Models of Employee Supervision
A review of literature on supervision reveals different models of supervision (Smith 2011;
Falender & Shafanke 2007; Haynes, Corey & Moulton 2003; Centre for Substance Abuse
Treatment 2009). However, what does the term ‘model’ mean? Leddick (1994) defined a model
as “a systematic manner in which supervision is applied” (Leddick, 1994, p.1). Leddick (1994)
further contended that a model defines practices, routines and beliefs. Stoltenberg and Delworth
(1988) noted that “models are only useful analogies or metaphors and not the real entity or
process” (p 137). Korzybski (1948) argued that a map is not the territory. In addition, the models
are categorised into three; developmental, integrated and orientation specific models.
According to the Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment (2009) four supervisory orientations
seem particularly relevant to psychology and counselling more so to substance abuse
counselling. These include competency-based models, treatment-based models, developmental
approaches and integrated models. This categorisation for me is interesting.
Competency-based Models; these refer to models that focus on improvement of skills and
learning needs of the supervisee (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009). Further, these
models focus on constructing and implementing strategies to accomplish these goals (e.g. the
Task Oriented Model [Mead, 1990]; the Discrimination Model [Bernard & Goodyear, 2004]).
The Task Oriented Model: Mead (1990) espoused the model. Accordingly, it was drawn from
concepts of behavioural therapy and computer science (Mead 1990). The aim of this model was
to guide supervisors and supervisees of varying degrees of sophistication and theoretical models.
It provides a framework that guides supervisors and a coherent foundation for supervisees.
Further, the model identifies categories of necessary tasks (Mead 1990).
The Discrimination Model: Bernard and Goodyear (2004) postulated this model. Accordingly,
this model suggests three functions and three roles of supervision. The three roles of the
supervisor are: teacher, counsellor and consultant (Bernard & Goodyear 2004; Morgan &
Sprenkle 2007). The teacher takes responsibility for passing new information and skills to the
supervisee. Leddick (1994) stated that the supervisor might adapt this role when they lecture or
instruct supervisees directly. The supervisor adapts the counsellor role when they assist the
supervisees’ deal with personal issues that are triggered by client work. Bernard and Goodyear
(2004) highlighted further that the counsellor role helps in identifying blind spots and
unconscious matter associated with client work. The consultant role is adapted when the
supervisor and supervisee relate as colleagues. Bernard and Goodyear (2004) pointed out that
these roles are task specific for the purpose of setting the agenda of supervision. Further they
pointed out that the model is reflective of situational needs of the supervisee (Bernard &
Goodyear 2004).
Bernard and Goodyear (2009) stated that the supervisee has three types of foci in supervision.
The first is intervention; this includes the supervisor observing and assessing the supervisees’
interactions with clients. Second, is conceptualisation, accordingly, this described as ‘‘how the
trainee understands what is occurring in the session, identifies patterns, or chooses interventions,
all covert processes’’ (Bernard & Goodyear 2009; p. 102). The third focus is personalisation;
this looks at the process of the supervisee developing their own counselling style with clients.
The aim of this supervisory process is increased effectiveness.
Bernard and Goodyear (2009) pointed out that the supervisor chooses the most appropriate role
for each situation instead of basing it on the supervisee focus.
Treatment-based Supervision Models; these refer to models that focus on a particular
theoretical approach to counselling (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009). These
models incorporate the best practices in supervision with specific focused adaptation to the
theoretical model. Examples of these supervision models include psychodynamic psychotherapy
supervision, motivational interviewing supervision and cognitive–behavioural therapy
supervision (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009).
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy supervision: A number of studies have looked at psychodynamic
psychotherapy supervision (Falender & Shafranske, 2008; Frawley-O’Dea & Sarnat, 2001;
Haynes, Corey, & Moulton, 2003; Kendra 2009). Kendra (2009) pointed out that psychodynamic
supervision draws on the clinical data inherent of the psychodynamic theoretical orientation.
Some of these data includes defense mechanisms, transference and counter-transference. In
addition Kendra (2009) reported that psychodynamic supervision can be classified into three
categories based on the focus of supervision namely; patient-centred, supervisee-centred, and
supervisory-matrix centred (Kendra (2009).
Frawley-O’Dea and Sarnat (2001) stated that Freud postulated patient centre supervision. Herein
the supervision is focused on review of the patients presenting issues and behaviour. The
supervisor has a didactic role aimed at helping the supervisee to understand the client’s
problems. Here, the supervisor is the expert with knowledge and skills (Frawley-O’Dea &
Sarnat, 2001).
Supervisee-centred psychodynamic supervision focuses on the process and content of
counselling. Frawley-O’Dea and Sarnat (2001) pointed out that the focus on process looks at the
counsellors anxieties and learning challenges, whereas, the focus on content looks at what was
discussed in therapy (Frawley-O’Dea & Sarnat, 2001; Falender & Shafranske, 2008). Falender
and Shafranske, (2008) acknowledged that with this focus on supervision; the sessions are more
experiential than didactic. Frawley-O’Dea and Sarnat (2001) summarised that supervisee centred
supervision is growth oriented.
Frawley-O’Dea and Sarnat (2001) stated that supervisory matrix centred supervision is
relational. They further stated that the supervisor’s role is participatory and involves evaluation
and interpretation of themes that arise in the supervision process and counselling process.
Cognitive-Behavioural Supervision: Kendra, (2009) pointed out that cognitive-behavioural
supervision is targeted at teaching the counsellor the techniques of the theoretical orientation.
According to Hayes, Corey, and Moulton, (2003) the supervisor observes the supervisees’
behaviour and interactions with the clients. Liese and Beck (1997) outlined distinct steps in a
cognitive behavioural session; these steps include: Check-in, Agenda setting, Bridge for previous
session, Inquiry about previously supervised therapy cases, Review of homework since previous
supervision session, Elicit feedback from supervisee, Assignment of new homework and
Supervisor's capsule summaries.
Developmental models assert that each counsellor goes through different stages of
development (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009). According to the Centre for
Substance Abuse Treatment (2009) these models further recognise that the counsellors’
movement through these stages is not always linear but varies depending on the work
assignment, setting, and population served.
Stoltenberg (1981) developed a supervision model, which was referred to as the ‘counsellor
complexity model’. The model asserts that counsellors go through different stages of
development in their practice and reception of supervision. The first level also known as the
‘beginning of the journey’ acknowledges that the counsellor has minimal experience in
counselling and may be undergoing training in psychology and counselling. Further, the
shown by unilateral dependence on the supervisor. Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) stated that
in this stage the counsellor is still developing their own identity.
The second level also referred to as ‘trials and tribulations’. The counsellor integrates different
styles of counselling. They begin to define their own identity and to strive for independence and
self-assertiveness (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009; Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg
and Delworth, 1987).
The third level also referred to as ‘challenge and growth’ is focused on the experienced
counsellor. Here the counsellor exhibits increased sense of personal and professional identity.
Further, they have increased self-confidence (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009;
Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg and Delworth, 1987). The fourth level is known as the ‘master
counsellor’. Here the counsellor is insightful with self-awareness and knows their limitations
(Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009; Stoltenberg, 1981; Stoltenberg and Delworth,
1987). Below is a summary of the model by Stoltenberg, Delworth, & McNeil, (1998).
Table : Stoltenberg, Delworth, & McNeil, Counsellor Developmental Model
Stoltenberg, Delworth, & McNeil, Counsellor Developmental Model
Developmental Level Characteristics Supervision Skills
Development Needs Techniques
Level 1 • Focuses on self • Provide structure and
minimise anxiety
• Observation
• Anxious, uncertain • Skills training
• Preoccupied with
performing the right
way
• Supportive, address
strengths first, then
weaknesses
• Role playing
• Readings
• Suggest approaches
• Overconfident of skills
• Over-generalises • Start connecting theory
to treatment
• Group supervision
• Closely monitor clients
• Overuses a skill
•Gap between
conceptualisation, goals,
and interventions
• Ethics underdeveloped
Level 2 • Focuses less on self
and more on client
• Confused, frustrated
with complexity of
counselling
• Over identifies with
client
• Challenges authority
• Lacks integration
with theoretical base •
Overburdened
• Ethics better
understood
• Less structure
provided, more
autonomy encouraged
• Supportive
• Periodic suggestion of
approaches
• Confront discrepancies
• Introduce
more alternative
views
• Process comments,
highlight counter-
transference
• Affective reactions to
client and/or supervisor
• Observation
• Role playing
• Interpret dynamics
• Group supervision
• Reading
Level 3 • Focuses intently on
client
• High degree of
empathic skill
• Objective third person
perspective
• Integrative thinking
and approach
• Highly responsible and
ethical counsellor
• Supervisee directed
• Focus on personal-
professional integration
and career
• Supportive
• Change agent
• Peer supervision
• Group supervision
• Reading
Source: Stoltenberg, Delworth, & McNeil, (1998) as quoted by Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment,
2009; p 10.
Integrated Models are models that seek to integrate Evidence Based Practices into counselling
and supervision (Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2009). According to the
Centre for Substance Abuse Treatment (2009), these models address skill and
competency development of the supervisee and supervisor. They are further
concerned with affective issues based on the presenting issues. Finally, the Centre
for Substance Abuse Treatment (2009) stated that these models “articulate a
model of treatment, incorporate descriptive dimensions of supervision and address
contextual and developmental dimensions into supervision” (Centre for Substance
Abuse Treatment, 2009, p. 9).
