Statement
Alsudiri et al. (2013) reported that telecommunication companies which have
weak alignments of their business strategies and project management processes show less
successful project outcomes. The misalignments had led to a 10.3% increase in
significant losses due to failure to meet end-product demands on time and a 5.3%
increase in cost (Sande & Haugland, 2015). The general business problem was that
the misalignment of the project management processes with business strategies results in
project delays and cost overruns. The specific business problem was that some project
managers in the telecommunication companies lack strategies for aligning project
management processes with business strategies to improve project performance.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore strategies
project managers in the telecommunication companies use to align project management
3
processes with business strategies to improve project performance. The target population
was eight business leaders selected from two organizations with successfully aligned
telecommunication project management processes and business strategies to increase
telecommunications project performance in Juba, South Sudan. Business leaders might
use the alignment strategies for long-term decision making to improve project
performance, and as a result, offer employment opportunities for the South Sudan
citizens, thereby contributing to positive social change. The data from this study could
help project managers’ plan and execute community rural development projects in road
construction when designing and erecting telecommunication infrastructure such as mast
and towers across South Sudan.
Nature of the Study
The three research methods include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
(Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Yin (2014) explained that researchers use a qualitative
method wherein research questions are open ended and the researcher wants to use the
experiences of different individuals to explore a particular phenomenon. Qualitative
research was the most suitable approach for this study to explore the strategies project
managers used to improve project performance. Mukhopadhyay and Gupta (2014)
explained that quantitative researchers (a) examine relationships among variables, (b) use
closed-ended questions, and (c) test hypotheses. The quantitative method was not suitable
for this study because my goal was to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of
project alignment. Researchers using the mixed methods incorporate elements of both
qualitative and quantitative designs in the same research study (Caruth, 2013). I did not
4
select the mixed method because of the quantitative component, which requires testing of
hypotheses.
Some principal types of qualitative designs are case studies, narrative,
phenomenological, and ethnographic (Hurt & Mc Laughlin, 2012). Yin (2014) explained
that the case study is the best way to address descriptive studies, particularly when the
researcher asks open-ended questions to understand real-life events. The case study
research approach was the most suitable for this study to explore alignment strategies for
improving project performance. Narrative researchers collect stories about individuals
lived and told experiences (Holley & Colyar, 2012), which would not be suitable for
addressing the purpose of this study. Phenomenological research was not suitable for this
study because phenomenologists seek to explore the participants’ experiences and
perceptions about a phenomenon (Applebaum, 2012; Moustakas, 1994). In ethnographic
research, a researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values,
behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group (Hampshire, Iqbal, Blell, &
Simpson, 2014), which was not appropriate for this study because the focus was not to
study a shared culture.
Research Question
The overarching research question for this study was: What strategies do project
managers use to align project management processes with business strategies to improve
project performance?
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Interview Questions
1.
What strategies do you use to ensure alignment between project management
processes and business strategies?
2.
What critical success factors do you consider when aligning projects management
processes with business strategies?
3.
What strategies to you use to develop projects aligning with business strategy?
4.
What strategies to you use to implement projects ensuring alignment with
business strategy?
5.
What strategies to you use to monitor and control projects ensuring alignment
with business strategy?
6.
How were the challenges to developing, implementing, and monitoring the
processes for aligning business strategies with project practices addressed?
7.
What project management tools did you use to improve projects alignment with
business strategy?
8.
What project management tools did you find worked best to improve project
performance?
9.
How does the project manager or project team affect the project success?
10.
How did your project team respond to the strategies for aligning business
strategies with project processes for improving project performance?
11.
Please share any additional information how you align project management
processes with business strategies to improve project performance?
6
Conceptual Framework
Hoshin kanri (HK), or policy development theory, served as the conceptual
framework for this study. Akao (1991) described HK as a systematic approach
integrating the daily activities with the strategic goals of an organization. Nicholas (2016)
reported that HK connects managers and employees by a systematic deployment process
through vertical and horizontal communication, where the managers deploy and align set
goals with organizational strategy and vision. HK has four proponents: (a) focused
selection of organizational priorities, (b) the involvement of all employees, (c) the use of
proven planning and improvement tools, and (d) the application of a rigorous review
process (Su &Yang, 2015). As applied to this study, utilizing the proponents offered by
HK could provide a lens for participants (business leaders) to explain their alignment
project strategies with business strategy to improve project performance. First, business
leaders and senior managers focus on three key medium-term priorities based on the
organization’s vision and long-term strategy. Second, alignment involves the effort of
making everyone in the organization agree on the main goals. Third, implementation
teams are empowered to manage action and schedule activities. Finally, senior
management uses the review process to understand the success and progress of the
implementation teams. In this study, the policy development theory was appropriate and
relevant for exploring alignment strategies project managers used to ensure project goals
align with organizational strategic goals to improve project performance.
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Operational Definitions
Alignment:
Alignment means having everyone in the organization agree and work
towards the same goals and objectives (Alsudiri et al., 2013).
Business strategy:
Business strategy refers to a comprehensive plan stating how
the corporation will achieve its mission and objectives (Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista,
& Valle, 2015).
Hoshin kanri:
Hoshin kanri is a systematic approach integrating the daily
activities with the strategic goals of an organization (Nicholas, 2016).
Project management:
Project management refers to the application of knowledge,
skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements (Project
Management Institute, 2013)
Project management knowledge areas:
A knowledge area refers to a complete set
of concepts, terms, and activities that make up a professional field, project management
field, or area of specialization (PMI, 2013).
Project management process:
Project management process is a set of interrelated
actions and activities performed to create a pre-specified product, service, or result (PMI,
2013).
Project success:
Project success is a strategic management concept where project
managers align short-term goals with long-term goals of the company (Ajjan, Kumar, &
Subramaniam, 2013).
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Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
Assumptions refer to facts that seem to be true, but researchers cannot test or
control (Grant, 2014; Kirkwood & Price, 2013). The first assumption was that the
participants answered questions truthfully during the interviews. The second assumption
was that participants provided information without personal agenda or gain. The third
assumption was that participants answered interview questions related to the research
problem.
Limitations
Limitations are potential weaknesses of a study identified by the researcher
(Kirkwood & Price, 2013). Limitations serve as a threat to the validity of a study (Prowse
& Camfield, 2013). The limitation of this related to my professional background in
project management and personal beliefs in aligning project management processes with
business strategies. It was difficult to separate my professional experience and personal
belief from the study topic. Recognizing personal beliefs enabled the researcher to
understand the viewpoint of others on project alignment.
Delimitations
According to Marshall and Rossman (2016), delimitations refer to the boundaries
and the scope of the study. The first delimitation was the location of the study, Juba,
South Sudan. The second delimitation is limited to sample size of eight business leaders
from two telecommunication companies. The sample of eight project managers was
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acceptable in generalizing the findings of the study because I was not able to use the total
population of project managers in the telecommunication industry.
Significance of the Study
Contribution to Business Practice
According to Alsudiri et al. (2013), the right alignment of project management
with business strategy may bring great benefits to an organization. The benefits include
increased revenue, lowered costs, reduced project completion times, and increased
project quality. The results from this qualitative multiple case study may provide business
leaders and managers with a clear understanding of the strategies and processes for
aligning business strategy with projects to improve project performance. Business leaders
may use data from this study to improve project performance, thereby reducing waste and
increasing profits for organizations.
Implications for Social Change
The results from this study may contribute to positive social change by enabling
project managers and business leaders execute sustainable projects that can help the
recovery of the South Sudan economy. The business leaders may utilize the vast
resources to improve the country economy by innovating sustainable projects. South
Sudan gained its independence on July 9, 2011, after seceding from Sudan after 21 years
of political and social conflict (Pinaud, 2016). South Sudan has enormous untapped
resources such as oil, gold, and diamonds (O’Sullivan & O’Sullivan, 2012). Despite
having valuable resources, South Sudan is facing widespread poverty and a high rate of
unemployment (Longfield, 2015). Business leaders could use the alignment strategies for
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project to increase the efficacy of long-term decision making to improve project
performance with the vast untapped resources and, as a result, offer employment
opportunities for the South Sudan citizens.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore strategies
project managers use to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance. Extensive research based on the alignment of business
processes with business strategies might help project managers understand strategies to
improve projects performance. Few researchers focused on alignment of project
management processes with businesses strategies to improve project performance
(Alsudiri et al., 2013; Unterkalmsteiner et al., 2015). Although there are studies
conducted on project alignment, researchers have limited knowledge about why project
misalignment occurs with repercussions of cost overruns and project delays. The topics
of this literature review included (a) HK (policy development), (b) project management,
(c) project management processes, (d) business strategy, (e) project critical success
factors, (f) alignment enabler factors, and (g) alignment of project management with
business strategy. Resources for this literature review included the Walden University
online library, Google Scholar, ProQuest, Emerald Management Journals, Business
Source Complete, ABI/INFORM, SAGE, and EBSCO. A collection of peer-reviewed
journal articles, dissertations, and textbooks form the literature review. The literature
review consists of 257 references of which 89% of the resources are peer-reviewed
articles published between 2013-2017. Several keyword descriptors used to search the
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literature include
project alignment, misalignment, business strategy, project leadership,
project manager, project team, project success, project performance, hoshin kanri,
and
project management
. In this review, the focus was on the hoshin kanri (policy
development), followed by a literature review that compared different alignment
strategies business leaders used to improve project performance.
Conceptual Foundation
Hoshin kanri (HK) or policy development was the conceptual framework used for
this study. Akao (1991) developed the HK framework (Nicholas, 2016; Su & Yang,
2015). Akao introduced HK in the 1960s to give senior management more control of
cross-functional management; aligning strategic and operational goals to ensure sustained
business success (Chiarini, 2016). Other researchers extended the works of Akao by
addressing how business leaders use HK framework to identify competitive priorities or
strategic goals. The leaders used the strategic goals to align with day-to-day operational
goals (Akao, 1991; Asan & Tanyas, 2007; Chau & Witcher, 2005; Cwiklicki & Obora,
2011; Kunonga, Whitty, & Singleton, 2010; Soltero, 2007). The results from these
studies show that HK is necessary for business managers to align operational goals with
business strategic goals for business sustainability.
Nicholas (2016) explained that HK as a systematic approach that integrates the
entire organization’s daily activities with its strategic goals. Ahmed (2016) reported that
organization leaders use HK principles to align business strategies with project
implementation to improve business performance. Business leaders and senior managers
connect with other employees through vertical and horizontal communication, where the
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implementation team deploys and aligns goals set by the executives to achieve
organizational vision (Su & Yang, 2015). Su and Yang (2015) stated that HK is the heart
of a successful strategy guiding continuous improvement, and allowing integration and
coordination of concepts for the creation of unique capabilities. HK was different from
other strategy formulation and implementation methodologies because business leaders
apply the total quality management (TQM) principles. HK was another type of TQM
where the plan-do-control-act (PDCA) cycle was applied to all levels and processes to
gather information, identify issues, prioritize critical actions, and implement solutions
(Chiarini, 2016).
HK has four phases: (a) focused selection of organizational priorities, (b)
involvement of all employees, (c) the use of proven planning and improvement tools, (d)
and the application of a rigorous review process (Nicholas, 2016). Researchers agree that
HK approach has four iterative phases: (a) focus, (b) alignment, (c) implementation, and
(d) review (Asan & Tanyas, 2007; Chau & Witcher, 2005; Cwiklicki & Obora, 2011;
Kunonga, Whitty, & Singleton, 2010). Business leaders and senior managers focus on a
few key medium-term priorities, or breakthrough objectives, based on the organization’s
vision and long-term strategy. By focusing on a few important objectives, it is easier for
the implementation team to transform the organization by having realistic plans
considering the dynamic internal and external business environment (Melander, Lofving,
Andersson, Elgh, & Thulin, 2016). Gaps exist between short-term priorities with long-
term business goals, business leaders need to use HK tenets to align day-to-day
operational goals with organization’s long-term strategy.
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Alignment involves the effort of making everyone in the organization agree on the
few priorities from phase one (focus) and make actionable and measurable plans (Su &
Yang, 2015). People at different levels of various departments communicate with each
other through participatory dialogue (catch ball). Catch ball (resemblance of the children
ball game) is a two-way, top-down and bottom-up communication process where people
turn the few priorities into objectives, identifying and monitoring progress, and making
decisions (Su & Yang, 2015).
The implementation teams are empowered to manage action and schedule
activities. The implementation team narrows the gap between strategy formulation,
implementation, and tracking the progress of the agreed initiatives. The senior
management passes the baton to the middle managers, who in turn passes down the
initiatives to the employees (Su & Yang, 2015). Senior managers use the review process
to understand the success and progress of the executing teams. The review phase is a
detailed analysis and audit performance against key performance indicators, processes,
and outcome goals (Nicholas, 2016).
Business managers applied concepts of HK in successful companies like
Bridgestone Tire Company, Hewlett-Packard, Texas Instruments, AT&T, Lucent
Technologies, Florida Power & Light, Rover Group, Toyota, and Xerox (Chiarini, 2016).
The business leaders in these companies successfully implemented HK, translating long-
term policy into annual plans and achieving significant improvements in business results
(Chiarini, 2016; Su & Yang, 2015). Su and Yang (2015) posited that the HK approach
was successfully applied in the human resource management (HRM) department of the
14
manufacturing company and effectively reduced hiring costs by $360,000 in 5 years and
improved recruitment cycle time by 40%. In this study, the policy development theory
was appropriate and relevant for exploring alignment strategies projects managers use to
ensure projects goals align with organizational strategic goals to improve projects
performance.
TQM and lean sigma six (LSS) served as the supporting theories to HK (Chiarini,
2016). Zairi (2013) summarized TQM as an approach to quality regarding integrated,
systematic, and organization-wide strategy for improving product and service quality.
Sadeh and Garkaz (2015) reported that TQM integrates different managerial concepts for
the success of an organization. TQM has the following proponents: (a) management
commitment and leadership, (b) statistical process control, (c) people management, (d)
resource management, (e) explanation of quality phenomena, and (f) continuous
improvement of processes (Sadeh & Garkaz, 2015). LSS is the integration of the lean
manufacturing production system with the efficient six sigma improvement methodology.
Drohomeretskia, Costa, Lima, and Garbuio (2014) defined LSS as a business strategy
and, at the same time, a methodology that increases process performance, resulting in
greater client satisfaction and results. LSS leads to an incremental increase in the level of
quality of the products and reliability of processes. LSS methodology uses five steps,
namely define, measure, analyze, improve, and control (DMAIC) (Sadeh & Garkaz,
2015). LSS has the following characteristics: (a) an understanding of project
expectations, (b) leadership of top management, (c) disciplined application of DMAIC,
(d) fast application of the project, (e) clear definition of results, (f) supplying of
15
infrastructure to implement improvements, (g) focus on the consumer and the process,
and (h) focus on the statistical approach to improvement (Drohomeretskia et al., 2014).
As applied to this study, utilizing the proponents offered by TQM and LSS could provide
strategies for business leaders to overcome business challenges that include constant
change in the external environment driven by competition, demanding consumers, and
unstable economic climate in many countries.
General Background Information about South Sudan
South Sudan is a new country located in East Central Africa (United Nations
Development Programme [UNDP], 2013). The country borders six countries: Ethiopia to
the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to the south, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo to the southwest, the Central African Republic to the west, and the Republic of
Sudan to the north. Juba is the capital city of South Sudan (David & Christopher, 2014).
South Sudan achieved independence from Sudan on July 9, 2011, becoming the world’s
newest nation after two civil wars. The first civil war occurred from 1955 to 1972, and
the second war from 1983 to 2005 (Pinaud, 2016).
Pinaud (2016) stated that
approximately 2.5 million people lost their lives, and more than 5 million were externally
displaced. In 2013, the third civil war broke out in Juba, and the crisis is ongoing (Pinaud,
2016). Pospisila and Besancenot (2014) stated that growth and cohesion in South Sudan
are affected by deep economic mistrust issues and social relations among the ethnic
groups in South Sudan.
South Sudan is one of the poorest countries in the world (David & Christopher,
2014). The country has highest maternal mortality and female illiteracy rates (Longfield,
16
2015). Most villages in the country have no electricity or running water. Highways in
South Sudan are mostly unpaved. The poor infrastructure remains the key obstacle to
development in South Sudan (Longfield, 2015). South Sudan is heavily dependent on oil,
and is the sixth biggest oil producer in Africa (UNDP, 2013). According to UNDP
(2013), 98% of the Government of South Sudan’s (GOSS) revenue comes from oil.
Despite having valuable resources, South Sudan is facing widespread poverty and issues
of a high rate of unemployment (Pospisila & Besancenot, 2014). Approximately 83% of
the people reside in rural areas, and most rural areas do not have electricity and water
(Pospisila & Besancenot, 2014). Overcoming the socioeconomic problems is still a
significant challenge (UNDP, 2013). Harengel and Gbadamosi (2013) presented the case
of South Sudan as a post-crisis nation in international newspaper outlets. Harengel and
Gbadamosi (2013) posited significant differences in cultural environments. The biggest
challenges in South Sudan include (a) shortage of skilled labor, (b) low literacy, (c) poor
infrastructure, (d) ethnicity, and (e) low use of improved technologies (Harengel &
Gbadamosi, 2013). In identifying the factors that contribute to project success, business
leaders may implement study findings to improve skilled labor, literacy, infrastructure,
use of technologies, and minimize the negative effects of ethnicity in South Sudan.
The results from this study may contribute to positive social change by enabling
project managers and business leaders to execute projects in a strategic way and improve
project performance that may help the recovery of the South Sudan economy. According
to Burinskeinea and Pipiriene (2014), countries with innovations in trade enterprises
export more than countries with a higher diffusion of old innovations. Haigh and Sutton
17
(2012) stated there is great potential using resources to fill the professional gap in post
disaster recovery. South Sudan has enormous untapped resources such as oil, gold, and
diamonds (UNDP, 2013). The business leaders may utilize the vast resources to improve
the country economy by innovating sustainable projects. By applying the findings of this
study, project managers may complete more projects successfully on time, on a budget,
and on specifications.
Project Management
Project Management Institute (PMI, 2013) defined project management as the
application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project
requirements. Wysocki (2014) explained project management as an organized common-
sense approach utilizing the appropriate client involvement to meet sponsor needs and
deliver expected incremental business value. The different types of projects include (a)
strategic projects, (b) extension projects, (c) utility projects, and (d) research and
development (R&D) projects (Rijke, et al., 2014).
Zekic and Samarzija (2012) stated that business dynamics caused by changes in
scientific and technological development affect business organizations. Business leaders
and managers regard to project management as a scientific innovation (Midler, 2013).
Project management is a managerial technology of a systematic management of rounded
processes of a project-based approach to development strategy, project realization of
development programs, and project exploitation of unique and time-limited products
(Wysocki, 2014). According to project management institute (PMI, 2015), some global
dynamics are forcing organizational managers to take a more critical look at how they
18
operate. Sluggish economic growth, globalization, recession, and new development in
new technologies are putting additional emphasis on how well managers of organizations
execute their strategic initiatives (Rijke et al., 2014). Business leaders could use the
alignment strategies for project to overcome global business dynamics to improve project
performance.
Some of the challenges business leaders include handling more projects and
programs as well as acquiring portfolio management skills (Neverauskas & Railaite,
2013). Business leaders and managers achieve organizational success through the usage
of modern project management for achieving strategic goals (Lappe & Spang, 2013).
According to Pollack and Adler (2015), managers in small and medium enterprises
positively influence the profitability and sales of the enterprises by understanding project
management principles. Alsudiri et al. (2013) stated that the right implementation of the
project management may bring strategic and tactic value to the organization. The
organization executives select projects linked to the business strategy of the organization
(Stoshikj, Kryvinska, & Strauss, 2014). Business leaders and managers should revisit the
fundamentals of project management. Those fundamentals include (a) fully
understanding the value of project management, (b) having engaged executive sponsors,
and (c) aligning projects to strategy. Other fundamentals of project management include
developing and maintaining project management talent, establishing a well-aligned and
effective project management office (PMO), and using standardized project management
practices throughout the organization (PMI, 2015). Zekic and Samarzija (2012) reviewed
the recent business reality in relation to how the accelerated scientific and technological
19
development makes all segments of the company’s environment more dynamic.
Continuous innovation and development are becoming the prerequisites of a company’s
sustainable operation. Therefore, business leaders should use project management for
optimization of business performance and the development of a company’s
competitiveness.
Project Management Processes
Project management processes differ from project life cycle (PMI, 2013). Project
life cycle is what a project manager needs to do the work whereas project management
process refers to what is required to manage the projects (PMI, 2015). A project
management process is a set of interrelated actions and activities performed to create a
pre-specified product, service, or result (PMI, 2013). Stoshikj, Kryvinska, and Strauss
(2014) analyzed complex project management processes and indicated that different
companies need different software and management skills framework. Project managers
required a management based on the principles of general management but adapted to the
characteristics of the projects (Nistor & Muresan, 2012). According to Markeset,
Moreno-Trejo, and Kumar (2013), decision makers must take into consideration the
inspection, maintenance, and support services during project planning, implementation,
and execution phases.
The five process groups and the 10 knowledge areas are the building blocks of
every project management life cycle (Wysocki, 2014). A knowledge area is a complete
set of concepts, terms, and activities that make up a professional field, project
management field, or area of specialization (PMI, 2013). The 10 knowledge areas include
20
(a) integration, (b) scope, (c) time, (d) cost, (e) quality, (f) human resource, (g)
procurement, (h) communication, (i) risk, and (j) stakeholder management (PMI, 2013).
Project management processes are grouped into five categories known as project
management process groups (or process groups) include initiating process group,
planning process group, executing process group, monitoring and controlling process
group, and closing process group (PMI, 2013; Wysocki, 2014).
An initiating process group has the responsibility to define a new project or a new
phase of the existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. The
key elements in this process group are developing a project charter and identifying
stakeholders (PMI, 2013). The project manager uses the project charter to request
organizational resources for project activities (Brady & Davies, 2014; PMI, 2013). The
project manager must understand the business profile because it serves as a guide for all
other project management activities and ensures the project is worth the investment (PMI,
2013). The project charter consists of the following elements (a) project purpose or
justification, (b) measurable project objectives, (c) assumptions and constraints, (d) high-
level project description and boundaries, (e) high-level risks, (f) a summary of the
schedule and budget, (g) assigned project manager, and (h) name of the person
authorizing the project (PMI, 2015). A stakeholder refers to an individual or group who
can influence the achievement of the company’s objectives (Eskerod & Vaagaasar,
2014). Stakeholders include the shareholders, customers, employees, communities near
company operations, financiers, suppliers, and the public (Eskerod & Vaagaasar, 2014).
Stakeholder involvement creates a shared understanding of the success criteria for the
21
project (Nangoli, Ahimbisibwe, Namagembe, & Bashir, 2013). Freeman (1984)
developed the stakeholder theory. The stakeholder theory takes consideration of a wider
group of constituents rather than focusing on shareholders (Strand & Freeman, 2015).
The stakeholder theory states that the company is a separate organizational entity and
different stakeholders connect in achieving a broad range of purposes (Eskerod &
Vaagaasar, 2014). Strand and Freeman (2015) opined that shared interests of stakeholders
are likely to produce better values for all parties concerned because it recognizes that
stakeholder interests are joint. The stakeholder theory also focuses on managerial or
strategic decision making and suggests that the benefit of all stakeholders have intrinsic
value, and no sets of interests dominate others (Paul, 2015).
The planning process group refers to establishing the scope of the project, the
objectives, and defining the actions and activities required to attain project objectives
(Bronius, Bakinaite, & Meiliene, 2013; Stoshikj, Kryvinska, & Strauss, 2014). Once the
sponsor approves the project, it moves from the initiating phase into detailed planning
phase where the project manager and implementing team plan how to execute, monitor
and control, and close the project. In this stage, project manager establishes project
boundaries, identify the scope of works, and estimate project cost (Fulford, 2013). The
project manager develops the project management plan and the project documents used to
carry out the project (PMI, 2013). The project manager and team explore all aspects of
the scope, time, cost, quality, communications, human resources, risks, procurements,
and stakeholder engagement (Xu, Ming, Song, He, & Li, 2014).
22
PMI (2013) identified 47 project management processes grouped into ten
knowledge areas. The planning process group has 24 project management processes out
of the 47 identified by PMBOK, which indicates that planning phase is very crucial in the
project management life cycle. In the planning phase, the project manager sets out the
desired objectives of the project. The project manager and team should do project risk
analysis when planning for the project execution. Thamhain (2013) stated that dealing
effectively with risks in complex projects is difficult and requires management
interventions in early project stages. Business leaders are detecting risks early in the
project lifecycle and in decoupling risk factors from work processes before they affect
project performance (Haji-Kazemi & Anderson, 2013; Senesi, Javernick-Will, &
Molenaar, 2015). Some of the best success scenarios point to the critical importance of
recognizing and dealing with risks early in project development (Thamhain, 2013).
Arena, Azzone, Cagno, and Trucco (2014) proposed the spring model as a risk
management system used in different levels of project-based organizations. Project
managers use spring model in enterprise, project portfolio, functions, and project
organization to identify and manage risks. In addition, Zeynalian, Trigunarsyahz, and
Ronagh (2013) discussed the advanced programmatic risk analysis and management
model (APRM) for risk management purposes.
Executing process group refers to the processes performed to complete the work
defined in the planning phase to meet the project specifications. The project manager’s
main objective is performance and team management (Stoshikj, Kryvinska, & Strauss,
2014). Organizations are collections of people who work together and coordinate their
23
actions to achieve a wide variety of goals or desired future outcomes (Kutsch, Browning,
& Hall, 2014). A good manager should provide possibilities for the employees to
coordinate and cooperate with the organization. The project manager has to plan,
organize, lead, and control human resources to achieve organizational goals (Prause &
Mujtaba, 2015). The implementation of construction engineering projects is challenging
due to the size, complexity, financing, duration, and execution by many organizations
(Deng & Smyth, 2013; Doloi, 2013). These projects need collaboration, coordination,
cooperation, and management with key stakeholders (Fellows & Liu, 2012). Project
managers must think out of the box on the management of the projects by putting more
efforts to identify and mitigate conflicts promptly.
El-Sofany, Alwadani, and Amer (2014) researched on the best practices in
managing a virtual team in different time zones. The world has become a global village,
and when implementing IT projects in a global environment, the strategy is to establish
virtual teams. Data from the survey highlighted both soft and hard skills needed for the
optimal IT project manager to lead a virtual team (El-Sofany et al., 2014). It is not
sufficient to be outstanding in technical competencies; soft skills like communication,
teamwork and leadership are also essential. Wood, Mazouz, Yin, and Cheah (2014)
studied the reasons multinational corporations (MCN) invest in Africa focusing on
human resource management and whether the decision is different from their
counterparts in developed economies. Wood et al. (2014) examined the effects of the
potential host country wages, local capabilities, workers’ rights, mineral resources, and
corruption on foreign direct investment (FDI) and found out that reliance on low-wage,
24
unskilled labor, coupled with the extensive usage of expatriates, brought a wide range of
challenges for the human resource manager, who may lack the capabilities to resolve the
problems.
Monitoring and controlling process group refer to the processes that track, review,
and regulate the progress and performance of a project (Fiala, Arlt, & Arltova, 2014).
Jallow, Demian, Baldwin, and Anumba (2014) studied the factors that make the
architectural, engineering, construction, and facilities management projects complex to
implement. The construction manager handles large volumes of drawings, specifications,
and bill of quantities that are complex to manage. The project manager manages all the
information so that projects finished on time and on budget. Jallow et al. (2014) proposed
the electronic requirements information management framework to make work easier for
the project managers and project teams. Effective team coordination is essential for the
information systems (IS) project success (Matrogiacomo, Missonier, & Bonazzi, 2014).
Matrogiacomo et al. (2014) conducted a four-year study based on science research
design; to develop and initiate a coopilot to improve real-time coordination in IS projects.
Coopilot is a simple conversational guide to help IS project managers minimize the
number of coordination surprises that arise for teams during their project meetings. In the
monitoring phase, the project manager should emphasize on communication and
knowledge sharing among the project team (Algeo, 2014). Quik, Wright, and Herjanto
(2013) studied the collaborative-networked learning (CNL) system, an online facilitation
and support software used by learners and experts to communicate within a contextual
framework to resolve problems and to improve product or process knowledge.
25
The closing process group refers to all activities conducted to close the project
(PMI, 2013). The following tasks occur at project closure (a) customer or sponsor
accepting to close the project, (b) conducting a post-project review, (c) recording impacts
of tailoring to any process, (d) documenting lessons learned, and (e) updating
organizational process assets. Other task elements include placing all relevant project
documents in the project information systems, closing out procurement activities
ensuring termination of agreements, performing team members’ assessment, and
releasing project resources (Noor, Khalfan, & Masqood, 2013). Shepherd, Patzelt,
Williams, and Warneke (2014) reported that delayed termination provided employees the
time to reflect on, articulate, and codify lessons learned. Project termination refers to the
release of a project resources and the reassignment of project team members to other
duties and is a complex dynamic advocacy process that unfolds over time. Dube (2014)
stated that in an increasingly fluid work environment, workers often find themselves in a
state of transition and should adapt to rapid changes.
Business Strategies in Project Management
The concept of strategy is important when developing and aligning projects with a
business mission (Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista, & Valle, 2015). Alsudiri et al. (2013)
defined the strategy of a corporation as a comprehensive plan of how the business
managers will achieve organizational mission and objectives. Managers in organizations
achieve superior performance when doing something no other business can duplicate, and
strategy is all about how you are going to do better by being different (Soderlund &
Muller, 2014). A business strategy should focus on how business leaders deal with
26
competition by creating competitive advantages such as time to market, unique products,
quality products, and minimizing competitive disadvantage. The three typical business
strategies are (a) corporate, (b) business, and (c) functional (Alsudiri et al., 2013). The
corporate strategy refers to a company’s overall direction in term of general growth and
the management of the various businesses and product line. Business strategy occurs at
the business unit or product level, and managers of organizations emphasize
improvement of the competitive position of the products or services of the corporation.
The functional strategy is the approach taken by a functional area to achieve corporate
and business unit objectives (Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista, & Valle, 2015). Examples
of functional area include (a) project management, (b) research and development (R&D),
(c) marketing, (d) production, and information system (IS). Junior, Lucato, Vanalle, and
Jagoda (2014) stated that managers achieve a sustainable competitive advantage by
reinforcing three types of generic strategies (a) cost leadership, (b) differentiation, and (c)
best-cost. Business leaders and managers pursue cost leadership by being the lowest
producers in the industry. Business leaders pursuing a differentiation strategy seek to
position their organizations in the marketplace with distinct identity satisfying the desires
of the customers such as fast time to market, superior quality and service, and innovative
features (Johnson, Reckers, & Bartlett, 2014). The best-cost strategy is the combination
of the cost leadership and differentiation when managers combine low-cost products and
address customer values. Slack and Lewis (2011) explained that operations strategy has
four different perspectives: (a) as a top-down reflection of what the whole group in
business wants to do, (b) as a bottom-up activity where operations improvements
27
cumulatively build strategy, (c) involves translating market requirements into operations
decisions, and (d) in relation to exploiting the capabilities or operations resources in
chosen markets.
Business leaders at incumbent firms increasingly recognize that to sustain growth
and protect their companies from disruption; they must innovate beyond the familiar
markets and competencies on which the company has built its existing business (Bertels,
Koen, & Elsum, 2015). Using innovative core projects, project managers could target
new customers or non-consumers in new markets, which could lead to high growth.
Fulford (2013) conducted an inductive case studies on eight information system (IS)
providers in Hong Kong, Australia, Europe, and the United States based on the
importance of value-added resellers (VARs) alignment with organization strategic goals,
and found out there is need to utilize the sales cycle process to promote customer-
centered approach in project management.
Liu, Tzeng, and Lee (2013) proposed the decision-making trial and evaluation
laboratory (DEMATEL) and VIKOR (VlseKriterijumska Optimizacija I Kompromisno
Resenje) models to help travel agencies use strategic planning as a means of gaining a
competitive advantage in the cruise product sales in an increasingly uncertain, dynamic,
and complex world. These models may be useful in project management and project
performance. According to Mohamed and Jones (2014), the key elements of profitability
are cost, assets, and revenue. The concept of strategic profitability management is a
process of improving and maximizing profitability by effectively managing the main
drivers of profitability through the use of some strategic management accounting
28
techniques that combine the three drivers together (Mohamed & Jones). In my opinion,
strategic profitability management should serve project managers well in attaining
improved project performance.
Critical Success Factors in Project Management
Many different project managers or stakeholders use various metrics to define
measures of project performance (Mcleod, Doolin, & MacDonell, 2012). Metrics
identified in the literature include (a) cost, (b) quality, (c) time, (d) innovativeness, and
(e) contribution to profit (Parisi & Rossi, 2015). Critical success factors relate to the
mission and strategic goals of the business organization (Wainwright & Shaw, 2013).
Allen, Alleyne, Farmer, McRae, and Turner (2015) examined the role of external
influence, project manager, scope, schedule, and budget play in the success or failure of a
project. Bronius, Bakinaite, and Meiliene (2013) reported that business leaders
determined project success based on cost, time, and quality requirements (axiom triangle)
and concluded that there is more to be done especially involving all stakeholders in the
project. Jefferies, Brewer, and Gajendran (2014) stated that project managers measure
metrics at the project level by defining a set of performance measures and identifying key
performance indicators (KPIs). Bronius, Bakinaite, and Meiliene (2013) stated that
integrated performance index (IPI) is one way of measuring project success that is
flexible to use. One of the disadvantages of the IPI is the practical complexity application
in different stages in the project cycle (Todorovie, Mitrovie, & Bjelica, 2013). According
to Allen et al. (2014), P&G leaders launched a project called the New Growth Factory to
systematize innovation and growth. More than 10 years after launching the project,
29
P&G’s revenue doubled because of new and innovative thinking and product
development. Allen et al. (2014) classified external influence into organizational
influence (leadership), and organizational structure. The three types of project
organization structure include (a) functional, (b) matrix, and (c) projectized. Additionally,
Allen et al. (2014) explained that the U.S. Coast Guard’s 123-Foot Patrol Boat project
served as an example of a project that failed due in great part to its inability to exploit the
critical success factors of time, cost, and schedule.
Kujala, Brady, and Putila (2014) reviewed data on cost management reports for
the four projects and eight interviews with senior managers involved in the planning,
controlling, and implementing the projects. Researchers used a qualitative case study on a
global power solution provider for marine and energy markets with more than 4.5 billion
euros annual revenue and 15,000 employees. The uniqueness of the project size,
complexity, and uncertainty affect cost management process. Kujala et al. (2014)
identified several challenges in performing cost management including (a) cost
estimation, (b) cost control and monitoring, (c) revenue recognition, (d) profitability
analysis, and (e) margin calculation.
Alignment Enabler Factors and Emerging Themes
Alignment enablers refer to internal or external factors to the organization
influencing the performance and use of a given practice, technique or tool. The internal
factors include (a) effective communication, (b) competence of the project manager and
team, (c) involvement of the project manager in strategy development, and (e) executive
commitment (Alsudiri et al., 2013). Other enabler factors include organization structure
30
type, product development process, formalization level, customer or stakeholder
involvement in product development, and supplier or partner involvement in the product
development (Confonto et al., 2014). The external factors include (a) dynamic market, (b)
contractors and vendors, (c) government agencies, and (d) site acquisition (De Carvalho,
2014). Sumner (2009) stated that alignment strategies that support best practices include
(a) functional expertise, (b) knowledge integration, (c) liaison mechanisms, (d) project
governance, and (e) scope and integration of organizations processes. The internal and
external factors (project manager authority, project leadership, risk management,
stakeholder involvement, and impact of culture) are some of the emerged themes in this
study.
The Project Manager Leadership
The project manager is the head of the project, project team, and ultimately
ensuring the project ends in success (DuBois, Hanlon, Koch, Nyatuga, & Kerr, 2014).
Mathur, Jugdev, and Fung (2013) reported that project manager must possess soft and
hard skills to lead a project team. In addition to technical competences, soft skills like
communication, teamwork, and leadership are essential in managing projects. Other
competencies include clarity of objectives, leadership and project management,
communication, reliability and efficiency, teamwork, and quality management (Marthur,
Jugdev, & Fung). International projects need project managers who understand the
cultural differences that exist and the impact of culture on team-building (Trompenaars &
Hampden-Turner, 2012). The project manager needs to manage self-directing team in
virtual environments (Wang, Wood, Abdul-Rahman, & Lee, 2015). The project team
31
should communicate and understand the risks and new barriers to project performance
(Barnwell, Nedrick, Rudolph, Sesay, & Wellen, 2014). One of the critical qualities of a
project manager is leadership needed to promote project success (Taghavi, Taghavi, &
Milad, 2013). According to Galvin, Gibbs, Sullivan, and Williams (2014), a project
manager must possess leadership styles that include (a) team building, (b) establishing
clear relations and roles between project members, (c) openness, (d) self-confidence, (e)
organization, and (f) clearly defining project successes. Galvin et al. (2014) identified
certain attributes of effective project managers as well as three specific leadership styles:
(a) intellectual, (b) managerial, and (c) emotional. Managers should not just only possess
attributes for one leadership style, but normally a combination of two or more styles
because in today’s corporate world, project managers must be flexible in every aspect of
their job. According to Obiajunwa (2013), operators of process plants and engineering
facilities appointed turnaround maintenance manager (TAM) without reference to any
management skill set, and this was catastrophic for the success of the projects.
Project manager requires knowledge and experience to not only apply project
management methods but also creatively design the project management process (Jarkas,
Radosalvljevic, & Wuyi, 2014; Wysocki, 2014). These design functions include (a)
selection of the project management methods appropriate for a given project, (b)
selection of the appropriate communication structures, (c) facilitation of the different
workshops and meetings, (d) decision to involve a project management consultant, (e)
selection of the appropriate IT and telecom infrastructure, and (f) definition of the
appropriate form for the project management documentations (Wysocki, 2014). Project
32
managers or project owners have opportunities to reduce project risk: carry out a
benchmarking study, do not underprice projects, do not reduce project lengths, and assign
experienced team to run projects (Iamratanakul, Badir, Siengthai, & Sukhotu, 2014).
Identifying critical success factors (CSF) alone is unsatisfactory because not all CSFs are
of equal importance (Iamratanakul, Badir, Siengthai, & Sukhotu). When project
managers can identify and rank CSFs according to their impact on a project’s ultimate
success, they are more likely to feel confident about determining the best practices for a
specific project ultimate success (Iamratanakul, Badir, Siengthai, & Sukhotu). Therefore,
the project manager should play a crucial role in the success of medium to large-scale
complex projects by incorporating ten project management knowledge areas. The
knowledge areas include (a) scope management, (b) time management, (c) cost
management, (d) quality management, (e) human relations management, (f)
communications management, (g) risk management, (h) procurement management, (i)
integration management, and (j) stakeholder management (PMI, 2013).
The project manager (PM) should have the ability to manage the political and
power dimensions within and around the project team, as failure to understand and
control the political process could result in the failure of many good projects (Obiajunma,
2013). An understanding of these interfaces is important to project managers as it could
enhance their ability to build favorable relationships with senior management
(Obiajunma, 2013). Obiajunma (2013) identified four key variables that can influence the
PM’s ability to create favorable relationships with senior management as (a) his ongoing
credibility, (b) the visibility of the project, (c) the priority of the project to other
33
organizational undertakings, and (d) his accessibility. Project management involves the
coming together of a lot of people from diverse backgrounds towards achieving a
successful project (Santos, Soares, & Carvalho, 2012; Seboni, & Tutesigensi, 2015). The
project managers must understand the drivers of all their team members and endeavor to
build productive relationships with all key members of the project team. According to
Ortiz-Marcos, Benita, Aldeanueva, and Colsa (2013), the technical management and non-
technical skills among different players make projects successful. The most performance
competencies include scope, communication, and risk management. Other personal
competencies include (a) orientation toward results, (b) initiative and problem solving,
and (c) teamwork (Ortiz-Marcos, Benita, Aldeanueva, & Colsa).
The success of leaders could be the result of their experiences and training in
managing projects (Leavitt, 2012). Managers should choose to manage projects in an
environment either as individual projects or as components of integrated programs or
portfolios (Heising, 2012). Todorovie, Mitrovie, and Bjelica (2013) stated that projects
carried out in traditional management culture could be costly, time-consuming, and may
lead to frustrations among project team members. Leaders achieve the real benefits of
project management by applying some concepts of the new management paradigm in the
project performing companies. The project management excellence is long and hard and
requires efforts of all members of the organization (Riggio, Zhu, Reina, & Maroosis,
2012). Staff of organizations should be encouraged to adopt best practices, and to learn
from past mistakes. In addition, the project team should actively participate in the
improvement of project management processes and try to achieve the higher maturity of
34
organization's project management (Rammer & Klingebiel, 2014; Riggio, Zhu, Reina, &
Maroosis, 2012).
Impact of Culture on Projects
Culture refers to a system of shared norms, beliefs, values, and customs that bind
people together, creating shared meaning and a unique identity (Trompenaars &
Hampden-Turner, 2012). Aaltonen (2013) stated that project professionals assigned to
foreign countries should have a minimum understanding of religion, dress codes,
education system, holidays, daily eating patterns, family life, business protocols, social
etiquette, and equal opportunity. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2012) gave an
example of P&G Company that stormed into the Japanese market with American
Products, American advertising, American managers, and American sales methods and
promotional strategies. The approach proved disastrous, and the company had to learn to
adapt products and marketing style to Japanese culture. The P&G Company incident
highlights how cultural diversity affects projects and project management. The number of
international projects continues to increase due to globalization, and more project
managers implement projects as needed (MacLean, 2013). The project managers must
work with diverse project teams, and the hence the need to equip themselves with
knowledge of cultural diversity (Oncharo, Kandiri, & Johnson, 2014). Preparing for
international project assignment requires serious homework (Stoud, 2013). Preparation
and understanding the cultural differences of the host country makes first impression with
nationals and ensures effective project management (Chipulu et al., 2014; Larson &
Gray, 2011). Projects carried out within the environment of the country’s social customs,
35
work practices, government controls, and religious beliefs tend to succeed. The critical
success factors (CSF) for any project are cost, budget, and quality requirements and
project managers should know that cultures sincerity and flexibility could pay-off
(Chipulu et al., 2014; Larson & Gray, 2011). Project managers need to understand that
what works at home may not work in the foreign country (Prause & Mujtaba, 2015).
Prause and Mujtaba, (2015) stated that value-based management on employees’ thoughts
and behaviors is important in managing projects. Managers should recognize differences
in values of different culture among team members. Neglecting the existence of cultural
diversity could lead to a disaster in the workplace; and project managers should be
familiar with the values and cultures of the project environment for the benefit the
organization (Aarseth, Rolstadas, & Andersen, 2014).
Larson and Gray (2011) reported that a Scandinavian woman appointed as a
project manager responsible for building a water desalination plant from seawater in a
Middle East Country faced cultural related issues. She was restricted to the living
compound for families of foreign guest workers. Going outside the compound meant
covering her head, arms, and legs and being accompanied by a woman. A physical
altercation in the city concerning her clothing in the Arab country was traumatic to her
and she had to leave the country for her home after three months. The loss of the original
project manager delayed the project. The Scandinavian firm had to appoint another
project manager to establish relationships with the project team and the host country’s
nationals to move the project forward (Larson & Gray, 2011).
36
Jarkas, Radosalvljevic, and Wuyi (2014) stated that culture plays an important
role in international business. Good communication linkages established between a
company and customers, suppliers, employees, and the host governments is important for
the success of the company (Eskerod & Vaagaasar, 2014; Strand & Freeman, 2015).
According to El-Sofany, Alwadani, & Amer (2014), appropriate management of inter-
cultural teams poses specific challenges to project managers and organizations striving to
build successful project teams. Global project challenges include cultural, leadership, and
stakeholder challenges (Zuofa & Ochieng, 2014). Aarseth et al. (2014) stated that project
managers’ main challenge is managing the external stakeholders in the global project.
Risk Management
By exercising good risk management strategies, project managers can be
successful in project implementation (Didraga, 2013; Jin, Zhang, & Yang, 2012).
Shepherd, Haynie, and Patzelt (2013) stated that corporate entrepreneurship most often
entails the pursuit of new products, services, ventures and represents a mechanism by
which organizations adapt, rejuvenate, and grow. However, entrepreneurial project
failure rate is high due to uncertainty in the work environment (Gulten & Ruszczynski,
2015). The high failure rate of entrepreneurial projects has enduring implications for the
project team members and, by extension, the organization. Chang (2013) proposed the
use of incentives to motivate contractors to reduce the risk of projects failing to meet cost
budget. Risk management is the key factor when considering and selecting projects (Lee
& Baby, 2013). Kutsch, Browning, and Hall (2014) investigated the gap between risk
management and actual practice in the IT industry. Kutsch et al. (2014) used eleven
37
global computer services for the study and focused on the incidents in their organizations.
The researchers found there was lack of knowledge that risk exists, or the risk is
knowable, and decision makers failed to act in good time. The researchers’ findings
showed that project managers focused on familiar, measurable, favorable, noncommittal,
and controllable risks while ignoring other risks that jeopardized projects performance.
Project managers should think outside the box on management of risks by putting more
effort to identify and mitigate risks in good time (Liu & Wang, 2014).
Alignment of Project Management with Business Strategy
Managers of organizations tend to integrate project management into their
organizational management system and try to find the best way for the improvement of
project management skills. Business leaders need strategies to improve project
performance all over the world. In the literature research, some researchers have
discussed a global perspective to the problem of alignment of projects to business
strategy and have made valuable contribution to the study of alignment (McAdam,
Hazlett, & Galbraith, 2013; Mohamed & Jones, 2014; Poveda-Bautista, Doris, Baptista,
& Garcia-Melo, 2012). Alignment is the degree to which a project contributes to the
business strategy (Rijke et al., 2014). Alignment involves making all the elements of the
company (people, processes, technologies, and projects) consistent with the
organizational objectives. According to McAdam, Hazlett, and Galbraith (2013),
alignment ensures that everyone in the organization work towards achieving strategic
goals. The work of Alsudiri et al. (2013) showed that companies having strong alignment
38
between the business strategy and the PM show successful projects outcome, while the
companies that have mismatch alignment show less successful projects outcome.
The consequences of misalignment of project management processes and business
strategies include (a) poor profitability, (b) loss of market share and reputation, (c)
increased turnover of management and workforce, (d) lower productivity, (e) higher
costs, (f) project delays, and (g) more divisive and costly litigation between customers
and contractors (McAdam, Hazlett, & Galbraith, 2013). Business leaders and managers
achieve a competitive advantage through the use of project portfolio management (PPM),
and project support office (PSO), or project management office (PMO) (Wysocki, 2014)
Project, Program, and Portfolio Management
A growing number of managers in organizations are using projects to implement
new products, processes, and other types of change to maintain a competitive advantage
(Teller, Kock, & Germunden, 2014). Because business leaders tend to run several
projects concurrently, project portfolio management is a key competence to adjust to
environmental changes and maintain competitive advantages (Smith & Sonnenblick,
2013). Project portfolio management refers to the set of managerial activities that are
required to manage a collection of projects and programs needed to achieve strategic
business objectives (Parker, Verlinden, Nussey, Ford, & Pathak, 2013). Project portfolio
management (PPM) is the concept of focusing on the selection and management of a set
of projects to meet specific business objectives (Martinsuo, 2013). Business leaders use a
competitive strategy to do better than other competitors do. Project risk managers aim at
reducing the likelihood of project failure (Zeynalian, Trigunarsyahz, & Ronagh, 2013).
39
According to Ajjan, Kumar, and Subramaniam (2013), managers should manage risk in
project portfolios, and adopt a perspective that is wider than the individual project risk
The importance of aligning a project or portfolio with the organization’s mission
statement and key strategic initiatives is to remain competitive in ever changing business
environment (Ajjan, Kumar, & Subramaniam, 2013; Gutierrez, 2014). Most project
managers in public and private sectors organizations are interested in the PPM and
influence to reaching of organizational strategic goals (Fiala, Arlt, & Arltova, 2014).
Managing an organizational project requires that project managers compete for scarce
resources including (a) labor, (b) finances, (c) time, and (d) equipment (Zschocke,
Mantin, & Jewkes, 2014). Since there are usually not enough resources to carry out every
proposed project, selecting the right projects for an organization is critical to ensure a
maximum return on selected projects (Soderlund & Muller, 2014). Business managers
create business processes and models to shorten the life cycle of products such as the
Stage-Gate model. Managers could turn time to market new products (speed to launch)
into a competitive advantage. Stage-Gate basic elements include (a) product leadership,
(b) high-performance teams, (c) customer driven focus, (d) robust solutions, (e)
accountability, (f) alignment discipline, and (g) speed and quality (Poveda-Bautista,
Doris, Baptista, & Garcia-Melo, 2012). The five proven success ingredients of the Stage-
Gate that built in the organizational DNA are customer focus, upfront activities, tough
decisions, truly cross-functional teams, and top management involvement. Ernesto (2014)
explored the importance of evaluating and selecting new ideas in project portfolio
management (PPM) and concluded PPM decision makers experience ambiguity when
40
selecting and evaluating projects. Menke (2013) stated that improving PPM is
benchmarking PPM performance against best practices and improving those practices
that fall below best practice standards. Successful innovation projects lead to innovative
products; therefore, executive management should encourage the improvement of project
management through the promotion of the PPM.
Project Support Office
A project support office (PSO) or project management office (PMO) is a
temporary or permanent group of an organization that provides a set of service to support
project teams across the organization (Wysocki, 2014). PMO managers oversee the
implementation of the portfolio projects (Hjelmbrekke, Laedre, & Lohne, 2014). The
PMO services consist of (a) project support, (b) consulting and mentoring, (c) methods
and standards, (d) software tools, (e) training, and (f) project management resources
(Schultze, 2013). PSO have five levels of growth maturity which include initial,
repeatable, defined, managed, and optimized (Neverauskas & Railaite, 2013). In the
initial stage, there are processes, tools, and ad-hoc support to project managers. There is
no formal project management training from the PSO. In the repeatable stage, a partially
documented project management process is available along with monitoring and control
responsibility. In the defined stage, a fully documented project management process is
available and recognized by senior management. A formal PSO established, staffed, and
given the responsibility of ensuring enterprise-wide usage of the methodology. In the
managed stage, the organization is viewing project management as a critical success
factor where training and professional development is available for project managers. In
41
the optimized stage, the PSO becomes the critical component of a continuous quality-
improvement program for project management (Wysocki, 2014). According to
Neverauskas and Railaite (2013), PPM helps managers to assess organization’s current
maturity level or identify areas for improvement. Also, PPM links organizational success
with project, program and portfolio management best practices. Project management
maturity leads to project success (Albrecht & Spang, 2014), and executive managers
generate innovation within the organization through supporting projects to turn concepts
into products (Dumay, Rooney, & Marini, 2013). Phansawadhi (2012) examined how to
estimate the future worth of potential projects and assets in the dimension of profitability
metric. One of the most important decisions that managers of organization would have to
make is how to select and manage successfully potential projects and assets
(Papadopoulos, 2015). The other decision is the financial goals of the organization.
Phansawadhi (2012) opined that managers could use the evaluation model to predict
almost 80% of the project failures and almost 75% of the project success. Business
leaders and managers should use appropriate technique in selecting projects for the
survival of firms and the success of projects
Summary of Review on Project Alignment
Edoho (2015) posited that misalignments between public policy domains with
policies promoting entrepreneurship in Nigeria stifle business innovation and expansion.
As a result, misalignment of policies affects adversely job creation and poverty
alleviation. Strategic realignments of various policy dimensions and programs are
42
important in developing micro, small, and medium enterprises. Furthermore, realigning
policies could help the survival of entrepreneurship in Nigeria.
In Venezuela, Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista,
and
Valle (2015) reported that the
complex phase process for organizations is strategy implementation and the main reason
for the complexity is the failure of the project team to align business strategy and project
portfolio management.
Garcia-Melon
et al.
(2015) proposed a relative alignment index
methodology (RAI) that uses analytic network process (ANP) as a tool for prioritization
of a projects portfolio for alignment with the company strategic objectives. The strategic
objectives depend on the short, medium and long-term prospects of the power
corporation. The use of the RAI values could enable corporation managers to allocate
resources on the projects portfolio that promotes the improvement of social management
and community relations. The other advantage of the alignment model is the creation of
economic, social and environmental values. Researchers may find useful application of
the RAI methodology in the case study for the power corporation to achieve the
challenges of setting strategic directions common to all emerging companies.
In Canada, the concept of alignment gained acceptance in the field of project and
construction management. According to Herazo, Lizarralde, and Paquin (2012), business
leaders using sustainable development principles to align corporate strategies (vision,
mission, and objectives) with day-to-day individual projects demonstrated improved
performance. Herazo et al. (2012) studied the relationship between strategic management,
tactical management, and sustainable development, and found out that sustainable
development was a facilitator in the alignment process between project management and
43
business strategy. Even though their investigation was in a single organization (three
projects), the result of the study demonstrated that project managers used the results to
understand the influence of sustainable development in both strategic and tactical
decision-making.
In Germany, Kaiser, El Arbi, and Ahlemann (2014) reported that effective
strategy implementation depends on the organization’s structural alignment with the
needs of project portfolio management. Kaiser et al., (2014) case study on German
construction industry found out that integration of strategy implementation,
organizational information processing, and structural adaptation techniques align project
portfolio with strategic goals. Using the strategic information, managers should establish
a close link between strategy and project portfolio management processes to implement
project strategies.
In Middle East, the concept of alignment between strategy (portfolio) and
organization structure gained acceptance in one global project-based organization. Petro
and Gardiner (2015) examined the factors that affect the success of the project portfolio
and the effectiveness of project portfolio management in project-based organizations. The
project manager influences the project success and the project portfolio management
(PPM) effectiveness in the project-based organization. Petro at al. (2014) demonstrated
that a dichotomy appears between the product strategy and the organization structure with
the effect on performance though researchers have investigated organizational structural
factors and the effects on project success. Project manager’s authority, and responsibility
and steering committee involvement are important factors for business success. A
44
significantly strong relationship exists between the project managers influence on the
organization structure and project success.
Transition
Section 1 of this study focused on alignment strategies that some project
managers used to improve the performance of projects. The section contains the
background of the problem, the problem and purpose statements, the nature of the study,
the research and interview questions, conceptual framework, operational definitions,
assumptions, limitations, delimitations, the significance of the study and review of the
academic and professional literature. The HK (policy development) and alignment
strategies provided the foundation for this study. Section 2 included the purpose
statement, the role of the researcher, participants, research method and design, population
and sampling, ethical research, data collection technique, data organization techniques,
data analysis, and reliability and validity. In Section 3, I presented the study findings,
application to professional practice, and implication for social change, recommendations
for action and future research, reflections, and a conclusion to the study.
45
Section 2: The Project
The second section of this study provides information about my role as the
researcher, the purpose of the study, and the criteria for selecting study participants.
Section 2 also contains a discussion of the research project and an explanation of various
research methods and design approaches, including a highlight of the multiple case study
design considerations. I address the reasons for choosing a qualitative method and a
multiple case study design to explore effective strategies project managers used to align
project management processes with business strategies to improve project performance.
In addition, there was a discussion of the population and sampling, the process of
ensuring ethical research, and the tools used during the data organization, collection, and
analysis process. Furthermore, Section 2 also includes an explanation of how I ensured
reliability and the validity of the study’s findings.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore strategies
project managers used to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance. The target population was eight business leaders selected
from two organizations because they have successfully aligned telecommunication
project management processes and business strategies to increase telecommunications
project performance in Juba, South Sudan. Business leaders might use the alignment
strategies for long-term decision making to improve the performance of projects, and as a
result, offer employment opportunities for the South Sudan citizens, thereby contributing
to positive social change. The data from this study could help project managers’ plan and
46
execute community rural development projects in road construction when designing and
erecting telecommunication infrastructure such as mast and towers across South Sudan.
Role of the Researcher
The researcher is the primary instrument for the research process (Anyan, 2013).
A qualitative researcher is involved in all stages of the study that include designing,
conducting interviews, transcription, analysis of data, verification, and reporting the
findings and themes (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). I was
the primary instrument for the research process
in the study. I selected the study
participants, conducted interviews, and managed the interview process by interacting
freely with participants to build trust so that the participants shared their experiences.
Boyd et al. (2013) stated that researchers should approach the research study with an
open mind. The researcher should know the scope of the study and understand the central
concepts and issues relevant to the research (Arnarboldi, 2013; Brewis, 2014). I was
familiar with the research area on project misalignments having worked in South Sudan
for 7 years in business development and project management departments. In addition, I
had the experience working with a diverse project team to improve project performance
in South Sudan.
The relationship between a qualitative researcher and participants in a qualitative
study may raise ethical concerns and dilemmas such as respect for privacy, mistrust,
dishonesty, and misinterpretations (Mealer & Jones, 2014). Some important ethical
concerns in qualitative research include (a) anonymity, (b) confidentiality, and (c)
informed consent (Sanjari et al., 2014). I reviewed the Belmont Protocol Report (U.S.
47
Department of Health and Human Services, 1979), and completed the National Institutes
of Health (NIH) web-based training course (see Appendix A) for compliance with ethical
standards and protection of human research participants. A research ethic review exists to
ensure that the researcher protects the research participants’ standpoints and well-being in
the research process (Alby & Fatigante, 2014). I protected the confidentiality of the
research participants by using alphanumeric codes. I used alphanumeric codes of PM1 to
PM8 for the eight participants and CM1 andCM2 for the two companies under study to
maintain privacy and confidentiality.
Qualitative researchers must be aware of the potential bias when conducting
research and interpreting results (Malone, Nicholl, & Tracey, 2014). Qualitative
researchers should be aware of their values and predispositions and acknowledge them as
inseparable from the research process. Recognizing personal bias enables the researchers
to better understand the viewpoint of others (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Bracketing is
the process used to minimize personal bias and influence during research (Tufford &
Newman, 2012). I used bracketing to mitigate my personal bias and influence during the
study.
An interview protocol serves as a procedural guideline for directing new
qualitative researchers through the interview process (De Ceunynck, Kusumastuti,
Hannes, Janssens, & Wets, 2013). Furthermore, interview protocol follows the interview
questions with a step-by-step instruction guide to the interview process (Brown et al.,
2013). I used the interview protocol (see Appendix B) that included what I said before,
during, and after the interviews.
48
Participants
A qualitative researcher participates in the design of the study and selects
participants who have experienced the phenomena and can articulate their experiences
(Sanjari et al., 2014). A researcher’s role is to select participants who are qualified with
the research question (Bowden & Galindo-Gonzalez, 2015; Cairney & St Denny, 2015).
Nathan, Braithwaite, and Stephenson (2014) stated that participants in the study should
have the experience and competence to answer interview questions. The participants in
the study should have the competence to answer the overreaching research question (Tam
et al., 2015). A qualitative researcher should select a sample of participants who can
provide rich information about a phenomenon that affects positive change in the lives of
others (Rossetto, 2014). I selected the participants based on the following eligibility
criteria: (a) successfully aligned project management processes and strategies with
company’s business strategies and objectives, (b) serving as senior project manager, (c)
serving as the program or portfolio manager, (d) serving as functional manager, and (e)
worked in South Sudan a minimum of 3 years in telecommunication companies.
A qualitative researcher gains access to participants through professional
associations (Aluwihare-Samaranayake, 2012; Barker, 2013). Beskow, Check, and
Ammarell (2014) stated that qualitative researchers access participants through personal
contacts with participants. In addition, researchers access participants through a
gatekeeper (Yin, 2014). A gatekeeper is the initial contact for the researcher and leads the
researcher to other participants (Yin, 2014). The strategies for gaining access to eight
business leaders from two telecommunication companies was through two gatekeepers in
49
a professional association event in Juba, South Sudan and I used the two gatekeepers to
gain access to other research participants.
Anyan (2013) stated that researchers must establish trust with participants, and
minimize power dynamics with interviewees. Qualitative researchers should engage in
active, supportive listening to develop rapport and encourage in-depth discussion with
participants (Rossetto, 2014; Tam et al., 2015). I engaged participants in active and
support listening, and paraphrased interview questions to develop rapport and encourage
in-depth discussion throughout the interview process. I sent an introductory letter to the
business leaders explaining the purpose of the study, criteria for selecting participants,
and the benefits of the study.
Qualitative researchers select individuals who have an understanding of the
central phenomenon in the study (Emerson, 2015; Yin, 2014). A qualitative researcher
selects participants who are qualified with the research question (Bowden & Galindo-
Gonzalez, 2015). The eligibility criteria for participants are business leaders and project
managers who have successfully used strategies to align project management processes
with business strategy in South Sudan.
Research Method and Design
Research Method
There are three types of research approaches: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Researchers need to select a research method
suitable for answering their research questions (Fassinger & Morrow, 2013). Researchers
use qualitative research method to describe the essence of participants’ experience of a
50
phenomenon, using the open-ended questions seeking the conscious experience of
participants (Gringeri, Barusch, & Cambron, 2013). Yilmaz (2013) stated that conducting
research in a natural setting, and relying on the researcher are part of the characteristics of
qualitative research method. In a research similar to this study, Alsudiri et al. (2013)
justified the use of a qualitative multiple case study to explore factors that led to
misalignment between project management and the business strategy in the
telecommunication industry in Saudi Arabia. To accomplish the goal of my study, I
selected the qualitative method as the most appropriate approach for the study.
A quantitative researcher relies on closed-ended questions either dealing with
validation or disaffirmation of the tested hypothesis in social justice (Cokley & Awad,
2013). Yin (2014) stated that quantitative researchers answer questions about
relationships among measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting, or
controlling a phenomenon. The quantitative researcher is more objective but lacks the in-
depth detail of qualitative researcher (Frels & Onwugbbuzie, 2013). Researchers use a
quantitative research method to examine the relationship between dependent and
independent variables and to show cause and effect (Caruth, 2013). I did not select the
quantitative method because the purpose of the study was not to test the hypothesis or to
examine the relationship between the variables.
Mixed methods researchers use both the qualitative and quantitative research
methods in the same research inquiry (Christ, 2013). Researchers use the mixed method
in developing rich perceptions into various phenomena of interest that they cannot fully
understand using a quantitative or a qualitative method (Green et al., 2015). Some
51
researchers use mixed method approach when there is a lack of qualitative or quantitative
data to understand the research problem (Venkatesh, Brown, & Bala, 2013; Zachariadis,
Scott, Barrent, 2013). I did not select the mixed method research because of the
quantitative component, which requires testing of hypotheses or variables.
Research Design
Some principal types of qualitative designs are case studies, narrative,
phenomenological, and ethnographic (Bernard, 2013). Case study approaches are
appropriate in complex situations where researchers strive to understand and improve
business practice (Seboni & Tutesigensi, 2015). Yin (2014) explained that the use of case
study research incorporates observations, information from individuals, data, and artifact
analysis about the issue. Case studies are ideal for understanding organizational, and
business processes as these processes vary across institutional contexts, thus requiring
specific approaches to inquiry (Ates, 2013). Qualitative case studies involve focusing on
either a single case or multiple cases (Tsang, 2014; Vohra, 2014). Vohra (2014) stated
that single case study design contains no element of comparison, while multiple case
study design involves cross-case analysis of different cases. The multiple case study
design was the appropriate approach for this study to establish whether the findings of the
first case occurred in other cases and, as a result, need to compare findings for all cases.
Phenomenological researchers explain a phenomenon that occurs in business as
related to individuals in describing their experiences (McGowan, 2013).
Phenomenological research studies focus on the perception of people on a particular
phenomenon through lived experiences (Khan, 2014; Moustakas, 1994). I did not select a
52
phenomenological approach because the purpose of the study was not to describe the
lived experiences of the people around a specific phenomenon.
The other qualitative research approaches, which included ethnography and
narrative approaches, did not align with the intent of this study. An ethnography research
design is suitable for exploring the cultural characteristics of selected groups of
individuals in understanding the social interaction within the group (Cincotta, 2015). The
use of ethnography research approach is only suitable for the study when collecting data
over an extended period of a shared culture (Murthy, 2013). I did not select ethnographic
research because the study was not to explore the shared culture of individuals within a
group. The use of narrative research approach is appropriate in exploring the lives of
individuals and telling the stories of the studied individuals (Cruz & Higginbottom,
2013). However, the focus of this study was not to explore the lives of participants to tell
stories. The focus of this study is to explore the strategies project managers use to align
project management processes with business strategy to improve the performance of the
project.
The attainment of data saturation is significant in qualitative research (Morse,
2015). Fuss and Ness (2015) explained that researchers reach data saturation when there
is no new information emerging from interviewing participants. Yin (2014) explained
that qualitative researchers could reach data saturation with a sample size between five
and 50 participants. I ensured data saturation by continuing to interview participants until
no new themes and information emerged with additional interviews.
53
Population and Sampling
The population for this study was eight project managers from two
telecommunication companies who had successfully aligned project management
processes and business strategies to improve project performance in Juba, South Sudan.
Purposeful sampling is useful and widely used to identify and select participants with
experience about a phenomenon under study (Palinkas et al., 2013). Purposeful sampling
used in qualitative research when the researcher selects individuals who inform an
understanding of the research problem and central phenomenon in the study (Yin, 2014).
Emerson (2015) explained that purposive sampling is suitable for selecting participants
who have knowledge about a phenomenon and can communicate their experience.
Marshall and Rossman (2016) further stated that qualitative researchers decide who
should participate in a case study. I used a purposeful sampling method to identify and
select eight participants from two telecommunication companies for this study.
Qualitative researchers study a few cases and collect extensive data about each
case (Almutairi, Gardener, & McCarthy, 2014). Hyat (2013) posited that small samples
selected are desirable than a larger sample that may or may not contributes to the purpose
of the study. Yin (2014) opined that researchers might interview a small number of
participants to obtain an in-depth understanding of the research issues, analyze interview
responses thoroughly, and categorize themes easily. Qualitative researchers could use a
sample size of between five and 50 participants (Yin, 2014). I selected a sample of eight
telecommunication project managers in this multiple case study from two companies with
extensive knowledge on aligning project management processes with business strategy.
54
The achievement of data saturation is significant while doing research (Marshall
& Rossman, 2016). Fusch and Ness (2015) stated that qualitative researchers reach data
saturation when there is no new information from additional qualitative interviews. Yin
(2014) explained that qualitative researchers could reach data saturation with a sample
size between five and 50 participants. I interviewed eight telecommunication project
managers and conducted member checking to obtain data saturation. I ensured data
saturation by continuing to interview participants until no new information from
additional qualitative data interviews was available.
Researchers select study participants based on convenience and availability of the
participants (Palinkas et al., 2014). Professionals acquire experience with continuous
development (Spengler & Pilipis, 2015). Similarly, having the experience and
competence to answer interview questions is part of the prerequisites for participation in
qualitative research (Elo et al., 2014). I selected the participants based on one of the
following eligibility criteria: (a) serving as senior project manager, (b) serving as the
program or portfolio manager, (c) serving as functional manager, and (d) working in
South Sudan for a minimum of 3 years. In addition, the participants had extensive
experience in project management and business strategy in South Sudan for more than 3
years.
Fusch and Ness (2015) emphasized the importance of selecting quiet locations
free from any distractions while conducting interviews. I held interviews with
participants in a convenient location and comfortable atmosphere. Each interview took
between 30 and 60 minutes.
55
Ethical Research
To maintain ethical standards, researchers avoid the fabrication or falsifying of
data (Kelley, Belcourt-Dittloff, Belcourt, & Belcourt, 2013). Researchers should be
aware of ethical issues and follow the principles of justice, respect, and beneficence
(Cseko & Tremaine, 2013). The informed consent is a requirement before a researcher
collects data (Beskow, Check, & Ammarell, 2014). The rationale of the consent form is
to make sure the selected participants answer the overarching research question
(Dekking, van der Graaf, & van Delden, 2014). I dispatched the consent forms together
with introductory letters to eligible participants. The consent form covered issues such as
research topic, consent to participate, research purpose, research procedures, research risk
and benefits, voluntary nature of participation in the research, and confidentiality
protection procedures for participants.
Researchers should respect participants’ privacy and right to withdraw from a
study and not place them at risk is key to the success of any study (Angelos, 2013). The
consent form contained a statement that participation in the study was voluntary and
respondents can withdraw during the interview process anytime (Tam et al., 2015). The
participant was free to withdraw from the study before or during the interview without
any explanation by information me through a phone call, in person, or in writing.
A researcher may decide whether participants may receive compensation in a
study (Yin, 2014). In this study, participants received no compensation. This study was
voluntary, and participants did not receive any incentives for participating in the study,
but I presented participants with a final copy of the study.
56
Dekking, van der Graaf, and van Delden (2014) opined that researchers are
responsible for the protection of the study participants that involves (a) gaining informed
consent from research participants by alerting them to the nature of the study, (b)
protecting participants from any harm, (c) avoiding the use of any deception in the study,
(d) protecting the privacy and confidentiality, (e) taking special precautions especially
vulnerable groups, and (f) selecting participants equitably so that participants volunteer in
the study. I ensured the protection of the participants by striving to uphold the highest
ethical standards that included having a responsibility to scholarship, avoiding deception,
and treating participants fairly.
Beskow et al. (2014) stated that researchers should assure participants in the study
about the security of their information. Certificate of confidentiality is an important tool
for meeting the ethical and legal obligation. A qualitative researcher should have
confidentiality protection in place that include (a) keeping the information solely for the
study, (b) assigning a code number not linked with identifying information, and (c)
deleting the participant’s names as soon as the study is over. With extensive use of
computers in qualitative research, more attention is how to organize and store data. I
stored the data collected securely in a password-protected computer and stored in a
fireproof safe for 5 years to protect the confidentiality of participants.
Institutional review boards (IRBs) apply rules and regulations to protect human
research subjects regarding informed consent process, a balance of risks and benefits, and
protection of participant privacy (Adams et al., 2013). Researchers gaining access to
study sites and participants need to seek permission from human subjects’ review boards
57
(Boyd et al., 2013). I sought approval for data collection from Walden University IRB
before proceeding for data collection. I obtained a written approval along with the
approval number 05-17-17-0360716 before sending the informed consent form to
participants. Confidentiality of participants is paramount by ensuring no participants
names appear in the consent form, interview form, or documented anywhere in this study
(Cook, Hoas, & Joyner, 2013). I ensured no participant’s name appeared anywhere in the
study. I used fictional codes PM1 to PM8 for the eight participants and CM1 to CM2 for
the two companies under study to maintain privacy and confidentiality.
Data Collection Instruments
In qualitative research, the researcher is the primary data collection instrument
(Robinson, 2014). Other data collection approaches (forms) in a qualitative research
include (a) informal interviews, (b) semistructured interviews, (c) phenomenological in-
depth interviews, (d) focus groups, (e) audiovisual materials, and (f) archival documents
(Marshall & Rossman, 2016). I was the primary data collection instrument in this study.
Semistructured interviews are a good way for the researcher to focus on the details that
address the research question (Platt & Skowron, 2013; Vogl, 2013). Semistructured
interviews are a vital source of case study evidence because of human affairs (researcher-
participant) interaction. Therefore, I used semistructured interviews as the primary data
collection instrument to explore the alignment strategies that project managers used to
improve the performance of projects.
Fusch and Ness (2015) stated that the role of the researcher is an important part of
the study and researchers (such as students) assume that they have no bias in their data
58
collection process. The better the researcher can recognize personal view of the study and
discern the presence of a personal lens, the better one can hear and interpret lived
experiences of the participants (Fusch & Ness). In qualitative research, the researcher
cannot separate themselves from the research (Yin, 2014).
Hearing and understanding the
perspective of the participants may be one of the most dilemmas that face the researcher
(
Fusch & Ness
).
I shared my personal experiences with participants in a semistructured
interview to minimize personal lens and any concerns during data collection.
The use of member checking is a process of taking the final document or explicit
descriptions or themes back to participants so that participants determine the accuracy of
the information (Koelsch, 2013). Member checking involves conducting a follow-up
interview with participants in the study and providing an opportunity for them to
comment on the finding (Andraski, Chandler, Powell, Humes, & Wakefield, 2014).
According to Reilly (2013), member checking is the most effective way to establish
credibility in qualitative studies. I used member checking by interviewing eight
participants and then shared the findings and interpretations with participants to enhance
reliability and validity in data collection.
Interview protocol is a procedural guide throughout the interview process (Platt &
Skowron, 2013). Researchers use interview protocol in collecting data and prompts to
remind the interviewer the information she or he is interested in collecting in the study
(De Ceunynck, Kusumastuti, Hannes, Janssens, & Wets, 2013). According to Brown et
al. (2013), qualitative researchers use the interview protocol to assist them collect data.
The interview protocol includes (a) the script of interview questions, (b) the script of
59
what the interviewer will say before the interview, and (c) the script of what the
interviewer will say at the conclusion of the interview. I used the interview protocol listed
in Appendix B as a procedural guide throughout the interview process.
Data Collection Technique
Meyer (2014) classified interviews into three types: (a) structured, (b)
semistructured, and (c) unstructured interviews. A structured interviewer uses pre-
formulated questions strictly regulated about the order of the questions (Yin. 2014). The
second type is semistructured where the interviewer uses pre-formulated questions but no
strict adherence to the questions (Yin. 2014). The third category is unstructured
interviews where the interviewer uses no pre-formulated questions, and the study
participants are free to talk as they wish (Yin, 2014). I used the semistructured interview
approach to explore strategies project managers use to align project management
processes with business strategies to improve project performance.
A semistructured data collection technique is the most appropriate means for
collecting data in a qualitative research because of its usefulness to researchers in gaining
insight and context on the study topic (Anyan, 2013). Researchers observe and listen to
the participant’s phenomenon on the study topic (Marshall & Rossman, 2016).
Furthermore, researchers ask open-ended questions to probe and seek further clarification
on the participants’ responses in a semistructured interview (Yin, 2014). Before using
semistructured interview to commence on data collection, I sought Walden University
IRB approval. After the approval, I sent an invitation email to eligible participants with
consent forms and interview questions to confirm willingness to participate in the study.
60
After collecting the signed consent forms from the participants, I set appropriate time for
a face-to-face interview or telephone interview. The interview lasted between 30 and 60
minutes with each participant. During the interview, I recorded proceedings and took
notes. Finally, I concluded the interview process by thanking respondents for
participating and scheduling a follow-up member checking interview.
The advantages to the use of semistructured include (a) a researcher foster
effective rapport with participants, (b) participants may request clarifications on unclear
questions to give clear answers, and (c) interviewer may use telephone to collect data
when he or she does not have direct access to participants (Marshall & Rossman, 2016).
Furthermore, in a semistructured interview, researchers can modify the pre-formulated
questions and order of questions to obtain the fullest responses from interviewees
(Anyan, 2013). One disadvantage of a semistructured interview is that it is time-
consuming in arranging the interview and analyzing data. Additional disadvantage
includes researcher has to travel to interview locations and post interview for member
checking (Boyd et al., 2013). Other disadvantage includes increased costs for travel and
member checking (Yin, 2014).
Researchers conduct a pilot study to enhance the reliability of their data collection
instrument. I did not conduct a pilot study. The main reason for a pilot study is to develop
and test the research instrument (Kim, 2011; Morin, 2013). Yin (2014) stated that pilot is
to refine data collection plans and develop lines of questions. I was not developing and
testing a research instrument, and therefore piloting the study was not necessary.
61
Koelsch (2013) stated that researchers use member checking to verify the
accuracy of a participant’s words. Harvey (2015) explained that member checking is a
process of taking ideas back to research participants for confirmation, and to gather more
information on the research findings. Reilly (2013) highlighted the benefit of conducting
member checks to provide the researcher a chance to confirm the accuracy and
comprehensiveness of the findings for the credibility of the study. Koelsch (2013) warned
researchers about the assumption of understanding the meaning of the participants
without checking back with them. I conducted member checking to verify participants’
responses and clarified information by e-mail or telephone conversation.
Data Organization Technique
Data organization in qualitative research involves analyzing and interpreting data
(Derobertmasure & Robertson, 2014). The process of moving a mass of words to a final
report is about organizing and keeping track of the text (Almutairi, Gardener, &
McCarthy, 2014). Qualitative researchers use a research log to capture the key ideas
presented by the participants about each of the interview questions (Glaser & Laudel,
2013; Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). With the extensive use of computers in qualitative
research, data storage and handling include (a) develop backup copies of computer files,
(b) develop a master list of types of information gathered, (c) protect the anonymity of
participants by masking their names in the data, and (d) develop a data collection matrix
as a visual means of locating and identifying information for a study (Yin, 2014). I did
use NVivo 11, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)
62
program to organize the data into files and different themes based on collective responses
from participants.
Recording, storing, indexing, sorting, and coding data with CAQDAS enhances
the management of qualitative data (Fielding, Fielding, & Hughes, 2013). Qualitative
researchers use a password-protected personal computer and external disk to store
collected data (Yin, 2014). Aluwihare-Samaranayake (2012) stated that qualitative
researchers store data in a fireproof safe for a minimum of 5 years. I will store data using
a password-protected computer and in a fireproof safe for a minimum of 5 years.
Data organization in qualitative research involves analyzing and interpreting data
(Derobertmasure & Robertson, 2014). The process of moving a mass of words to a final
report is about organizing and keeping track of the text (Almutairi, Gardener, &
McCarthy, 2014). Qualitative researchers use a research log to capture the key ideas
presented by the participants about each of the interview questions (Glaser & Laudel,
2013; Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). With the extensive use of computers in qualitative
research, data storage and handling include (a) develop backup copies of computer files,
(b) develop a master list of types of information gathered, (c) protect the anonymity of
participants by masking their names in the data, and (d) develop a data collection matrix
as a visual means of locating and identifying information for a study (Yin, 2014). I did
use NVivo 11, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)
program to organize the data into files and different themes based on collective responses
from participants.
63
Recording, storing, indexing, sorting, and coding data with CAQDAS enhances
the management of qualitative data (Fielding, Fielding, & Hughes, 2013). Qualitative
researchers use a password-protected personal computer and external disk to store
collected data (Yin, 2014). Aluwihare-Samaranayake (2012) stated that qualitative
researchers store data in a fireproof safe for a minimum of 5 years. I will store data using
a password-protected computer and in a fireproof safe for a minimum of 5 years.
Data Analysis
According to Carter, Brayant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, and Neville (2014),
data analysis involves the process of analyzing data and interpreting the meaning from
participant’s experience, then reducing the data into themes, and finally representing the
data in a discussion. A qualitative researcher may use four types of triangulation
approaches to analyze data in a case study (Heale & Forbes, 2013). The first type is data
triangulation, which involves multiple sources of data utilization in an investigation
(Carter et al., 2014). The second type is investigator triangulation, which involves using
many evaluators to participate in observations (McGehee, Kline, & Knollenberg, 2014).
The third type is theory triangulation, which includes using multiple theoretical
perspectives either in conducting the research or in interpreting the data (Modell, 2015).
The fourth type is the methodological triangulation, which involves using more than one
method for data gatherings, such as interviews, questionnaires, observations, and
documents (Manganelli et al., 2014). I used methodological and theory triangulation for
this study.
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Methodological triangulation is an attempt to improve the validity by combining
various techniques in one study (Manganelli et al., 2014). Qualitative researchers use
method triangulation (semistructured and member checking interviews) approach to
reveal some important discrepancies that might have remained uncovered through
reliance on one method alone (Gorissen, van Bruggen, & Jochems, 2013).
Methodological triangulation is beneficial in confirming findings, more comprehensive
data, and enhanced understanding of studied phenomena (Manganelli et al., 2014;
Modell, 2015). I used method triangulation and specifically the combination of
interviews, member checking, and observations (field notes) of strategies project
managers use to align project management processes with business strategies to improve
projects performance.
Data analysis is the preparing and organizing qualitative data for analysis, coding
is the process of putting together extracts from interview documents related to each other
into nodes, and finally representing the data in figures or discussion (Glaser & Laudel,
2013; Zamawe, 2013). Yin (2014) explained that data analysis includes coding the data,
combining the codes into themes, and displaying and making comparisons in the data. I
used three steps of data analysis which include (a) data organization (b) coding system to
identify key themes that emerged from the interview process, and (c) representing data in
a discussion or report.
A researcher uses CAQDAS to aid the data analysis process (Talanquer, 2014).
Researchers should control the use of the software because no software can analyze
qualitative data (Hilal & Alabri,
2
013; Zamawe, 2015). I transcribed the digital recording
65
into a Microsoft Word document, analyzed data using the NVivo11 software tool, and
focused on the key themes emerging from the interview transcript for consistency. I
utilized thematic analysis to identify commonalities of the strategies that project
managers use to align project management processes with business strategies to improve
project performance. I correlated the key themes emerging from the interviews with the
literature and the conceptual framework to address the research questions to achieve the
main purpose of the study.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
In qualitative research, reliability relates to the quality of the findings
(Grossoehme, 2014). Ensuring the reliability in qualitative research requires the
researcher to make a good judgment about the accuracy of the methods used and the
integrity of the data interpretation (Noble & Smith, 2015). Reliability reflects the use of
appropriate procedures for ensuring quality and consistency in data interpretations
(Woolcock, 2013; Yin, 2013). I used appropriate procedures to ensure quality and
consistency in data interpretation.
Dependability.
According to Anney (2014), qualitative researchers should
address dependability concerns to avoid false study findings and ensure stability of
findings over time. Most qualitative researchers use member checking, transcript review,
and triangulation to address the dependability issues of their study (Fusch & Ness, 2015;
Merwe, 2014). Improving the dependability of research findings include (a) documenting
the process of data collection and interpretation, (b) explaining the strategy used for the
66
study, (c) explaining the selection of participants, and (d) articulating the roles of the
researcher (Yin, 2013). In addition, improving dependability involves describing the
process of data organization, coding, and data representation (Elo et al., 2014).
Furthermore, the use of member checking improves the dependability of the study in
which the participants receive the final document or explicit descriptions or themes so
that the participants determine the accuracy of the information (Koelsch, 2013). I ensured
dependability in this study by documenting the sequences of data process and analysis,
member checking, and triangulation
.
Validity
In qualitative research, validity refers to the accuracy of the findings (Venkatesh
et al., 2013). The findings of the qualitative research are credible when the findings
represent the accurate interpretation of the participants’ experiences (Elo et al., 2014). To
ensure validity in a qualitative study, a researcher must address issues relating to
credibility, transferability, and confirmability (Yin, 2014). Reaching data saturation will
help assure the credibility, transferability, and confirmability of the findings (Fusch &
Ness, 2015). In this section, I discussed how to address credibility, transferability, and
confirmability issues to attain data saturation and enhance the validity of the study
findings.
Credibility.
Credibility refers to the trustworthiness, or the believability by the
participants in the study (Cope, 2013). The findings of the qualitative researcher are
credible when the findings represent an accurate interpretation of human experiences that
people who share the same experience could recognize (Elo et al., 2014). Additionally, a
67
researcher can strengthen the credibility of a qualitative study with prolonged
engagement on data collection site, triangulation, peer debriefing, and member checking
(Noble & Smith, 2015). I used member checking to enhance the accuracy of the findings
by taking interpreted finding to the research participants to verify the accuracy of their
words.
Confirmability.
Confirmability in research is the extent that the results of the
study are a product of the research and not the researcher’s bias (Elo et al., 2014).
Researchers use reflexivity to disclose their personal experiences and biases that could
influence the study (Sherry, 2013). Researchers can achieve confirmability in a
qualitative research after addressing the value, consistency, and applicability of the study
(Noble & Smith, 2015). To ensure confirmability of this study, I documented the notes
regarding personal feelings, biases, and insights immediately after each interview.
Transferability.
Transferability is another criterion researchers use to ensure the
validity of the qualitative study. To ensure transferability of the findings of qualitative
research to other contexts or settings, researchers need to describe in details the research
context and the assumptions central to the research (Elo et al., 2014). Burchett, Mayhew,
Lavis, and Dobrow (2013) stated researchers using case studies tend to emphasis a
particular program, the context, and experience of the participants to provide an in-depth
exploration of the phenomenon, and not because of its transferability. Yin (2014) urged
qualitative researchers to provide rich, descriptive explanations of collected data to allow
external readers to interpret findings and to apply transferability of the studies. I
described the background of the research phenomenon and assumptions thoroughly.
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Additional descriptions included asking participants to provide truthful and candid
responses about alignment strategies they use to improve project performance.
Furthermore, I described the criteria for participation in this study, which include having
more than 3 years of project management experience.
Data Saturation.
The achievement of data saturation is significant in qualitative
research (Morse, 2015). Fuss and Ness (2015) explained that researchers reach data
saturation when there is no new data, no new themes, and information emerging from
interviewing participants. Yin (2014) explained that qualitative researchers could reach
data saturation with a sample size between five and 50 participants. I ensured data
saturation by continuing to interview participants until no new themes and information
emerge with additional interviews.
Transition and Summary
Section 2 of this study contains a narrative on the purpose statement, the role of
the researcher, participants, research method and design, population and sampling, and
ethical research. Other contents of Section 2 included data collection instrument and
technique, data organization techniques, data analysis, and reliability and validity. In
Section 3, I presented the findings, application to professional practice, implications for
social change, recommendations for action and further research, reflections, and
conclusion.
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Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change
Section 3 of this study contains an overview of the purpose of the study and the
overarching research question. Furthermore, Section 3 of this study contains an
introduction and presentation of the findings, application to professional practice,
implications for social change, and recommendations for action and further research. I
concluded with my reflections of the experiences of doctoral study journey.
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies
project managers in Juba, South Sudan used to align project management processes with
business strategies to improve project performance. Eight project managers participated
in this study and provided the primary data to answer the overarching research question.
Other secondary sources of data included literature and archival documents review.
Thematic analysis of participants' responses to the interview questions and company
documents review, I identified four themes: (a) effective communication among project
stakeholders, (b) stakeholder engagement in project management processes, (c)
competence of project manager in leadership decisions, and (d) executive commitment
and support to project team. Findings from this study indicated that project managers use
a combination of strategies to align project management processes with business
strategies to improve project performance.
Presentation of the Findings
The overarching research question of this study was: What strategies do project
managers use to align project management processes with business strategy to improve
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project performance? According to Silvius, Kampinga, Paniagua, and Mooi (2017),
business leaders who use sustainable development principles to align corporate strategies
(vision, mission, and objectives) with day-to-day individual projects demonstrated
improved business performance. Many researchers have demonstrated that aligning
project management processes with business strategy may bring great benefits to an
organization (Carvalho & Rabechini, 2017; Kivila, Martinsuo, & Vuorinen, 2017;
Martens & Carvalho, 2017). The results from these studies show the benefits of
alignment of project management processes with business strategy that include (a)
increased revenue, (b) lowered costs, (c) reduced project completion times, and (d)
increased project quality. In the following subsections, I present the four themes that
emerged from thematic analysis of the participants’ responses to the interview questions,
literature review, and archival documents.
Theme 1: Effective Communication among Project Stakeholders
The first theme that emerged from analyzed data was that effective
communication among project stakeholders enhanced project success. During the
interviews, all participants acknowledged using effective communication strategy to align
project management processes with business strategy to improve project performance.
Analysis of interview data indicated that PM1#CM1, PM2#CM2, PM3#CM1, PM4#
CM1, PM5#CM1 and PM6#CM2 used effective communication that had a positive effect
on project performance. PM1#CM1 said, “We have the regular communication that is
communicating on project updates and the scope where we have so far reached.”
PM2#CM1 affirmed the importance of effective communication and posited, “You have
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to sell the idea and convince them so that they can release the funds, your strategy should
convince the board so that they see how much and return to the project you are doing.”
Participant PM3#CM1’s response on strategies used when implementing projects
aligning with business strategy, indicated, “Communication is very important, you have
to exchange ideas and speak out. Communication is one of the strategies. If you have
good communication, the project will run successfully.” PM4#CM1 said:
I will say the key thing is the communication of business strategy like my case the
5-year strategic plan was properly communicated and all staff were taken through
the plan and were told the milestones that are supposed to happen within a certain
period 1-5 year and then the goals were set. The individual projects are supposed
to be communicated properly, staff implements projects, able align themselves
and how fit in the big projects.
I reviewed some CM1's and CM2's project charter and project procedures
manuals. The project charter had an element of communication between the assigned
project manager and the person authorizing the project. PM5#CM1 and PM6#CM2 used
effective communication to monitor and control projects ensuring alignment with
business strategy. PM5#CM1 stated, “You always have to communicate with experts
involved in the design and the contractors working on the project.” PM6#CM2 stated, “If
you have proper tools like laptop and proper communication tool you can easily
communicate with your team and you achieve project timelines.” The participants'
statements aligned with the information sharing among the project stakeholders improved
project performance.
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PM1#CM1’s, PM2#CM1’s, PM3#CM1’s, PM4#CM1’s, PM5#CM1’s and
PM6#CM2’s statements are consistent with the findings of van der Hoorn et al. (2017)
and Oppong et al. (2017) that project managers use effective communication to align
project management processes with business strategy to improve project performance.
Scholars and practitioners posited that project managers should ensure effective
communication and knowledge sharing among the project stakeholders (Ahmed, 2016;
Banihashemi, Hossini, Golizadeh, & Sankaran, 2017; Oppong, Chan, & Dansoh, 2017;
Petro & Gardiner, 2015). The results from these studies show that scholars and
practitioners emphasized that effective communication is a major strategy that project
managers could use to align project management processes with business strategy to
improve project performance.
The findings on effective communication among stakeholders supports the tenets
of HK, as stated by Akao (1991), that business leaders and senior managers connect with
other employees through vertical and horizontal communication, where the
implementation team deploys and aligns goals set by the executives to achieve
organizational vision (Su & Yang, 2015). The four proponents of HK are (a) focused
selection of organizational priorities, (b) involvement of all employees, (c) the use of
proven planning and improvement tools, (d) and the application of a rigorous review
process (Nicholas, 2016; Su &Yang, 2015). People at different levels of various
departments communicate with each other through participatory dialogue (catch ball).
Participatory dialogue is a two-way, top-down and bottom-up communication process
where people turn the few priorities into objectives, identifying and monitoring progress,
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and making decisions. In this study, the participants (PM1#CM1, PM2#CM1,
PM3#CM1, and PM5#CM1 have used effective communication to align project
management processes with business strategies to improve project performance.
Corporate leaders should establish effective communication between their
customers, suppliers, employees, and host government for business sustainability
(Aarseth, Ahola, Aaltonen, Okland, & Bjorn, 2017; Strand & Freeman, 2015). According
to Oppong et al. (2017), effective communication is an essential internal factor that
influences project performance and project managers’ choice of a given practice,
technique, or tool. Quik, Wright, and Herjanto (2013) posited that CNL software system
assists learners and experts to communicate within a contextual framework to resolve
problems and to improve product or process knowledge. Through this study, business
leaders and managers must use effective communication among project stakeholders to
improve project performance. Applied to this study, all participants’ responses supported
Aarseth et al. (2017), Eskerod and Vaagaasar (2014) and Oppong et al.’s (2017)
assertions on the need for project managers establish continuous communication between
stakeholders to align project management processes with business strategies for business
sustainability.
Theme 2: Stakeholder Engagement in Project Management Processes
The second theme that emerged from the analyzed data was that stakeholder
engagement in project management processes improved project performance. Five
participants (PM1#CM1, PM2#CM1, PM3#CM1, PM4#CM1, and PM8#CM2) asserted
that they engaged project stakeholders to align project management processes with
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business strategies to improve project performance. The participants employed various
methods (such as project status reports) on a timely basis to engage stakeholders. These
five participants engaged stakeholders when developing, implementing, and monitoring
and controlling projects. PM1#CM1 stated, “Engagement with stakeholders is very
important, we bring stakeholders into the common start meeting to inform them of the
aim of the project and the expected results from the project.” PM3#CM1 said:
Okay, I would say that before you start a project, you need to have stakeholders
together and they should understand the benefits of the project before you can
kick off the project. Bring the people together, and they should sit and understand
how the project will be done, the role of the project and benefit to them. If they
have an understanding, it is easier to align it with business strategies.
Participant PM4#CM1’s responding on strategies to use when developing projects
aligning with business strategy stating, “One has to involve the stakeholders who allocate
resources to the project. In short, one has to align the project plan with the company
strategic plan.” Responding to strategies used to monitor and control projects ensuring
alignment with business strategy, PM3#CM1 said, “After initiating and planning, you
involve stakeholder (users) when you are implementing so that when we have a final
product, they should not complain that they were not part of the team.” PM8#CM2 noted
the need for project managers to consult with other stakeholders after initiating a project.
In response on the challenges to developing, implementing, and monitoring the processes
for aligning business strategies with project practices, PM2#CM1 said, “Now during
implementation, you find there is a delay because departments are not cooperating. So,
75
you have to call them and engage them to help you run the project because projects have
limited timelines; otherwise you will not succeed.”
CM1’s project charter consists of the following elements (a) high-level project
description and boundaries, (b) high-level risks, (c) assigned project manager, and (d)
name of the person authorizing the project. Participants PM1#CM1, PM2#CM1,
PM3#CM1, PM4#CM1, and PM8#CM2 attested that stakeholders’ engagement is an
essential strategy to ensure alignment between project management processes and
business strategies. Several project managers highlighted the importance to consider the
cooperation of stakeholders to mitigate risks during the project management groups
(Martens & Carvalho, 2017; Yu et al., 2017). The participants’ responses echoed the
study of Aarseth et al. (2017), who identified management of stakeholder as a good
business strategy for aligning project management processes with business strategies. By
engaging stakeholders in project management, project managers create a shared
understanding of the success criteria for the project (Aarseth et al., 2017; Oppong et al.,
2017).
The finding that stakeholder engagement in project management processes
improved the project performance aligned with HK, the conceptual framework for this
study. Researchers agreed that HK approach has four iterative phases: (a) focus, (b)
alignment, (c) implementation, and (d) review (Ahmed, 2016; Nicholas, 2016; Chiarini,
2016). Theme 2 is a reflection of HK’s tenet of alignment. Alignment involves the effort
of making everyone in the organization agree on the few priorities from phase one (focus)
and makes actionable and measurable plans (de Silveira et al., 2017; Su & Yang, 2015).
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As applied to this study, business leaders and senior managers must focus on a few key
medium-term priorities or breakthrough objectives based on the organization’s vision and
long-term strategy. By focusing on a few important objectives, it is easier for the project
implementation team to transform the organization by having realistic plans taking into
account the dynamic internal and external business environment.
Stakeholders are individuals or groups who influence business outcomes and
include shareholders, customers, employees, communities, financiers, suppliers, and the
public (Eskerod & Vaagaasar, 2014; Oppong et al., 2017; Yu et al., 2017). Global project
challenges include cultural, leadership, and stakeholder challenges (Melander et al., 2017;
Zuofa & Ochieng, 2014). Aarseth et al. (2017) stated that project managers’ main
challenge is managing the external stakeholders in the global project. PM1#CM1,
PM2#CM2, PM3#CM1, PM4# CM1, PM5#CM1, and PM6#CM2 stated that
telecommunications companies have both internal and external stakeholders. The
participants’ agreed that several departments such as business, marketing and sales, IT,
finance, human resource, PMO, networking department, operation, and planning should
support project team. The project manager must manage several internal and external
stakeholders besides his project to execute the project objectives. As applied to this study,
five participants’ responses echoed Aarseth et al. (2017), Oppong et al (2017), and Yu et
al.’s (2017) assertions on the need for project managers establish regular engagement
with stakeholders to align project management processes with business strategies for
business sustainability.
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Theme 3: Competence of Project Manager in Leadership Decisions
The third theme that emerged from analyzing the data obtained from participants
was the competency of the project manager in project leadership decisions. The theme of
competence of project manager in making leadership decisions emerged from analyzed
interview data and member checking. All participants recognized the significance of
having competent project managers for effective monitoring and reporting of project
implementation to align project management processes with business strategies.
PM3#CM1 said, “We have project team who can understand the scope of the project and
know how to handle the project so that they will be able to run the project successfully.”
In response to the critical success factors considered when aligning projects management
processes with business strategies, PM3#CM1 stated, “The main critical success factor is
funding, human resources, and competence of project team members.” The project
manager affects the project success. PM2#CM1, said:
There will be a delay in the project for instance approval for funds though
allocated. Project Manager (PM) is not following the funds there will be delay of
the project. PM does not cooperate he will end up creating disharmony. In proper
monitoring, project manager has to be active following day to day activities and
updating everything to the management.
In response on the strategies to use to implement projects ensuring alignment with
business strategy, PM2#CM1, PM5#CM1, and PM8#CM2 stated that the competence of
the project manager is important in implementing projects. PM2#CM1 stated, “During
execution of the project, all depends on the competency of the project team in ensuring
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efficient budget and resource monitoring and reporting to management.” PM5#CM1 said,
“In project implementation, you look at the competence of the project team, if they are
competent, you are given the go ahead.” PM8#CM2’s response illustrated the need for
project managers to have knowledge of “The budget and project activities and follow the
plan without deviating in any way.” PM8#CM2, stated,
I forgot to mention that project manager should be involved in strategy
development or sit in meeting of projects. The company business plan can be well
implemented if the project manager are given business skills. Most technical
personnel engineers think about the project in terms of technical specifications but
fail on the competency of the soft skills like leadership.
All participants acknowledged the need for project managers and team to have
adequate competence in monitoring and controlling project. According to the
participants, people is the major strategy they use to monitor and control projects to
ensure alignment with business strategy. Vendors and contractors affect the project
alignment as well as the implementation of the company business strategy. PM1#CM1
acknowledged using people, project managers, and supervisors to monitor projects while
PM2#CM1 stated, “Have the tool to enable the team on the ground to update so that you
can monitor the project.” PM3#CM1 and PM6#CM2 noted that project team meets
regularly to monitor the progress of the project and PM4#CM1 said, “One must have the
experience to review and make improvements on other similar related projects.”
PM5#CM1 opined that supervision is a major means of monitoring noting “You always
have experts involved in the design is a must.” PM7#CM2 and PM8#CM2’s responses
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acknowledged that project managers should be competent on project management
software and plan to identify and mitigate risks.
Responding to the challenges of developing, implementing, and monitoring the
processes for aligning business strategies with project practices, PM2#CM1 said, “So
what’s happening if you don’t have the right resource selection then you might have
project delaying, you must correct immediately.” PM6#CM2 stated, “If you do have an
unqualified team, it will make the delay of the project.” PM1#CM1 said, “Project
manager make a project to succeed or fail” and PM3#CM1 remarked, “Project manager
and the team are most important part of the project, they must have a team who
understand the project for it to be successful.” PM4#CM1 stated, “So basically, if the
project manager is not in control, the project will not progress properly and same with the
project team, the guys working with him.” PM5#CM1 outlined some skills and
competencies of a project manager, “Project manager must be a leader who knows the
challenges beforehand, understands what the project is all about, and have divergent
skills. Attitude is key. Motivation is key to the people. How much you support the team
with training.” PM6#CM2 echoed that “Attitude is very important” and PM7#CM2 said,
“Project manager should have a skilled team with project-oriented skills.”
All participants recognized the importance of teamwork, attitude, honesty,
interpersonal skills, team motivation, and good working environment. PM5#CM1 stated,
“Project manager should go with the positive team and use the motivation skills.”
PM7#CM2 said, “The way you push the project depends on the team’s interpersonal
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skills.” PM8#CM2 opined, “The project team should offer support to the project manager
by doing their work properly.”
The participants indicated the importance of having leadership skill and explained
how the skill contributed to the alignment of project management processes with business
strategy. Chang (2013) proposed the use of incentives to motivate contractors to reduce
the risk of projects failing to meet cost budget. The consequences of misalignment of
project management processes and business strategies are the divisive and costly
litigation between customers and contractors (McAdam, Hazlett, & Galbraith, 2013).
According to Oppong et al. (2017), project stakeholders are hard to manage specifically
in the construction sector. Project managers lack well-functioning strategies, plans,
methods, or processes that engage project stakeholders (Oppong et al., 2017). If the PM
team is not managing the vendors and contractors properly, they will damage the
company’s reputation since they provide the telecommunication equipment, construct the
infrastructure, and do most of the telecommunication work (Alusdiri et al., 2013).
Vendors who are unprofessional regarding project management and expertise will not
contribute positively to the company’s business strategies (Alusdiri et al., 2013). The
project managers’ leadership decisions using the soft skills are important in the alignment
of the project with business strategies and help to link the project with the company’s
business plans or their competitive advantages (Engelbrecht, Johnston, & Hooper, 2017).
As applied to this study, all participants’ responses echoed Engelbrecht, Johnston, and
Hooper (2017) statement on the competence of project manager to the alignment of
project management processes with business strategies.
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Theme 3 findings are relevant to HK tenet of implementation. HK approach has
four iterative phases: (a) focus, (b) alignment, (c) implementation, and (d) review
(Ahmed, 2016; Nicholas, 2016; Chiarini, 2016). The implementation teams are
empowered to manage action and schedule activities. The implementation team narrows
the gap between strategy formulation, implementation, and tracking the progress of the
agreed initiatives. The senior management passes the baton to the middle managers, who
in turn pass down the initiatives to the employees (Su & Yang, 2015). Senior managers
use the review process to understand the success and progress of the executing teams (de
Silveira et al., 2017). The review phase is a detailed analysis and audit performance
against key performance indicators, processes, and outcome goals (Nicholas, 2016). In
this study, all participants’ responses echoed Chiarini’s (2017) and de Silveira et al.’s
(2017) assertion on the influence of project managers’ and team competence on project
success
The project management team is responsible for project success as its immediate
goal (Berssaneti & Carvalho, 2015; Satankar & Jain, 2015; van der Hoorn & Whitty,
2017). Petro and Gardiner (2015) demonstrated that project manager’s authority,
responsibility, and steering committee involvement are important factors for business
success. Five participants (PM1#CM1, PM2#CM1, PM3#CM1, PM4#CM1, and
PM8#CM2) stated that the project manager must understand the business profile because
it serves as a guide for all other project management activities and ensures the project is
worth the investment. As applied to this study, all participants’ responses echoed van der
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Hoorn et al.’s assertions on the influence of project managers’ and team competence on
project success for business sustainability.
Theme 4: Executive Commitment and Support to Project Team
The fourth theme that emerged from the analyzed data was that executive
commitment and support to project team improved project performance. The five
participants (PM1#CM1, PM2#CM1, PM3#CM1, PM4#CM1, and PM8#CM2)
recognized the power that the executives have for solving many problems that affect the
implementation of the company’s business strategies that are out of the project team
control. The participants attested the business executives’ support for strategically
executing the project aligning with business long-term vision. PM2#CM1 stated,
When you are initiating a project, first of all, you have to plan everything for the
board to approve or the top management to approve your budget. The project
will not move, or rather it will not take off. You have to sell the idea and
convince them so that they can release the funds. Your strategy should be to
convince the board to see how much to spend and the return on investment from
the project.
PM3#CM1opined, “Involve top management because they make decisions and
involve from top management to the bottom.” PM3#CM1 further said, “Lack of project
management office makes the execution of project very difficult, and the senior managers
need to set an office that coordinates projects.” One of the other project manager,
PM4#CM1, explained the importance of top management commitment in aligning project
management processes with business strategies. PM8#CM2 stated,
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Before planning, we have to initiate to the top management for the approval. After
the approval by the top management then we put up the infrastructure whereby we
need to put together the material budget and plan to get the right contractor
sometimes we are forced to outsource a vendor to do the work depending on the
environment.
All participants acknowledged that corporate executive commitment was critical
to their ability to overcome some of their challenges involving financing, political,
environmental, government legislation, skilled work force, and electricity supply.
Business executives address most of the challenges that project team face. PM1#CM1
stated, “Sometimes the project budget is skewed due to inflation and political instability.
But with executive support, you will still implement the project.” PM8#CM2 illustrated
that having executive support, “We get expatriates to impart knowledge and develop
skills of local members of the project team.”
Research findings from literature support the study results that executive
commitment and support to project team improved project success. Most corporate
executives involve project managers in strategy development because (a) understanding
the business strategy, project managers could influence the implementation of the
business strategy positively, (b) adding practical inputs and feedback to the strategy, and
(c) involving the project manager in the strategy development helps to build an effective
work environment (Alsudiri et al., 2013; Silvius et al., 2017). Executive managers
generate innovation within the organization through supporting projects to turn concepts
into products (Dumay, Rooney, & Marini, 2013). All participants expressed the desire for
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the business executives to involve project managers in the development process of the
company’s business strategies. PM4#CM1 said, “To be able to develop projects to align
with the business strategy plan, you have to be involved in developing the strategic plan.”
PM8#CM2 remarked, “Then if you decide to go ahead with the project then business
executives have to involve project managers in business strategy development.”
PM4#CM1 and PM8#CM2’s assertions supported the study of Alsudiri et al., who
identified the importance of senior executives involving project managers in developing
business strategies. All participants interviewed acknowledged that business executives
demonstrated great understanding and support for the project management team through
the provision of the project management tools. All participants acknowledged using
Microsoft Office Project software to improve project performance. As applied in this
study, all participants attested to the executive commitment to achieve alignment of
project management processes with business strategies.
Chiarini (2016) opined that senior managers use HK to gain more control of
cross-functional management and align strategic and operational goals to ensure
sustained business success. Specifically, Akao (1991) urged business leaders and
executives have used HK tenets of focus, alignment, implementation, and review to
identify competing priorities or strategic goals (Akao, 1991; de Silveira et al., 2017).
Corporate executives have successfully translated long-term policy into annual plans to
achieve significant improvements in business results (Chiarini, 2016). As applied to this
study, all participants’ responses echoed Chiarini’s (2016) and de Silveira, et al.’s (2017)
85
assertions on the need for executive commitment to align project management processes
with business strategies to improve project performance.
Company executives affect the implementation of the business strategy because
they are the sponsors of projects and have the power to enhance the project management
processes (Alsudiri et al., 2013). According to van der Hoorn and Whitty (2017),
executives reconcile different views amongst the project team and with stakeholders to
enable project delivery for business sustainability. Silvius et al. (2017) posited that
corporate executives under present sustainable principles in the decision-making
processes compared to the triple constraint of time, cost, and quality. All the participants’
agreed that business executives with corporate strategy people have the advantage to
study and prepare for the telecommunication market trend and the evolving technologies.
Executive commitment to projects plays a vital role in the realization of more sustainable
business practices. Applied in this study, all participants attested to use executive
commitment to align project management processes with business strategies for business
sustainability.
Applications to Professional Practice
The identification of strategies that project managers use to align project
management processes with business strategies is crucial to project performance and
enterprise sustainability. The United States based Project Management Institute (PMI)
has its guide on project management body of knowledge (PMBOK
®
Guide, 2013). The
10 PMI’s knowledge areas are project scope, time, cost, integration, risk, quality,
communications, human resources, procurement, and stakeholder management. Project
86
managers should take into account the ten knowledge areas while planning,
implementing, monitoring and controlling, and reviewing projects. Alsudiri et al. (2013)
identified alignment strategies that business leaders use to align projects with business
strategies. The alignment strategies include: (a) effective communication, (b) competence
of the project manager and team, (c) involvement of the project manager in strategy
development, and (e) executive commitment. Other alignment strategies are organization
structure type, customer or stakeholder involvement in product development, and supplier
or partner involvement in the product development (Confonto et al., 2014). The results
from this study could contribute information sharing, collaboration, and teamwork among
telecommunication industry project managers seeking strategies for aligning project
management processes with business strategies to improve project performance. Business
leaders may use data from this study to improve project performance, thereby reducing
waste and increasing profits for organizations.
Business leaders and managers measure the success of the project within the
constraints of scope, time, quality, resources, and risk (PMI, 2013; Silvius, Kampinga,
Paniagua, & Mooi, 2017). Oppong, Chan, and Dansohn (2017) reported that business
leaders determined project success based on cost, time, and quality requirements (axiom
triangle) and concluded that there is more to be done especially involving all stakeholders
in the project. Engelbrecht, Johnston, and Hooper (2017) stated that project managers
measure metrics at the project level by defining a set of performance measures and
identifying key performance indicators. Based on the study findings, the most significant
contribution to professional practice may be the identification of potential alignment
87
strategies project managers’ use to align project management processes with business
strategies to improve project performance. Project management professionals may use the
findings of the study in aligning their project management processes with business
strategies to improve project performance.
Kujala, Brady, and Putila (2014) identified several challenges in performing cost
management including (a) cost estimation, (b) cost control and monitoring, (c) revenue
recognition, (d) profitability analysis, and (e) margin calculation. Other challenges
business leaders and managers encounter include (a) waste of time, money, and
opportunity, (b) diminished productivity, (c) de-motivation of individuals and teams, (d)
internal conflicts and power struggles, and (e) ultimate project failure (Khedhaouria,
Montani, & Thurik, 2017; Shepherd, Haynie, & Patzelt, 2013; Shepherd, Patzelt,
Williams, & Warneke, 2014). The participants identified the challenges affecting
alignment of project management processes with business strategies. Some of the
challenges include (a) people management, (b) skewed finance, (c) government
legislation demands, (d) project changes by the client, and (e) dynamic environment due
to insecurity. The findings may help potential business leaders and project managers
become conversant with the potential challenges that may affect alignment of project
management processes with business strategies to improve project performance and
adequately prepare in advance.
According to Van der Hoorn and Whitty (2017), managers should align project
management processes with business strategies to ensure that everyone in the
organization work towards achieving strategic goals. Alsudiri et al. (2013) demonstrated
88
that companies having strong alignment between the business strategy and project
management achieve successful projects outcome while companies that have mismatch
alignment show less successful projects outcome. Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista,
and
Valle (2015) reported that complexity in strategy implementation is due to the failure of
project team to align business strategy with project portfolio management. Study findings
may assist project managers and project team to bridge the knowledge gap on strategies
and best practices for aligning project management processes with the long-term
organizational goals to improve project performance.
Implications for Social Change
South Sudan is facing widespread poverty and a high rate of unemployment
(Longfield, 2015). Petro at al. (2014) opined that project manager’s authority,
responsibility, and steering committee involvement are important factors for business
success. Harengel and Gbadamosi (2013) posited that South Sudan is a post-crisis nation
faced with socio-economic problems. As illustrated in my findings, the alignment of
project management processes with business strategy might assist project managers to
improve project performance and continue to provide job opportunities to the local
communities.
Aarseth et al. (2017) stated that project managers’ main challenge is managing the
external stakeholders in the global project. The performance of projects could improve
individuals, communities, organizations, institutions, cultures, or societies in South Sudan
whereby sustainable projects could offer employment opportunities to the local people.
Communities may benefit from this study through improved infrastructures built by
89
telecommunication managers employing best business practices and effective strategies
improved from project alignment with business strategy. Communities also tend to
benefit from project success because organizational leaders respond quickly to societal
needs when they do not overrun their costs and time on many projects.
Entrepreneurial project failure rate is high due to uncertainty in the work
environment (Gulten & Ruszczynski, 2015). The high failure rate of entrepreneurial
projects has enduring implications for the project team members and the organization
(Gulten & Ruszczynski). Pospisila and Besancenot (2014) stated that deep economic
mistrust issues and social relations among the ethnic groups in South Sudan affect growth
and cohesion in South Sudan. With improved project performance, business leaders in
telecommunication companies could collaborate with government agencies, NGOs, and
private sector to reduce poverty, create jobs, and ensure economic development of the
country.
Chang (2013) proposed the use of incentives to motivate contractors to reduce the
risk of projects failing to meet cost budget. The consequences of misalignment of project
management processes and business strategies are the divisive and costly litigation
between customers and contractors (McAdam, Hazlett, & Galbraith, 2013). Dube (2014)
stated that in an increasingly fluid work environment, workers often find themselves in a
state of transition and should adapt to rapid changes. The telecommunication companies
will pay more tax and perform their corporate social responsibilities by assisting the
community leaders with the provision of social amenities such as schools, hospitals,
libraries, roads, and housing for the local communities.
90
Recommendations for Action
Alignment of project management processes with business strategies is crucial to
project performance. Managers should align project management processes with business
strategies to ensure that everyone in the organization work towards achieving strategic
goals (McAdam et al., 2013; Silvius et al., 2017). Some of the study participants
(PM7#CM2 and PM3#CM1) claimed that project managers are not involved in business
strategy development. For effective project performance, project managers should
participate in the process of developing the company’s business strategies. The project
manager must understand the business profile because it serves as a guide for all other
project management activities and ensures the project is worth the investment (PMI,
2013). I recommend that senior managers should encourage business strategy people to
involve project managers during the development of business strategies.
To improve project performance, project managers should align project
management processes with business strategies (Keeys & Huemann, 2017). The
consequences of misalignment of project management processes and business strategies
are the divisive and costly litigation between customers and contractors (Edoho, 2015).
Garcia-Melon, Poveda-Bautista,
and
Valle (2015) proposed the use of incentives to
motivate contractors to reduce the risk of projects failing to meet cost budget. The project
manager should be proficient in vendor and contractor management to avoid damage to
company’s reputation and goodwill (van der Hoorn & Whitty, 2017). The project
manager should emphasize communication and knowledge sharing among the project
91
team (Khedhaouria, Montani, & Thurik, 2017). I recommend that project manager should
have adequate knowledge and competency to lead the project team.
Business executives and corporate strategy people study the telecommunication
market trend and evolving technologies (Alsudiri et al., 2013). Uncertainty in the work
environment could lead to high entrepreneurial project failure rate (Gulten &
Ruszczynski, 2015). I recommend that business leaders should update the project
management team on any changes in the telecommunication market because of the
dynamic market competition and emerging technological innovations.
Project managers face challenges while attempting to align project management
processes with business strategies to improve project performance. Global project
challenges include cultural, leadership, and stakeholder challenges (Zuofa & Ochieng,
2014). Establishing good communication linkages between a company and customers,
suppliers, employees, and the host governments are important for the success of the
company (Eskerod & Vaagaasar, 2014; Strand & Freeman, 2015). Aarseth et al. (2017)
stated that project managers’ main challenge is managing the external stakeholders in the
global project. I recommend that project managers should consider the internal and
external factors in all phases of the project to identify and mitigate risks. I will
disseminate the results of this study to various stakeholders through knowledge sharing in
my place of employment, presentations in conferences, publications in business journals,
and training seminars.
92
Recommendations for Further Research
The aim of this study was to explore strategies project managers use to align
project management processes with business strategies to improve project performance.
Researchers have investigated the strategies project managers use to improve project
performance (Alsudiri et al., 2013; Confonto et al., 2014; Keeys et al., 2017). A
significant challenge for novice researchers is organizing the participants’ responses into
themes to gain an in-depth understanding of the study phenomenon (Morsea, Lowerya, &
Steurya, 2014). I recommend further study involving research experts with diverse
knowledge in project management and business strategy development in other industry to
compare results and conclusion from the telecommunication sector.
The study was a limited cross-sectional, qualitative, multiple case study involving
two telecommunication companies in Juba, South Sudan, which is a new nation currently
ongoing a civil war. I recommend future researchers should explore longitudinal study,
quantitative or mixed methods in different geographical locations with stable developing
economies. Furthermore, this research was limited to two telecommunication companies.
The use of larger or smaller sample size might generate different themes (Robinson,
2014). Further studies should involve more telecommunication companies for comparing
the findings.
Reflections
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies
project managers use to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance. In conducting this study, I realized that project managers
93
might require a variety of strategies to align project management processes with business
strategies to improve project performance. From the research findings, I obtained an in-
depth understanding of the research problem and realized that project managers use
various strategies to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance. My reflection on the experiences within the doctoral study
process made me gain a better understanding and knowledge of research process which
positively changed my personal biases and preconceived ideas and values. Conducting
my doctoral study research improved my understanding and knowledge of the academic
research work.
Using the purposive sampling technique, I was able to select eight
telecommunication project managers who had relevant knowledge and experience to
answer the research question. The qualitative research method enabled me to conduct
semistructured interviews and provided me with the opportunity to interact with the
participants. My interactions with the participants improved my self-confidence,
emotional intelligence, communication, and interpersonal skills. By conducting
semistructured interviews at participants’ current environment, the respondents expressed
themselves freely, which enabled me to gain an in-depth understanding of the strategies
project managers uses to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance.
During the interviews, I realized that most participants are in charge of their
projects and conversant with project management but not trained on project management
processes. The participants’ responses to the interview questions enabled me to
94
understand project managers use similar strategies to align project management processes
with business strategy to improve business performance. The participants who had
different perspectives of the interview questions were delighted to share their knowledge
and experience, which enabled me to gain to understand the research problem. The study
findings changed my personal biases, and preconceived ideas and values on the
approaches project managers use to align project management processes with business
strategy to improve project performance because I have gained knowledge and
understanding from eight participants.
Conclusion
The misalignment of the project management processes with business strategies
results in project delays and cost overruns. Some project managers in the
telecommunication companies lack strategies for aligning project management processes
with business strategies to improve project performance. Although there are studies
conducted on project alignment (Engelbrecht, Johnston, & Hooper, 2017; van der Hoorn
& Whitty, 2017), researchers have limited knowledge about why project misalignment
occurs with repercussions of cost overruns and project delays. Few researchers have
focused on alignment of project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance through the theoretical lens of HK.
The aim of this qualitative multiple case study was to use HK theory as a lens to
explore strategies project managers in the telecommunication companies use to align
project management processes with business strategies to improve project performance. I
used open-ended questions to conduct semistructured interviews with eight project
95
managers to collect data to answer the research question. Four themes emerged from
thematic analysis of data indicating strategies telecommunication project managers in
South Sudan use to align project management processes with business strategies to
improve project performance. The themes are: (a) effective communication among
project stakeholders, (b) stakeholder engagement in project management processes, (c)
competence of project manager in leadership decisions, and (d) executive commitment
and support to project team.
The findings of the study may assist project managers to plan, execute, monitor
and control, and strategically close the project. The findings of the study may lead to
proper project alignment and successful project outcome, which may assist business
leaders and managers in the telecommunication companies in responding to opportunities
in highly competitive markets. The use of HK tenets of
focus, alignment, implementation,
and
review
in analyzing the two case studies involving telecommunication companies
may fill a gap in the literature. The findings support the conclusions by other scholars on
the importance and benefits of aligning project management processes with business
strategies. Some of the benefits include increased revenue, lowered costs, reduced project
completion times, and increased project quality.
96
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