1. Overview (5 points)
1. Body function and environment (1) The concept of body fluids and internal environment
(2) The concept of homeostasis
2. Regulation of body functions (1) Basic ways of body function regulation (2) The concept
of reflex and reflex arc
Animal physiology: It is a science that studies the normal life activities of animals and their
regulation.
Animal physiology research contents: (1) to elucidate the characteristics of the functional activities
of each part of the body, as well as the laws of interaction between the activities of each part; (2)
Clarify the body's relationship with the environment
When interacting, the activity of various organs and systems changes.
Research level of animal physiology: (1) overall and
environmental level; (2) at the level of organs and systems; (3) Cellular
and molecular levels. Research methods of animal physiology: 1.
Acute experiments ((1) ex vivo experiments; (2) in vivo experiments)
2. Chronic experiments
Internal environment: i.e., the extracellular fluid is the environment in which the cell is directly in
the body.
Internal environmental homeostasis: The changes of various physical and
chemical factors that make up the internal environment are kept within a
small range, which is called internal environmental homeostasis. Homeostasis
is a necessary condition for cells to maintain normal physiological functions,
and it is also the basic condition for the body to maintain normal life activities.
The homeostasis of the internal environment is not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
Regulation of physiological functions: neuromodulation, humoral regulation, and self-regulation.
1. Neuromodulation: refers to the regulation of the physiological
functions of various tissues, organs and systems of the body through the
activities of the nervous system. Reflex: refers to the body's regular
adaptive response to changes in the internal and external environment with
the participation of the central nervous system.
The basic modality of neuromodulation is reflexes. Type: 1. Unconditioned, 2. Conditioned
The structural basis of reflexes is the reflex arc, which includes receptors, afferents, nerve centers,
efferents, and effectors.
Characteristics: rapid, accurate, short time, limited site of action
2. Fluid regulation: special chemicals produced by endocrine glands and tissue cells with
endocrine functions reach distant or adjacent specific organs, tissues or cells through body
fluids, affecting and changing the way their physiological functions are regulated.
Modes of action of humoral regulation: endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, neurosecretion
Characteristics: Wide range, slow, long duration
3. Self-regulation: Many tissues and cells can also respond to changes in the surrounding
environment, which is the physiological characteristics of tissues and cells themselves, and
does not depend on the role of external nervous or humoral factors, so it is called self-
regulation. For example, vascular smooth muscle responds to contraction when stimulated by
traction.
Characteristics: Small range, inflexible, complementary to nerve and humoral regulation.
Control system of animal physiological function: non-automatic control system (open-loop system),
feedback control system (closed-loop system), feedforward control system.
Feedback adjustment: that is, the controlled part sends a feedback signal back to the control
part, so that the control part can change its own activities according to the feedback signal, so as
to control the part
Divide the activity to regulate.
Feedback includes both positive and negative feedback.
Positive feedback: The feedback information sent from the controlled part promotes
and strengthens the activity of the controlling part, which is called positive feedback. For
example, negative feedback on bowel movements, childbirth, and blood clotting:
feedback signals can reduce the activity of the control part, which is called negative
feedback. Such as: blood pressure, body temperature, lung stretch, blood calcium,
II. Basic Functions of Cells (5 points)
1. Excitability and bioelectric phenomena of cells (1) The concepts of resting potential
and action potential and their generation mechanism
(2) The concept of cellular excitability and excitability
(3) Threshold, threshold potential, and front potential
2. Contractile function of skeletal muscle (1) Excitatory transmission at the nerve-skeletal muscle
junction (2) Excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal muscle
Physiological functions of cell membranes: material transport and signaling
Substance transport mode: 1. Transport of small molecule substances or ions: passive transport
(simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion), active transport
2. Transport of macromolecular substances or aggregates: out and in
1
Simple diffusion: refers to the way in which some small molecules of fat-soluble substances
follow the concentration gradient (electrochemical gradient) from the high-concentration side of
the membrane to the low-concentration side. Such as: carbon dioxide, oxygen, alcohol,
anesthetics
Facilitated diffusion: The phenomenon in which a non-fat-soluble substance or a substance
with a small fat-soluble substance, with the help of a special protein, diffuses from the high-
concentration side through the cell membrane to the low-concentration side, which is called
facilitated diffusion. Such as: Na+ channel
Classification of facilitated diffusion: carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, ion channel-mediated
facilitated diffusion.
Characteristics of facilitated diffusion: (1) The power of matter movement comes from a high
concentration of potential energy, and the cell does not consume energy
(2) Shift along the concentration difference or concentration gradient
(3) Involvement of membrane proteins
Characteristics of vector-mediated facilitated diffusion are: (1) high structural
specificity, (2) saturation phenomenon, (3) competitive inhibition, channel-
mediated facilitated diffusion, (1) selectivity, (2) fast transport speed, and (3)
gating characteristics
Both simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion consume energy, which is nothing more than the
potential energy consumed, and does not need to consume the energy of the cell.
Active transport: refers to the process in which cells transport molecules or ions of certain
substances from the low-concentration side of the membrane to the high-concentration side through
their own energy-dissipating process.
Characteristics of active transport: (1) reverse concentration gradient transport (2) energy consumption
(3) need to be vector-mediated
Classification of active transport: (1) Primary active transport Such as: sodium-potassium pump, calcium
pump, iodine pump
(2) Secondary active transport Such as: the transport of glucose and amino acids
Cytogenesis: refers to the process by which macromolecular substances or clumps outside the
cell enter the cell. These substances are mainly bacteria, viruses, foreign bodies, or
macromolecules that invade the body
Nutrients.
Expulsion: The process by which a cell excretes macromolecular substances or clumps from
inside the cell to the outside of the cell. This is the main way to transport proteins, hormones,
enzymes, neurotransmitters, and other substances produced by cells out of cells.
Transmembrane signaling: After the signaling molecule carrying biological information binds to
the cell membrane receptor, it initiates and produces a series of signaling molecules' information
transmission cascade reaction, from
The process by which biochemical cells change or initiate their physiological activities.
Transmembrane signaling of cells is classified as (1) transmembrane signaling mediated by ion
channels, (2) transmembrane signaling mediated by G protein-coupled receptors, and (3)
transmembrane signaling mediated by enzyme-coupled receptors
Ion channel-mediated signal transduction classification: voltage-gated channels, mechanically gated
channels, chemically gated channels.
G protein-coupled receptor-mediated signal transduction
Procedure: (1) The receptor recognizes and binds to the ligand (2) activates the G protein coupled
to the receptor (3) activates the G protein effector (4) produces a second messenger and (5)
activates or inhibits protein kinases or channels that depend on the second messenger
G-protein-coupled receptor: is a separate receptor protein molecule involved in the activation of
intracellular G-proteins.
G protein: is the abbreviation of guanylate-binding protein, which has the role of coupling receptor
and activating effector protein.
Second messenger: A small molecule that communicates the
information of extracellular signaling molecules acting on the cell
membrane to the target protein inside the cell. The second messengers
are: cAMP, inositol triphosphate, diacylglycerol, cyclic guanylate, andGa2+,
among others;
The first messenger: it's hormones.
Excitability and bioelectric phenomena of cells (5 points)
Excitability: Cells have the ability to generate action potentials when stimulated.
Stimulus: A variety of changes in the internal and external environment that cause a response from
cells, tissues, or the body.
Excitation: The process by which cells produce action potentials when stimulated.
Excitable tissues: tissues (nerves, muscles, glands) that
generate action potentials when stimulated. Threshold
intensity: The lowest intensity of stimulation that causes
tissue excitation (generating action potential).
Suprathreshold stimulus: stimuli that are higher than the threshold intensity.
2
Subthreshold stimuli: Stimuli with a lower intensity than the threshold intensity.
Subthreshold stimulation does not elicit action potentials or excitation of tissues or cells, but does not
have no effect on tissue cells.
Stimulus conditions that cause excitement: stimulus intensity, stimulus time, rate of change of
stimulus intensity to time.
All three conditions reach a threshold (threshold) in order to cause excitement.
The three elements of stimulus: intensity, duration, and the rate of change of intensity versus
time.
Cellular bioelectric phenomenon: A living cell has electrical activity whether it is in a quiet
state or an active state, and this electrical activity is called bioelectric phenomenon. These
include resting potentials and action potentials.
Resting potential: The potential difference between the inside and outside of the cell
membrane that exists in the resting state, also known as the membrane potential or
transmembrane resting potential. (equilibrium potential of K+) resting potential polarity:
positive outside and negative inside (polarized state).
Mechanism of resting potential: (1) there is a concentration difference and potential difference on
both sides of the membrane, (2) the membrane selectively permeable, and (3) the membrane is
selectively permeable to ions in the resting state
In the resting state, the high concentration of K+ in the cell membrane and the
permeability of the membrane to K+ at rest are the main reasons for the production and
maintenance of resting potential in most cells. (The resting potential is the equilibrium potential
of K+, and the resting potential is mainly caused by the outflow of K+, and its magnitude
depends on the concentration difference of K+ on both sides of the membrane and the
permeability of the membrane to K+.) ）
K+ equilibrium potential (EK): When the potential energy of the K+ concentration difference
between the two sides of the cell membrane that promotes the outflow of K+ is equal to the
potential energy of the potential difference that hinders the outflow of K+, the amount of K+ outflow
and the amount of return to the cell reach dynamic equilibrium, and the net movement of K+ across
the membrane is zero, and the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane is stable
at a value that no longer increases.
The uneven distribution of K+ inside and outside the cell and the permeability of the cell
membrane to K+ in the resting state are the basis for the cell to maintain a polarized state in the
resting state. In the resting state, the concentration of K+ in the membrane is much higher than
that outside the membrane, and the permeability of the membrane to K+ is high, so the K+
moves to the outside of the membrane in the form of facilitated diffusion, but the negatively
charged macromolecular protein cannot pass through the membrane and remains in the
membrane. Therefore, with the removal of K+, the potential in the membrane becomes negative
and the outside of the membrane becomes positive, when the electric field force caused by the
outward shift of K+ is enough to resist the outward shift of K+, there is no net movement of K+
inside and outside the membrane, and the potential existing in the inner and outer sides of the
membrane is the resting potential. Therefore, the resting potential is the equilibrium potential of
K+, and the resting potential is mainly due to the outflow of K+. 】
Action potential: refers to the process of rapid and reversible reversal and recovery of the potential
on both sides of the basal membrane of the resting potential when the excitable cells are stimulated
and excited.
Features: (1) All or no characteristics; (2) No attenuation conduction.
Mechanism of action potential generation:
polarization, depolarization, reverse polarization,
hyperpolarization, repolarizationPolarization:
The external positive and internal negative
potential states present on both sides of the cell
membrane.
Depolarization: The process by which the absolute value of the membrane potential gradually
decreases.
Reverse polarization: The process in which the potential difference between the two sides of the
membrane becomes positive and negative.
Hyperpolarization: A state in which the absolute value of the membrane potential is higher than the
resting potential.
Repolarization: The process by which the membrane potential is depolarized and then gradually
restored to a polarized state.
A. Formation of an action potential ascending branch (depolarization): The Na+ channel is
activated, and the Na+ outside the membrane flows inward, increasing the membrane potential
from -70mV to 0mV, and then rising
+30 mV, the Na+ channel is then inactivated.
Na+ equilibrium potential (ENa): When the potential energy of the Na+ concentration difference
between the two sides of the membrane that promotes the influx of Na+ is equal to the potential
energy of the potential difference that hinders the influx of Na+, the flow rate in Na+ and the
amount of movement to the extracellular reach dynamic equilibrium, and the net movement of
Na+ across the membrane is zero, and the potential difference between the two sides of the
membrane is the Na+ equilibrium potential, that is, the action potential.
Depolarization (ascending branch) is the result of a sudden increase in the permeability
of the membrane to Na+ and rapid influx of Na+ caused by stimulation, and its magnitude
is determined by the difference in Na+ concentration between the two sides of the
membrane and the original static
Interest potential value.
B. Formation of the descending branch (repolarization) of the action potential: After the
inactivation of the Na+ channel, the membrane regains its permeability to K+, and a large
amount of K+ outflow makes the membrane potential change from positive to negative until
the equilibrium potential of K+, forming the descending branch of the action potential. It is
produced in a very short period of time, so that the pattern traced in vitro is a short, sharp
pattern of a magic pet. Like a mountain peak, it becomes a peak potential.
C. Formation of post-potential (hyperpolarization): Transmembrane transport of K+ stops when the
membrane potential approaches the resting potential level. Subsequently, the Na+-K+ pump on the
membrane is activated
The Na+ ions in the membrane are transported outside the membrane, and at the same time, the
K+ outside the membrane is transported into the membrane, resulting in negative and positive
posterior potentials.
D. Peak potential: A large potential change that occurs rapidly and fades rapidly in the first part of the
action potential curve. A spike made up of an ascending and descending branches
3
Also known as pulse.
Postpotential: The part of the curve that is close to the resting potential or even lower than the
resting potential. negative post-potential (post-depolarization); Positive posterior potential (posterior
hyperpolarization). Overejection: The part of the membrane potential above the zero point is called
overemission.
Threshold stimulus: The minimum intensity of stimulation that causes cell excitation or
produces an action potential. More precisely, stimuli that cause cells to depolarize to a
threshold potential are called threshold stimuli.
Threshold potential: It is an important functional indicator of the
excitability of all excitable cells, and is the critical value at which cells
produce action potentials. Conduction of excitation on a cell: the theory
of local currents; Skip conduction
Local current theory - the action potential generated by any part of the cell membrane
after being stimulated can be spread along the cell membrane to the periphery, so that a
local current is formed between the excited part and the unexcited part, resulting in the
entire cell membrane experiencing a transmembrane ion movement to realize the conduction
of the action potential on the membrane.
Changes in excitability when cells are excited:
Absolute refractory period: peak potential, complete loss of excitability, no response to any
stimulus;
Relative refractory period: in the prephase of negative post-potential, excitability begins to return,
which is lower than normal, and stronger stimuli can elicit a response (response to suprathreshold
stimuli);
Abnormal phase: in the late stage of negative post-potential, excitability is higher than normal, and
weaker stimuli can elicit a response (response to subthreshold stimuli);
Hypoconstant: Positive posterior potential, excitability is lower than normal, and responds to
suprathreshold stimuli.
normal
Local excitation: Although subthreshold stimulation does not depolarize the membrane potential to the
threshold potential, it can cause a small depolarization in the stimulated membrane.
Characteristics of local potential: (1) hierarchical phenomenon;
(2) Electrotension spreading: The local potential can be spread to the periphery, but it
decays exponentially with the increase of distance.
(3) Sum phenomenon (sum of space, sum of time)
Chapter 2 Blood (10 points)
3. Blood (10 points)
1. Composition and physicochemical properties of blood (1) Blood volume and basic
composition of blood (2) Physicochemical properties of blood 10
2. Plasma (1) The difference between plasma and serum (2) The main components of
plasma (3) The function of plasma proteins (4) Plasma osmolality
3. Blood cells (1) Physiology of red blood cells: morphology and quantity, osmotic
fragility, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, physiological functions
(2) The main raw materials required for erythropoiesis (3) Regulation of
erythropoiesis (4) Leukocyte physiology: types, quantities and their respective
physiological functions
(5) The morphology, quantity and physiological function of platelets
4. Blood coagulation and fibrinolysis (1) The basic process of blood coagulation (2)
Fibrinolysis system
(3) Anticoagulant substances and their effects (4) Basic principles of accelerating and
slowing down blood clotting
albumin
Plasma protein globulin
water fibrinogen
On+ + Ca2+ Mg2+
plasma Electrolyte HCO3- Cl- HPO42- SO42-
blood solute Nutrients
erythrocyte Small molecule organic substances Metabolic end
products
Blood cells White blood cells hormone
platelet Gases: O2, CO2
1. Composition of blood: Blood is a complex mixture of solids and liquids. The solid part is
made up of blood cells, which together make up 45% of the total volume of blood. Blood cells are
red in color, and in addition to red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, or plasma, make up
55% of the volume. Plasma is colorless and mainly composed of water, in addition, plasma also
contains proteins, food, nutrients, inorganic salts, metabolic wastes, and gases.
4
Plasma: contains fibrinogen, pale yellow, including (water, plasma protein low molecular weight
substance).
Serum: Fibrinogen-free.
Hematocrit: The volume fraction of pressed red blood cells in whole blood.
2. Blood volume: refers to the total amount of blood in the animal's body, accounting for 6%-8% of
the animal's body, and there are different differences in race, age, and environment.
Circulating blood volume: The amount of blood involved in the body's blood circulation
Stored blood volume: the amount of blood stored in the liver, lungs, celiac cava and
subcutaneous venous plexus
3. The physical and chemical properties of blood
1. The color, smell, and density of the blood
Color: related to the oxygen content of hemoglobin in red blood cells
Hemoglobin in arterial blood contains a lot of oxygen and is bright red;
Hemoglobin in venous blood is slightly oxygenated and dark red.
Density: 1.05-1.06
It is related to the number of blood cells and the concentration of plasma proteins
The higher the number of red blood cells in the blood, the greater the whole blood mass
density; The greater the protein content in the plasma, the greater the plasma mass density.
The relative quality of red blood cells depends on the concentration of hemoglobin in the cells.
The relative quality of plasma depends mainly on the concentration of plasma proteins.
Fishy smell: related to volatile fatty acids, carnivores have a stronger fishy smell
Salty: With NaCl
2. The viscosity of the blood
When blood flows, it is called the viscosity of blood due to the friction between internal molecules,
which causes resistance due to the collision and friction between internal molecules, and exhibits
the characteristics of slow flow and adhesion.
Whole blood is 4.5-6.0 times more viscous than water, and plasma is 1.5-2.5 times more viscous than water.
The viscosity of blood depends mainly on the amount of red blood cells, and the viscosity of plasma
depends on the amount of plasma proteins.
The viscosity of the blood is relatively constant and plays an important role in maintaining normal
blood flow velocity and blood pressure.
3. Plasma osmolality
The solute in the solution prompts the force of water molecules to diffuse from one side of the solution
to the other through a semi-permeable membrane.
Composition: (1) Crystal osmotic pressure: It is composed of crystalline substances, especially
various electrolytes, such as K+, Na+, etc.
Function: Regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells, maintain normal cell volume
and morphology.
(2) Colloidal osmotic pressure: composed of various plasma proteins, mainly albumin and
globulin.
Function: It is conducive to the retention of water in the blood vessels, the balance of water
inside and outside the capillaries, and the maintenance of blood volume.
Isotonic solution: A solution equal to the osmotic pressure of cells and plasma. Such as 5% glucose
solution, 0.9% NaCl solution, 1.9% urea solution
Isotonic solution: A solution that keeps red blood cells in normal
volume and shape. For example, 5% glucose solution, 0.9% NaCl
solution tension: the osmotic pressure formed by particles in the
solution that cannot penetrate the cell membrane
Urea can freely permeate the cell membrane, so although the 1.9% urea solution is isotonic
with plasma, it will dissolve the blood immediately after placing red blood cells in it, so it is
not an isotonic solution. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the
number of solute particles and is independent of the type of solute and the size of the
particles.
4. Plasma acidity and alkalinity
The blood is weakly alkaline, with a pH of 7.35-7.45, but it varies slightly depending on the animal
species. Tolerance limit: 7.00 ~7.80 - relatively constant
Buffer pairs in plasma are: NaHCO3/H2CO3; Protein
sodium/protein; Na2HPO3/NaH2PO4 lungs and kidneys
also constantly excrete excess acids and bases from
the body
3. The difference between plasma and serum
Serum: Blood flowing out of blood vessels without anticoagulation treatment, will quickly coagulate
into blood clots, and the light yellow clear liquid precipitated as the blood clot gradually tightens.
Plasma: The collected blood is mixed with 3.8% sodium citrate in a 5:1 ratio, and the supernatant
obtained after centrifugation is a yellowish or colorless liquid fraction.
5
The main difference between serum and plasma: there is no fibrinogen and some clotting factors
in the serum, because fibrinogen has been converted into fibrin and remains in the blood clot.
The plasma from which fibrinogen is removed is serum.
Fourth, the main components of plasma
Plasma is a yellowish liquid composed of 90% water and more than 100 solutes, which make up about 50%
to 60% of the total blood volume and is an important part of the body's internal environment.
Water (90-92%)
Nutrients: plasma proteins, lipids, glucose, vitamins, etc
Plasma Electrolytes: Na+, K+, Ca2+ Mg2+ HCO3-, Cl-, HPO42-, SO42-
Metabolites: amino acids, peptides, lactic acid, ketone bodies, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, hippuric acid, bile pigments, and ammonia
Gases such as O2, CO2, and N2
Others: hormones and enzymes, etc
Albumin (mainly synthesized by the liver)
fibrinogen
5. Function of plasma proteins
Regulates the osmotic pressure between plasma and interstitial fluid – albumin
Involved in the transport of lipids and fat-soluble substances - α, β globulins
Involved in the body's immune response - γ globulin
Plasma
function
i
n
coagulation, fibrinolysis and
physiological hemostasis -
fibrinogen nutritional function -
albumin
Transport function – binding proteins
6. Plasma osmolality
The solute in the solution prompts the force of water molecules to diffuse from one side of the solution
to the other through a semi-permeable membrane.
Composition: (1) Crystal osmotic pressure: It is composed of crystalline substances, especially
various electrolytes, such as K+, Na+, etc.
Function: Regulate the balance of water inside and outside cells, maintain normal cell volume
and morphology.
(2) Colloidal osmotic pressure: composed of various plasma proteins, mainly albumin and
globulin.
Function: It is conducive to the retention of water in the blood vessels, the balance of water
inside and outside the capillaries, and the maintenance of blood volume.
Isotonic solution: A solution equal to the osmotic pressure of cells and
plasma. For example, 5% glucose solution, 0.9% NaCl solution, 1.9% urea
solution isotonic solution: a solution that can keep red blood cells in normal
volume and morphology. Such as 5% glucose solution, 0.9% NaCl solution
Tension: The osmotic pressure formed by particles in solution that cannot penetrate the cell
membrane
Urea can freely permeate the cell membrane, so although the 1.9% urea solution is isotonic
with plasma, it will dissolve the blood immediately after placing red blood cells in it, so it is
not an isotonic solution. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the
number of solute particles and is independent of the type of solute and the size of the
particles.
7. Physiology of red blood cells
(1) Form and quantity
Mammals – seedless,
biconcave disc-
shaped camels and
deer – are oval in
shape
Birds – nucleated, oval
Red blood cells are the most abundant type of blood cell. The number of red blood cells in
animals of the same species often varies with breed, age, sex, life regulation, etc.
Juvenile animals are higher than adult animals
Male animals are higher than female animals
Those with good nutrition are higher than those who are malnourished
6
The number of red blood cells and hemoglobin content in animals at high altitudes were higher than
those in animals at lower altitudes
(2) Physiological characteristics of red blood cells
1. Osmotic fragility of red blood cells: The characteristics of red blood cells that swell, rupture,
and hemolyze in a hypotonic solution.
Red blood cell fragility: When the plasticity of red blood cells is reduced, the cells burst
through the small capillaries, which is called red blood cell fragility.
Hemolysis: The phenomenon of hemoglobin escaping from red blood cells and entering the blood
plasma, known as erythrolysis, or hemolysis for short.
Clinical significance: The resistance of senescent red blood cells is weak and fragile; Reticulocytes and
mature erythrocytes are more resistant and less fragile.
Certain chemicals, diseases and bacteria can increase the fragility of red blood cells, causing
hemolysis to varying degrees.
Patients with congenital hemolytic jaundice are particularly fragile; In patients with
megaloblastic anemia, fragility is significantly reduced;
2. Suspension stability of red blood cells: In circulating blood, the characteristic of red blood cells
to remain suspended in plasma and not easy to sink is called suspension stability.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is usually used to reflect erythrocyte
suspension stability.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: The rate of erythrocyte sedimentation is usually expressed in
terms of the distance at which the red blood cells sink in the ESR tube at the end of the first hour,
called erythrocyte sedimentation rate or erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
Significance: The slower the ESR, the greater the suspension stability
The faster the ESR, the less stable the suspension
Measurement of erythrocyte sedimentation rate can be helpful in the diagnosis of
certain diseases and can also be used as a reference for judging changes in the
condition
Active tuberculosis, rheumatism Esr
Characteristics: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate is not related to red blood cells, but
to changes in plasma composition
3. Plastic deformation of red blood cells: red blood cells often have to squeeze through the
capillaries and sinus pores smaller than it, which is the red blood cells will be curled and
deformed, and return to their original shape after passing, this deformation is called plastic
deformation.
(3) Physiological functions of red blood cells
1. Transport O2 and CO2
2. Buffer blood acid-base substances: HHb and HbO2 are both weakly acidic substances. The
composition of two buffers is involved in the regulation of blood acid-base balance.
Khebi/Hahab 和Khabo2/HBO2
(4) Erythropoiesis and destruction
1. Conditions for the production of red blood cells: (1) Normal hematopoietic function of red bone
marrow
Radiation, certain drugs restrain Bone marrow hematopoiesis Aplastic
anemia
(2) The body can provide sufficient hematopoietic raw materials: protein and
iron
Iron is in short supply and too much iron is lost Iron deficiency anemia
(microcytic hypochromic anemia)
(3) Necessary maturation factors: VB12 and folic acid; Copper and
manganese
Folic acid and VB12 deficiency in the food center
Gastric parietal cells secrete endokines Megaloblastic anemia
2. Destruction of red blood cells: average lifespan 120 days;
Destroyed mainly due to aging; Phagocytosis in the spleen and bone
marrow (v) regulation of erythropoiesis
(1) Explosive promoter factor (BPA):
promotes the proliferation of early
erythroid progenitor cells (2)
Erythropoietin (EPO): promotes the
proliferation of advanced erythroid
progenitor cells
(3) Androgens, thyroxine and auxin enhance erythropoiesis, and estrogen inhibits erythropoiesis.
Hypoxia is a direct factor that stimulates the production of red blood cells
Hypoxia in the body Stimulates the kidneys EPO increases Promote the proliferation of
erythroid progenitor cells in hematopoietic organs, the differentiation of protohemocytes,
Maturity and synthesis of Hb There is an increase in red blood cells in the blood Hypoxia is relieved
(6) Physiology of white blood cells: types, quantities and their respective physiological
functions
7
White blood cells are larger than red blood cells, smaller in number, less specific, and have a nucleus.
Neutrophils (50%-70%): phagocytosis and digestion
There are granulosa eosinophils (2% to 4%): involved in allergic reactions
white blood cell Basophils (0.5%-1%): involved in allergic reactions
Lymphocytes (20%-40%): cellular immunity, humoral immunity
No granule cells
Monocytes (2%-8%): phagocytosis, immunity
The main function of white blood cells is to destroy foreign bodies that have invaded the body, that is,
immune function.
Phagocytic cells—non-specific immunity
white
blood cell
Neutrophils and
monocytes
Immune cells – specific immunity
lymphocyte
Leukocytes: They are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes according to the presence
or absence of special chromophilic granules in their cytoplasm. Granulocytes are divided into
neutrophils (red and blue), eosinophils (red), and basophils (blue) based on the
responsiveness of the particles they contain to the stain; Agranulocytes can be divided into
monocytes and lymphocytes.
Neutrophils: play an important role in the body's non-specific cellular immunity.
When pathogenic microorganisms break through the skin and invade the body,
lymphocytes produce a large number of chemokines, which can induce neutrophil
fineness
Cells move towards the inflammatory zone and participate in defensive responses.
It is characterized by active deformation movement and strong devouring ability. It is
sensitive to both direct and indirect chemotaxis of bacterial products.
It has strong motile migration and phagocytosis ability, and can engulf and hydrolyze
invading bacteria, necrotic cells and senescent red blood cells, etc., and can limit
invading microorganisms
It is fixed and killed locally to prevent its spread. It is the main response cell in
times of inflammation.
Acute purulent inflammation Percentage of neutrophils in the blood
Basophils: There are many similarities with mast cells in tissues, and the intracellular granules
contain a variety of biologically active substances:
Heparin: acts as an anticoagulant against sites of local inflammation
Histamine and allergic slow-reacting substances: involved in allergic reactions
Chemokine A: Attracts and aggregates basophils to participate in allergic reactions
Eosinophils: have the ability to deform motility, but the phagocytosis is not obvious. Its main
function is to inhibit the allergenic effects of basophils and mast cells
Involved in the immune response to helminths. It releases PGE1, PGE2, and histamine.
(1) Relieves allergic reactions and limits the inflammatory process.
In the case of allergic reactions, a large number of eosinophils can be attracted to
the local area and the antigen-antibody complex can be engulfed, thereby
reducing the harm to the body. (2) Immune response to parasites
Monocyte-macrophage: (1) phagocytosis and digestion -
phagocytosis and digestion of pathogenic
microorganisms, apoptotic cells and damaged tissues
(2) secretion function - secretion of a variety of
substances under the stimulation of antigens or a
variety of non-specific factors
(3) processing and presentation of antigens –
activates lymphocytes and initiates specific
immune responses (4) kills tumor cells
Lymphocytes: T lymphocytes – implement cellular immunity
B lymphocytes – implement humoral immunity, i.e., antibody immunity
(7) The morphology, quantity and physiological function of platelets
Platelets in circulating blood are colorless and clear, without nucleus, biconvex disc, or rod-shaped
bodies
It is formed by the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow and remains in the blood for only 5
to 11 days
It can consume oxygen, produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide, and has the characteristics of living
cells
Physiological characteristics of platelets: 1. Adhesion
2. Gather
3. Release response: After platelet stimulation, ADP, 5-HT, catecholamines, Ca2+,
platelet factor 3 (PF3) in the granules can be
and other active substances are released outward.
4. Shrinkage
5. Adsorption
Physiological function of platelets - involved in physiological hemostasis and blood
clotting processes, maintaining the integrity of the vascular endothelium
1. Participate in physiological hemostasis
Blood will flow out of the blood vessels after injury to the small blood vessels, and bleeding will stop
on its own in normal animals after only a few minutes.
Procedure: Shrank immediately after Shogakukan was injured; thrombosis, to achieve initial
hemostasis; Fibrin clot formation
2. Participate in blood clotting
Platelets contain a variety of factors related to blood clotting (PF3, PF2, PF4), which have a strong
promoting effect on the coagulation process
3. Maintain the integrity of the vascular endothelium
Platelet antigens are integrated into vascular endothelial cells and play an important role in
endothelial cell repair.
The clotting process of platelets
Damage:When vascular endothelial cells are damaged Collagen fibers are exposed
Adhere to:Platelets adhere to collagen fibers Adsorption of coagulation factors Prothrombin
activator formation Floppy blood clots
Aggregation: Aggregate by adhesion to each other to form aggregates
Release:Release of platelet factors Profibrinization Network red blood cells Enlarged blood
clots
Shrink:Under the influence of Ca2+, it contains contractile proteins The blood clot retracts Solid
thrombosis
8. Blood clotting and fibrinolysis
(1) Physiological hemostasis - blood will flow out of the blood vessels after small blood
vessel injury, and normal animals will stop bleeding on their own after only a few
minutes, this phenomenon is called physiological
Hemostasis.
Vascular endothelial cells: activate platelets and release vasoconstrictors
Participants Platelets: adhesion, aggregation, release
Blood coagulation and anticoagulation systems
(2) Blood coagulation - A few minutes after the blood leaves the blood vessels, the blood changes
from a flowing sol state to a clot in a gel state that cannot flow, a process called "blood clotting".
Blood clotting or blood clotting.
It contains a complex enzymatic hydrolysis reaction of proteins involving a
series of coagulation factors, the final stage of which is the transformation of
soluble fibrinogen in plasma into insoluble fibrin, which is staggered and
overlapped in a filamentous state, trapping blood cells in it, called jelly-like
blood clots.
Physiological significance: The clotting rate is very fast, usually completed in a few minutes.
(1) Plugging the wound,
stopping bleeding and reducing
bleeding; (2) Prevent foreign
bodies such as bacteria from
invading the wound and protect
the body.
Coagulation factors: Substances in plasma and tissues that are directly involved in the blood
clotting process, collectively known as coagulation factors. According to the order in which they were
found, they are numbered in Roman numerals
(3) The basic process of blood clotting
Step 1 Formation of prothrombin activators
Step 2
Step 3
Prothrombi
n
fibrinogen
Prothrombin
activator
Ca2+
thrombin
thrombin
Fibrin
Pathways: Endogenous and exogenous
The main difference is the process by which prothrombin activators are formed
Mechanism of blood clotting: 1. Formation of prothrombin activators (PF3, Xa, V, Ca2+
(1) Endogenous activation pathway: the process from activator XIII to activator X. The
factors involved in blood clotting are all present in the blood plasma.
Features: There are many reaction steps and slow coagulation rate
(2) Exogenous activation pathway: from the release of factor III to the activation
process of factor X. Tissue factors of blood clotting (tissue coagulation Jimei,
Factor III is from extravascular tissues, not from blood)
Features: reaction steps, fast coagulation
2. Formation of thrombin
Prothrombin
(II)
3. Fibrin
forma
tion
Prothrombin
activator
XIII
Thrombin (IIa)
Ca2+
fibrinogen thrombin Fibrin monomers XIIIa Ca2+ Fibrin multimers
10
(4) Fibrinolytic system
The process by which the fibrin formed during blood clotting is broken down and liquefied to dissolve
is called fibrinolysis, or fibrinolysis for short.
Fibrinolysis system
Fibrinolytic enzyme
Fibrinolytic enzyme: a glycoprotein synthesized and released into tissues by liver, bone marrow,
eosinophils, and kidney tissues. The effect is: degrading fibrin
Plasminogen activators: (1) the relevant coagulation factors of the endogenous coagulation system-
endogenous activation pathway; (2) Synthesized from various tissues and vascular endothelial cells
Tissue plasminogen activators and urokinase synthesized by the kidneys—
exogenous activation pathways
Plasminogen inhibitors: mostly inhibitors of serine proteases with low specificity
Fibrinolysis process:
Fibrinolytic enzyme
Activator (+) (-) Inhibitions
Fibrinolytic
enzyme
Fibrin
degradation
(The product is a small soluble peptide - anticoagulant)
Two phases
Degradation of fibrin and fibrinogen
The basic process of fibrinolysis:
Physiological significance of fibrinolysis:
1. Make the blood clots generated in the process
of physiological hemostasis dissolve at any time,
so as to prevent it
Stop thrombosis and ensure smooth blood flow;
2. Participate in tissue repair, vascular
regeneration and other functions.
Normally, plasma has a high concentration of antiplasmin, 20-30 times that of plasmin, so
plasmin does not work under normal conditions.
The mutual restriction of coagulation, fibrinolysis and antifibrinolysis activities is of great
significance for coagulation and fibrinolysis to be confined to the wound area and ensure
the smooth blood circulation of the body.
(5) Anticoagulant substances and their functions
There are some anticoagulants in the blood, and these anticoagulants are often referred to collectively
as the anticoagulant system.
1. Antithrombin III is a serine protease inhibitor—an arginine residue
Coagulation factors IIa, VII, IXa, and Xa are all serine proteases with serine residues in
their active centers.
Arginine residues bind to serine residues in coagulation factors, blocking and
inactivating the active centers of these enzymes.
Each aliquot of antithrombin III binds to one aliquot of thrombin.
2. Heparin is an acidic mucopolysaccharide that is mainly produced by basophils and mast
cells and is found in most tissues.
It inhibits the activation of prothrombin and inhibits the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
Heparin and antithrombin III assist in this and complement each other.
(6) The basic principles of accelerating and slowing down blood clotting
Accelerate blood clotting:(1) blood comes into contact with the rough surface; (2) increase the
temperature of the wound; (3) Add vitamin K
Delay blood clotting:(1) blood contact with smooth surfaces; (2) reduce the temperature of the
wound; (3) removal of Ca2+ and fibrin; (4) Add anticoagulant
Functions of the blood:
1. Maintain homeostasis: Blood can achieve nutrition, transportation, participation in fluid regulation,
defense protection, and acid-base slowdown through various components in blood cells and plasma
punch and other functions.
2. Nutritional function: Proteins in plasma play a role in nutrient reserves.
3. Transport function: binding proteins
4. Involved in humoral regulation: The hormones secreted by the secretory glands in the body are
transported by the blood and act on the corresponding target cells to change their activities.
5. Defense and protective function: white blood cells have the effect of phagocytosis and
decomposition of necrotic tissues in foreign bacteria and foreign bodies; Various immune
substances in lymphocytes and plasma fight or destroy toxins or bacteria; Various coagulation
factors, anticoagulant substances and fibrous system substances in plasma are involved in
the coagulation-fibrinolysis physiological hemostasis process.
Physiological functions of plasma: a nutritional function b transport function c immune
function d involved in coagulation and anticoagulation e buffering f formation of colloidal
osmotic pressure g tissue growth function in the repair of damaged tissues;
Physiological functions of erythrocytes: a gas transport function b acid-base buffering function c
immune function;
Physiological functions of leukocytes: immune effects (exudation, chemotaxis, phagocytosis).
Physiological functions of platelets :(mainly to promote hemostasis and accelerate blood clotting) a
nutritional and supportive function b hemostatic function c coagulation function d to fibrinolysis
function
12
Platelets: properties; Colorless and transparent, without nucleus, disc-shaped or rod-shaped bodies,
adhesion, aggregation, release reaction, contraction, adsorption. physiological function; 1.
Ginseng
With coagulation 2, participate in physiological hemostasis 3, ensure the integrity of the
vascular endothelium.
Plasma osmolality: The force that causes water molecules in pure water or a low-concentration
solution to penetrate through a semi-permeable membrane into a high-concentration solution
becomes osmotic pressure.
Crystal osmotic pressure: more, mainly to maintain the balance of water inside and outside the cell
Colloidal osmolality: less, mainly to maintain the fluid balance between plasma and tissues also.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: The rate at which red blood cells sink per unit of time becomes
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, referred to as erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
Physiological hemostasis: blood will flow out of the blood vessels after small blood vessel
injury, and the bleeding will stop on its own after only a few minutes in normal animals, this
phenomenon becomes physiological hemostasis. Blood coagulation: refers to the process by
which blood changes from a flowing sol state to a non-flowing gel state.
Causes of blood clotting: fibrinogen is degraded into fibrin, which must produce thrombin in order
to be degraded, and the production of thrombin must have a prothrombin complex
Formation.
The process of blood clotting:
Stage 1 prothrombin activator formation;
In the second stage, prothrombin becomes thrombin under the action of prothrombin activators;
In the third stage, fibrinogen is converted into fibrin by thrombin.
Influencing factors: Blood coagulation is affected by many factors, in addition to coagulation
factors directly involved in the blood clotting process, temperature, smoothness of contact
surfaces, etc. can also affect the blood clotting process.
Coagulation factors: Substances in plasma and tissues that are directly involved in the clotting process
of blood.
Determination and differentiation of ABO blood group: The red blood cells to be tested were mixed
with anti-B serum, anti-A serum and anti-A-anti-B serum, and the blood group was determined
according to the cross-match blood test.
Chapter 3: Blood Circulation (10 points)
1. The pumping function of the heart (1) The concept of cardiac cycle and heart rate (2)
The pumping process of the heart (3) The concept of cardiac output, ejection fraction and
cardiac index 10
2. Bioelectric phenomena and physiological characteristics of myocardium (1) Basic
physiological characteristics of myocardium (2) Characteristics of myocardial action
potentials (compared with nerve action potentials)
(3) Waveform of normal ECG and its physiological significance (4) Heart sounds
3. Vascular physiology (1) The main factors affecting arterial blood pressure (2) Central
venous pressure, venous return blood volume and their influencing factors
(3) The composition and function of microcirculation (4) The formation of tissue
fluid and its influencing factors
4. Regulation of cardiovascular activity (1) Regulation of cardiac sympathetic nerve and
vagal nerve on heart and vascular function
(2) regulation of stress and chemoreceptor reflexes in cardiovascular activity and (3)
regulation of cardiovascular function by epinephrine and norepinephrine
1. Cardiac cycle: the mechanical activity cycle constituted by each contraction and diastolic of the
heart. It can occur sequentially in a cardiac cycle: atrial systole, ventricular contraction
and atrial ventricular codiastolic (full diastole).
In both the atria and ventricles, systolea is shorter than diastole. It is only during diastole that the
heart itself can obtain nutrients and oxygen through the coronary vessels, which is advantageous
It restores functional ability and blood returns.
The faster the heart rate, the shorter the duration of the cycle, and the slower the heart rate, the
longer the duration of the cycle.
A heart rate that is too fast is not conducive to the heart's soothing rest.
Characteristics of the cardiac cycle: (1) diastolic time > systolic time; (2) FULL DIASTOLIC PERIOD
OF 0.4S, WHICH IS CONDUCIVE TO MYOCARDIAL REST AND VENTRICULAR FILLING;
(3) The fast or slow heart rate mainly affects diastole; (4) During the contraction
(diastolic) period, it is customary to use ventricular activity as an indicator of cardiac
activity.
Heart rate (HR): The number of heart beats per minute, which is the abbreviation of heart beat
rate, and is measured in beats per minute (times/min).
The length of the cardiac cycle is inversely proportional to heart rate.
In general, newborn animals have a high heart rate and a weak constitution > strong; Exercise,
emotional excitement> quiet, rest; The more vigorous the metabolism, the faster the heart
rate. Well-trained animals have slower heart rates.
