Research Paper: Swoon Hypothesis
James Boykin
APOL610: Miracles (D02)
April 27, 2025
Introduction
One of the most pivotal elements of the Christian doctrine is the death of Jesus; it is this
moment on which the Christian faith is hinged. Many people, both secular and religious, reject
the death of Jesus by Roman Crucifixion, leading to what has become known as the Swoon
Theory. This paper will argue that the Apparent Death/Swoon hypothesis fails when assessed
against the historical evidence of the death of Jesus Christ by Roman Crucifixion. The horror
associated with the acts and atrocities related to the crucifixion, as deployed throughout the
millennia and centuries of its use, has left an indelible mark on the minds and hearts of humans.
This extreme form of execution has changed our thinking and even influenced our language.
From this practice, the word "excruciating "means painful. According to David Strauss, one of
the earliest proponents of the swoon theory, states in the book Life of Jesus, Critically Examined.
However, according to a particular opinion, these two conditions, some remains of conscious
life, and careful medical treatment, were not wanting in the case of Jesus, although the
evangelists do not mention them. Jesus, we are told, seeing no other way of purifying the
prevalent messianic idea from the admixture of material and political hopes, exposed himself to
crucifixion, but in doing so relied on the possibility of procuring a speedy removal from the cross
by early bowing his head, and of being afterwards restored by the medical skill of some among
his secret colleagues; so as to inspirit the people at the same time by the appearance of a
resurrection. Others have at least exonerated Jesus from such contrivance, and have admitted
that he sank into a deathlike slumber; but have ascribed to his disciples a preconceived plan of
producing apparent death by means of a potion, and thus by occasioning his early removal from
the cross, securing his restoration to life.”1
Crucifixion as a form of execution has its roots in various Near Eastern cultures, as
discussed by John Bowden and Martin Hengel. Crucifixion: In the Ancient World and the Folly of
the Message of the Cross. In ancient sources, crucifixion was generally regarded as a mode of
execution used by barbarian peoples, including the Assyrians, the Scythians, and the Taurians. It
was used by the Celts, who, according to Posidonius, offered their criminals in this way as a
sacrifice to the gods, and later by the Germani and the Britanni, who may well have taken it
over from the Romans and combined it with their forms of punishment. Finally, it was employed
by the Numidians, especially the Carthaginians, who may be the people from whom the
Romans learnt it.”2 This form of execution was not unique to the Romans; however, it is believed
1 David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of Jesus Critically Examined, trans. George Eliot (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1972), 844
2 Bowden, John, and Martin Hengel. Crucifixion: in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross,
United Kingdom: Fortress Press,, 1977. 23
that the Romans were the most prolific and proficient in its deployment. The idea of Jesus not
actually dying is not a new concept, but does history and biblical evidence back it?
Biblical and Historic view of the death of Christ
To analyze the biblical account of the crucifixion, one must examine the narrative
presented in the Gospel of Luke. British scholar William Ramsay in The bearing of recent
discovery on the trustworthiness of the New Testament “Luke is a historian; of the first rank; not
merely are his statements of fact trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense; he fixes
his mind on the idea and plan that rule in the evolution of history; and proportions the scale of
his treatment to the importance of each incident”3 and considers Luke one of the greatest,
historians in history. This lends credibility to what Luke states about the events leading up to
and including the crucifixion. According to Luke 22:63-65 63 “Now the men who were holding
Jesus in custody were mocking him as they beat him. 64 They also blindfolded him and kept
asking him, “Prophesy! Who is it that struck you?” 65 And they said many other things against
him, blaspheming him. The first beating of Jesus takes place shortly after he is arrested, in which
the Roman centurions beat him, and again after visiting Pilate, as Luke 23:22 states, “For the
third time he demanded, 'Why? What crime has he committed? I have found no reason to
sentence him to death. So, I will have him flogged, and then I will release him.”4 Continuing with
Luke's reported verse, 32” Two others, both criminals, were led out to be executed with him. 33
When they came to a place called The Skull,” they nailed him to the cross. And the criminals
3 Ramsay, William Mitchell. The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament. 2d ed.
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915. 222
4 Lk 23:22 NLT
were also crucified—one on his right and one on his left.”5 Jesus suffered the punishment of
thieves and criminals. This punishment was not only brutal, but it was also humiliating and
reserved for enemies of the state and dangerous offenders.
Examining the Historical Accounts
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a politician and a historian, widely considered one of the
greatest Roman historians in antiquity. In his work, Annals, he states:
"But not all the relief that could come from man, not all the bounties that the prince could
bestow, nor all the atonements which could be presented to the gods, availed to relieve Nero
from the infamy of being believed to have ordered the conflagration, the fire of Rome. Hence,
to suppress the rumor, he falsely charged them with guilt and punished Christians, who were
hated for their enormities. Christus, the founder of the name, was put to death by Pontius
Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious superstition, repressed for
a time broke out again, not only through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the
city of Rome also, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their
center and become popular.”6Historically, the church's persecution in the years following the
fires of Rome was tied to Jesus. It appears that it was always understood in the 1st Century by
those who were not considered followers of Jesus or his movement that he died at the hands of
Rome.
5 Lk 23:33 NLT
6 Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence (Grand Rapids:
Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), pp. 39-53.
Flavius Josephus,
Born to a wealthy family, Yosef ben Matityahu, also known as Josephus, was a highly
educated Jewish historian fluent in Hebrew and Greek literature. In his history of the Jewish
people, from creation to the Jewish War, The Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus mentions Jesus
within the Testimonium Flavianum: he states, “Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise
man, if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such
men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many
of the Gentiles. He was the Christ, and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men
among us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake
him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold
these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians so
named from him are not extinct to this day. “7 The work of Josephus indicates that Christ was
condemned to death by Pilate on the cross. Josephus observes that the appearance of Jesus
after his death aligns with divine prophecy.
Talmud-Sanhedrin 43a
The view of the Death of Jesus was not limited to just those who are Christian or Roman
historians. Coming on the heels of the destruction of the Temple and 70 AD, the Babylonian
Talmud and the Oral Torah in a broader sense would become the foundation of traditional
Jewish law and thought. The Talmud would become central to the study and practice of
Orthodox Judaism and influence ethics, philosophy, daily observance, and be the basis of the
7 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 18.3.3 §§63–64.
Jewish identity. The Talmud mentioned the death of Jesus, as it states: On the eve of Passover,
Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and
cried, ‘He is going forth to be stoned because he has practiced sorcery and enticed Israel to
apostasy. Anyone who can say anything in his favor, let him come forward and plead on his
behalf.’ But since nothing was brought forward in his favor, he was hanged on the eve of
Passover. Objections to the death of Jesus”8 According to Eckhard and Chapman, many of the
Talmudic passages mentioning Jesus were censored; this censorship happened later as
antiChristian polemics.
Islam
Islam stands in opposition to early historical evidence submitted by those who were
much closer to the time of Christ. In Islam, according to Sura 3:55, “O Jesus, indeed I will take
you and raise you to Myself and purify you from those who disbelieve and make those who
follow you [in submission to Allah alone] superior to those who disbelieve until the Day of
Resurrection.” According to Muhammad Hamdi Yazir’s commentary on the death of Jesus as
found in the Qur’an, chapter 3, he states, “Thus, God made his plan known to those who were
plotting against Jesus. Despite the plot to assassinate Jesus, God told him, “O Jesus, I am the
one who will cause you to die [tawaffi] and raise you to Myself.” Due to this verse, those who
hold to the Qur’an believe that Jesus didn’t see death and was raised to God during the
assassination plot, while those who planned to kill him believed that they had done so via the
Crucifixion. This view of Jesus not dying on the cross is further explained in Surah 4:157-158.
8 Chapman, David W. (David Wallace), and Eckhard J Schnabel. The Trial and Crucifixion of Jesus: Texts and
Commentary. T[bingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2015. 136
“And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but [another] was made to resemble him to
them. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it
except for the assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain. Rather, Allah raised him to
Himself.”9
Medical examination
Prior to the nailing on the cross, Jesus was beaten by the Roman Tradition called
flagellatio, or “scourging.” According to Frederick Zugibe, this was “one of the most feared of all
punishments. It was a form of brutal, inhumane punishment generally executed by Roman
soldiers using the most dreaded instrument of the time, called a flagrum, or, in the words of
Horatio, “the horrible flagellum.”10 The Whip came in various forms. The most common style
was a central cord or handle with three or more leather straps/tails with small Metal Balls, or
Bones attached at the end of each tail. On the commencement of the flogging, the victim would
be stripped bare, exposing his flesh and the most sensitive parts of his body. His wrists would be
chained tightly to a solid post or low pillar, forcing him to stoop forward in an awkward, painful
crouch. This twisted position left his back stretched and exposed, making it easier for the
executioner to deliver each brutal lash with maximum force. The smaller objects woven into the
whip would lacerate the victim's flesh and dig and cut into the victim’s skin and muscle, often
exposing bone. This was repeated over and over again with the soldiers’ alternating positions
until the prescribed number of lashes was complete, causing the wounds to bleed.
9 Qur’an4:157 158
10 Zugibe, Frederick T.. The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded : A Forensic Inquiry, M. Evans &
Company, Incorporated, 2005. 19
The brutality of Roman scourging is difficult for contemporary audiences to fully
comprehend, as little within modern Western culture offers a direct parallel. Nevertheless, it
can be regarded as one of the most severe forms of ancient torture, inflicting profound and
often catastrophic physical trauma. According to Zugibe, “After a scourging, large black-and-blue
and reddish-purple bruises, lacerations (tears), scratches, welts, and swellings appear all over
the front and back of the victim’s body, primarily around the puncture marks made by the
weights or scorpiones. Seneca makes reference to “ugly weals” on the shoulders and chest. Ribs
were frequently fractured. The victim would writhe and twist in agony, falling to his knees, only
to be jerked back on his feet time and time again until he could no longer stand up. ”11 After this
horrendous beating, which caused the loss of Blood and other bodily fluids, Jesus was forced to
march, carrying the crossbeam, also known as the patibulum. This cross-section weighed
roughly 50 to 60 pounds and in the case of Jesus was carried uphill to the place where would be
crucified leaving him exhausted, according to Zuigbehe “exhaustion was accompanied by
marked shortness of breath, the pleural fluid that was slowly accumulating around and within
His lungs, and possible pneumothorax due to the brutal scourging, as well as the effects of the
trek to Calvary. The noon sun was high, and the sweat poured all over Jesus’ face and body. The
intense heat of the sun and the weight of the crosspiece on His abraded shoulders, considering
the condition He was in, would have induced intense weakness and dizziness or
lightheadedness, causing Him to stumble, totter, and fall.”12 Jesus would have experienced
11 Zugibe, Frederick T.. The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded : A Forensic Inquiry, M. Evans &
Company, Incorporated, 2005.28
12 Ibid 49
dehydration, scraping of the already exposed flesh by the cross, and it would have appeared
that Jesus would have already been close to death.
The cause of death.
Once nailed to the cross, the death of the victim is all but assured, as Dr William D.
Edwards would state in On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ, “Journal of the American Medical
Association. “Josephus (Jewish War 7.203) would refer to crucifixion as ‘the most pitiful of
deaths.’ The flogging, beatings, and nailing to the cross would have left Jesus suffering from
severe blood loss, dehydration, inadequate respiration, and strenuous physical exertion,
eventually resulting in cardiovascular collapse.”13 Jesus is pierced in his side, and out flowed
blood and water, this medical condition is explained by Dr Edwards who states “the emergence
of both blood and water from the wound assumes separate sources for the fluids - the blood
emerging from the heart and clear fluid emerging from either the pericardium or the chest
cavity. In the case of the clear fluid, there is normally a small amount of watery fluid in the
spaces that surround the lung (pleural cavity) and the heart (pericardial space). “14 This buildup
of fluid, due to the trauma of the crucifixion, was released once the javelin penetrated the
space between the lung and the heart. This medical condition is confirmed as the blood and
water identified in the book of John. The likely cause of death is cardiovascular collapse
combined with respiratory failure; his heart and lungs ultimately gave out under the combined
stress of blood loss, trauma, and exhaustion.
13 William D. Edwards, Wesley J. Gabel, and Floyd E. Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” Journal of the
American Medical Association 255, no. 11 (March 21, 1986): 146
The effective results of the Roman crucifixion
The Roman crucifixion was a ruthless yet efficient and effective form of execution.
Throughout the centuries of the practice, there is recorded only one survivor of Roman
crucifixion, according to Josephus in the Life of Josephus, “I saw many captives crucified, and
remembered three of them as my former acquaintances. I was very sorry at this in my mind,
and went with tears in my eyes to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded
them to be taken down, and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their recovery;
yet two of them died under the physician's hands, while the third recovered. Medical cause of
death,”15
14 ibid
1515 Josephus, Flavius. The Life of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston. Project Gutenberg, 2001.75.
Biblical scholars
Non-Christian Scholars,
The crucifixion of Jesus Christ is undeniable, History, and according to not only ancient
historians but also modern ones, attests to the death of Christ. Paula Fredrick is a modern
nonChristian historian. She states in her book, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life
and the Emergence of Christianity, “So let’s put our facts up front in order to begin our search
here. What do we know about Jesus of Nazareth, and how do these facts enable us to start out
on the road to a solid and plausible historical portrait of him? The single most solid fact about
Jesus’ life is his death: he was executed by the Roman prefect Pilate, on or around Passover, in
the manner Rome reserved particularly for Roman insurrectionists, namely, crucifixion. “14
14 Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity (New York:
Historians do not reject the historical fact of the death of Jesus. For secular historians, they
accept the fact that Jesus lived and that he died at the hands of the Romans. Famed Atheist and
historian. Bart Ehrman stated in Did Jesus Exist, “There are several points on which virtually all
scholars of antiquity agree. Jesus was a Jewish man, known to be a preacher and teacher, who
was crucified (a Roman form of execution) in Jerusalem during the reign of the Roman emperor
Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was the governor of Judea. Even though this is the view of nearly
every trained scholar on the planet, it is not the view of a group of writers who are usually
labeled, and often label themselves, mythicists.”15 It is without a doubt that even from those
who would be considered by some to be hostile to Christianity, Jesus lived and was killed at the
hands of the Romans by the order of Pontius Pilate, the Governor of Judea.
Conclusion
It is illogical to believe that Jesus either was replaced by someone else on the cross, as
Islam claims, or that he survived the crucifixion by simply fainting. When viewed in the light of
the physical exertion, dehydration, and loss of blood before the crucifixion, it is not medically
possible that Jesus survived one of the most horrific forms of death available within the 1st
century. From a historical perspective, the death of Jesus is well attested by historians of
antiquity. It was always understood that Jesus died via Roman Crucifixion, even in light of the
Gospel's details of the crucifixions, such as the blood and water, which is further evidence of his
death.
Vintage Books, 1999), 8.
15 Ehrman, Bart D. Did Jesus Exist? : The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. First edition. New York:
HarperOne, 2012. 11
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