LIBERTY UNIVERSITY JOHN W. RAWLINGS SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
An Introduction to Christian Apologetics
A Paper Submitted to
the Faculty of the School of Divinity
in Candidacy for the Degree of
Doctor of Education in Christian Leadership (Ed. D) Department of Christian Leadership and
Church Ministries
By
Mary Gracias
Lynchburg, Virginia
4/2022
Christian Apologetics
The term ’apologetics’ derives from the Greek word apologia. Although it is derived from
the same word as the English noun ’apology’ and adjective ’apologetic’ the meaning is quite
significantly different. In the ancient Greek world an apologia was a legal defence of oneself,
similar to the speech a modern-day defence lawyer makes on behalf of their client. It did not
mean “a regretful acknowledgement of an offence or failure” (the Oxford English Dictionary
definition of ’apology’) but a carefully reasoned defence of one’s beliefs or actions.
We might, then, define Christian apologetics as follows:
The task of developing and sharing arguments for the truth and rationality of Christianity
and the falsehood and irrationality of alternatives with the aim of strengthening the faith of
believers and provoking non-believers to consider Christ
The significance of this definition will become clearer throughout this article, but at this
point it is important to emphasise that ’argument’ in this context refers to a logical, reasoned
case rather than an argumentative style. Apologetics includes both developing and sharing
arguments – it is not a purely academic exercise conducted in an ivory tower, but a practical
engagement with real people and real problems. You will also notice that there are two sides to
the arguments we seek to develop – a positive case for Christianity and a negative case against
alternative belief systems. Furthermore, the ultimate aims of apologetics are not to develop
clever arguments but to see people led to faith and strengthened in their faith.
What Are the Origins of Apologetics?
In the second century AD, as Christianity began to engage at an intellectual level with
Greek philosophy and attracted greater attention from Roman society, a number of writers
produced reasoned defences of the Christian faith. Of these Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 AD), a
gentile from Samaria who was converted after seeking truth in numerous philosophies and
eventually died as a martyr in Rome, is probably the best known and the most significant. These
writers are generally referred to as ‘the apologists’. Their writings collectively show three major
concerns:
To defend Christianity against false accusations (e.g. that Christians were atheists,
sexually immoral or cannibals)
To argue for the truth of Christianity on the basis that it fulfilled Old Testament
prophecy
To show that Christianity was superior to or fulfilled Greek philosophical ideas
Other eminent Christians of this period were disparaging of the approach of the apologists.
For example, Tertullian criticised Justin’s use of Greek philosophy, saying famously, "What has
Athens to do with Jerusalem?" This difference of opinion continues to divide evangelical
Christians today. Some have a positive approach towards apologetics, believing that all truth is
God’s truth and that it is important to defend Christianity in the realm of philosophical debate,
whereas others are suspicious of apologetics and argue that we should put our energies into
proclaiming the gospel instead.
Interestingly, all three of the main lines of argument advanced by the apologists of the
second century find precedents in the New Testament book of Acts, making Luke (or perhaps
Paul, whose words he recorded) the first recorded Christian apologist. Renowned biblical
scholar F.F. Bruce wrote:[1]
Of three main types of Christian apologetic in the second century Luke provides first-century
prototypes: apologetic in relation to pagan religion (Christianity is true; paganism is false);
apologetic in relation to Judaism (Christianity represents the fulfillment of true Judaism);
apologetic in relation to the political authorities (Christianity is innocent of any offence against
Roman law).
So, then, apologetics originated in the New Testament (see the later section on A biblical
case for the task of apologetics), developing further in the second century in response to
challenges encountered as it crossed cultural boundaries into the Graeco-Roman world.
Throughout the history of Christianity apologetics has continued to adapt to new cultural
challenges. For a short overview of the history of Christian apologetics, including profiles of the
leading figures in the development of modern apologetics, the reader is referred to the online
article A Brief History of Apologetics by Kenneth D. Boa and Robert M. Bowman.[2]
What is the Purpose of Apologetics?
Apologetics is generally said to have three functions, although it should be realised that not
all Christian apologists accept that all three functions are valid (some would say that we should
not try to construct positive arguments for Christian faith but simply focus on refuting
accusations against it) and there is considerable variation between different schools of
apologetics as to what arguments should be used within each function:
1) Arguments for the truth of the Christian faith (vindication / proof / positive apologetics)
Aim – to show that Christianity is reasonable / rational. Using philosophical arguments and
evidence from science, archaeology and history to show that the Christian faith has greater
power than any alternative belief system to explain and interpret the world we live in.
2) Arguments refuting accusations made against the Christian faith (defence / negative
apologetics)
Aim – to show that Christianity is not unreasonable / irrational. Removing objections that
are made against Christianity, for example claims of contradictions in the Bible, alternative
interpretations of historical and scientific evidence and misconceptions about Christian belief.
3) Refutation of opposing beliefs (offense)
Aim – to show that non-Christian belief systems are unreasonable / irrational. Focuses not
on specific attacks against Christianity but on undermining the foundations of other belief
systems.
the task of persuasion [is] the overarching aim of apologetics
Some writers add a fourth function, namely persuasion. They claim that apologetics also
aims to persuade people to believe in the Christian message. It is probably better to see the
task of persuasion as the overarching aim of apologetics, with the three functions above playing
different parts within it. This is a helpful reminder of the fact that apologetics alone is not
enough – evangelism is also necessary.
Another way to think about the purpose of apologetics is to think about how it relates to
those who are believers and those who are non-believers. Apologetics aims both to strengthen
the faith of the faithful and to remove obstacles to faith for those who do not believe.
How Does Apologetics Relate to Evangelism?
'Evangelism' is generally understood to mean sharing the good news message (gospel)
about Jesus Christ. Apologetics is best seen as either pre-evangelism or as part of the process of
evangelism. It removes barriers to belief and prepares the ground for the seed of the gospel to
be sown. It is vital not to divorce apologetics strictly from evangelism. It is unlikely that people
who have intellectual objections to the existence of God or the historicity of Jesus will receive
the gospel message, and apologetics will help to remove these obstacles by appealing to
intellectual reasoning. At the same time, a person could be intellectually convinced of the
credibility and even the truth of the Christian faith but still not be a Christian. The gospel
appeals not only to the mind, it also appeals to the emotions and, most importantly of all, to
the will. Conversion occurs when mind, heart and will are surrendered to God in repentance
and faith. As such it will often be wise to share the gospel as we engage in apologetic
arguments.
