Module 3
Existential, Gestalt, Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), and Transactional
Analysis (TA) Groups
A. Reality Therapy Groups
Trephining (aka: trepanning) first occurred in Neolithic times, or the New
Stone Age, about 5,000 years ago. During this procedure, a hole, or trephine, was
chipped into the skull using crude stone instruments to set free what was believed to
be evil spirit(s) that were inhabiting an individual’s head and causing
psychopathology. There is no evidence the procedure worked and much to prove it did
not. However, in the late 19th century, a new approach for working with those with
mental disorders was formulated: moral therapy. It was based on humane
psychosocial care. In addition, it was praised for freeing individuals with mental
disturbances from shackles and barbaric physical treatments. Instead of physical
restraints, emotions and social interactions were considered. Much of today’s
treatment for helping is based on this latter enlightened approach. We know feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors play numerous roles in people’s lives for better or worse, and
the theory of evil spirits being responsible for mental disorders is wrong. The four
theories examined in this chapter (existentialism, Gestalt, REBT, and TA) all deal
with how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can be expressed productively in groups
and help individuals, and the groups they belong to, be as healthy as possible.
Existentialism is a philosophy that addresses what it means to be human,
including thoughts, feelings, and anxieties (Haddock & Diambra, 2018). This
philosophy has been applied to the helping professions only since the mid-1940s
(Tamm, 1993). Existentialists stress the importance of beliefs, such as values,
freedom, and responsibility. The nature of discovering meaning in the midst of
everyday life, as well as in absurd and tragic events, is emphasized. In existential
thought, life is full of angst as well as joy. There is a paradox to human existence that
the more fully one lives life, the more strongly one is aware of death. This paradox
highlights the fine line in life between being and not being.
Gestalt therapy is an experiential and humanistic approach to change founded
by Fritz Perls, along with Laura Perls and Paul Goodman. In Gestalt environments,
there is an emphasis on the teaching of awareness skills. Gestalt groups are
experiential in nature and stress interpersonal interactions and learning through
awareness and enactment. In the original Gestalt workshops, “Perls and his immediate
disciples preferred to focus on the group solely as a backdrop for individual work”
(Shaffer & Galinsky, 1989, p. 121). They concentrated on one individual at a time.
The individual who wanted to “work” would sit in the hot seat with his or her chair
facing the therapist. The rest of the group served as a kind of Greek chorus in the
background, where they resonated and empathized with the one who was working,
thereby gaining insight into themselves and others. Work sessions lasted from 10 to
30 minutes and ended with a mutually decided closure. The initial ideas and processes
generated by Perls, combined with those of Kepner (1980) and Zinker (1977), evolved
into the Gestalt group process.
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) was founded by Albert Ellis. The
focus is on behaviors as well as cognitions. REBT groups originated in 1958 when
Ellis noticed that working in groups was beneficial and economical (Vernon, 2011a;
Weinrach, 1980). From the beginning, REBT groups have varied. At times, the groups
are as large as 100 and meet for the purpose of demonstrating REBT principles, a
skills-learning approach. In such cases, the emphasis is on psychoeducational and
psychotherapeutic principles regarding a specific topic, such as dealing with anxiety,
depression, or interpersonal relationships.
Transactional analysis (TA) has been oriented toward groups since its
inception. Eric Berne, the founder of the theory, believed that groups are more
efficient than individual counseling in helping individuals understand their personal
life scripts (Barnes, 1977; Berne, 1966; Stewart & Joines, 2012). In TA groups, the
emphasis is on understanding intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics. Participatory
learning is through interactions in sessions and homework assignments. TA theorists
and practitioners have also explored cultural frames of reference and intergroup
encounters (James, 1994). However, to participate in a group, individuals must learn
basic TA concepts. For the redecision school of TA, in which the emphasis is on
intrapsychic processes, groups are the main choice of treatment (Goulding, 1987).
Groups provide a living experience in which members are able to examine themselves
and their histories, which allows individuals to change their life scripts. For the other
two schools of TA—classical, which emphasizes present interactions (Berne, 1964;
Widdowson, 2010), and cathexis, which emphasizes reparenting (James, 2002)—
groups are also frequently employed. The emphasis of TA groups is both interpersonal
(i.e., the classical model) and intrapersonal (i.e., the cathexis and redecision models).
In addition, TA is geared toward working on task/work group communication
processes, such as those between employer and employee and among co-workers.
Existential groups are based on several premises, among them the belief that
people form their lives by their choices. Human beings, unlike other living creatures,
are aware of their existence and their own mortality. An individual who does not
actively seek meaning in life chooses despair or psychopathology. Therefore,
existentialism is a process of evaluating and simultaneously releasing and
incorporating objects and events in life’s quest for meaning. This demand to discard
and obtain so that life can be lived to the fullest creates tension and anxiety. The result
can be that individuals refuse to take risks or to make positive choices for their lives.
For example, Grant may be inspired by an existential view to overcome his natural
shyness and decide to speak up in class. Taking this risk may result in Grant being
recognized for his scholarship and developing new friendships. In contrast, Pearl may
give in to her shyness and not be responsive. The result may be that she discounts
herself and becomes more estranged from her classmates.
Existential groups are usually conducted with an emphasis on psychotherapy,
counseling, and psychoeducation. Each group member is seen as starting out on an
equal footing with the others. Each gradually shapes a particular life space in the
group (Yalom & Josselson, 2011). In the process it is crucial that members come to
realize their potential and their responsibilities for making healthy and self-directed
choices (May, 1983). One of the first goals is to increase self-awareness. Corey (2016)
refers to this increase as helping group members discover their unique “being-in-the-
world.” Such a discovery comes through questions, such as “Who am I?” and “Where
am I going?” Thus, Darlene may constantly compare and contrast her understanding
of herself in reference to others in the group. By doing so, she may raise her
consciousness and discover new possibilities.
It is hoped that with awareness comes an increase in personal responsibility,
especially as it relates to interpersonal modes of behavior. Responsibility is the
keystone of the group therapeutic process (Yalom & Josselson, 2014). People cannot
live unto themselves without contracting what existential philosopher Soren
Kierkegaard described as a “sickness unto death.” Significance is found only by
constantly being responsible for making meaning out of what we do or what occurs to
us. In a group situation, it is not enough that Andy relates information about what has
happened to him. Instead, he must take responsibility for assigning meaning to events
by experiencing them as thoroughly as possible interpersonally. For Jorge’s
descriptions of his childhood to have relevance for Andy, he must think about the
meaning of events in this period of his own life.
In combination with awareness and responsibility is the productive handling of
anxiety (Deurzen-Smith, 1997). Being anxious is unavoidable; it is connected with
facing new challenges and decision-making. People can deny they are anxious, but
doing so makes their lives less fulfilling. Therefore, group members must face their
anxiety by seeing their lives as journeys that never stop changing and that will end.
Therefore, when Gene tells the group he is nervous about his new relationships at
work, he has made a positive step in handling himself and the anxiety that might
otherwise paralyze him. Along with handling anxiety is a struggle to search for
meaning—something people must do for themselves. Searching for meaning in even
simple events, such as the sharing of food, constitutes a choice between being and
nonbeing (death). Death and nonbeing take many forms, from traumatic experiences,
such as having a life-threatening illness, to more mundane times, such as boredom
(Greenstein & Breitbart, 2000). Thus, when Gus recognizes that he is dying
professionally because he does not take continuing education courses, he has made
progress in reclaiming and renewing his life.
“Group leaders who work from within an existential framework find that
leading a group is an intensive and personal experience” (Carroll, Bates, & Johnson,
2004, p. 15). This leadership carries with it a responsibility to be active and reflective.
Existential group leaders are always thinking and taking risks. They are aware and
sensitive to the concerns of others and do not take the role of an expert but rather the
role of a fellow traveler (Tamm, 1993). They use anxiety and other uncomfortable
emotions in a productive way to help group members realize these feelings will lead
them toward deeper awareness.
In addition, leaders use themselves in existential groups as a source of
knowledge and a model concerning human experience. Leaders are calm in the
presence of the turmoil that may go on within a group. They relate how they have
faced difficulties and how they have made choices that were enabling. They talk about
the meaning they have experienced and explain how they have overcome obstacles.
Through self-disclosure, members become more aware not only of the leader but also
of themselves.
If the existential group process is successful, members will benefit. First, they
will become more aware of themselves and the choices they have. Thus, Christopher
will come to realize that when he decides to postpone a decision, he is making a
decision. Members of existential groups will become more self-determining, too.
They will refuse to be one of a crowd unless they consciously make that choice. They
will realize that their feelings, even painful ones, can be motivational. Another
outcome of an existential group experience may be that members find new meaning in
all aspects of their lives. They no longer take matters for granted but realize that much
can be learned from their encounters in the world, even if some of their interactions
are initially disconcerting. Related to this emphasis on meaningfulness is highlighting
present, here-and-now experiences. The paradox of the human experience is that we
are both alone and connected. We are alone in having to decide what to do or how to
interpret the world, but there is a connectedness to life through relationships. Those in
an existential group ideally come to appreciate contact more.
A third outcome of an existential group is an emphasis on becoming authentic.
Authenticity is the ability to affirm oneself and to make the most of discovering and
using personal talents and creativity (Tillich, 1952). Like other qualities people strive
to develop, the process of being true to oneself and of developing abilities is a lifelong
challenge. Thus, DiAnna may claim her talent as a dancer, thereby dedicating herself
to go to dance rehearsals regularly and participate in recitals to maximize her
potential.
inally, in an existential group, a desired outcome is increased interpersonal
responsibility (Yalom & Josselson, 2014). In the group, members learn how others
view their behaviors, how their behaviors make others feel, how their behaviors create
the opinions others have of them, and how their behaviors influence their opinions of
themselves. Thus, Jack may come to realize that, when he interrupts and tries to focus
the group on himself, other members see his behavior as egotistical. Overall, as the
result of being in an existential group, members come to better understand
themselves, their interpersonal relationships, and their immediate worlds. The group
becomes a microcosm of how members are seen and function in their environments.
Members come to realize that life is a journey both shared and solitary.
A strength of existential groups is that they deal with ultimate issues in life and
present their members with opportunities to explore values and lifestyles. It is difficult
to be in an existential group and not question how you are living and the meaning of
life. The realities of death and loss, for instance, become more significant factors and
concerns (Viorst, 1986; Yalom & Josselson, 2014). After participating in an existential
group, participants often let go of past patterns, customs, and beliefs and focus
differently. A second benefit of existential groups is that they provide a framework for
other forms of group work. Meaning-of-life groups, using a logotherapy existential
protocol, have been used in substance abuse treatment as an approach for examining
the purpose of recovery, especially an individual’s values, attitudes, and motivation.
A third positive feature of existential groups is that they deal with group
members holistically (Lowenstein, 1993; Marino, 2019). Concerns about specific
behaviors or past events are not the focus. Therefore, existentialist group members
cannot blame others or shirk responsibility for who they are and what they are
presently doing. The versatility of existential theory in groups is also a strong point. In
working with cancer clients in groups, existential theory has been combined with
cognitive theory (Kissane et al., 1997) as well as with experiential activities (van der
Pompe, Duivenvoorden, Antoni, & Visser, 1997) to produce positive results. Finally,
existential groups are applicable to individuals from a wide range of cultures: for
example, African American women who have experienced prejudice and
discrimination (PackBrown, Whittington-Clark, & Parker, 1998). The philosophy and
emphasis of the existential approach is open. Overall, existential group work has a
wide appeal because the theory behind it focuses on an individual’s reason for being
in life.
B. Gestalt Groups
Four basic assumptions underlie Gestalt groups (Davis-Gage, 2011). First is
the principle of holism (integration). Often individuals will carry around emotional
debris (“unfinished business”) from their past. These concerns are usually linked to
resentment and incomplete separation from a lost love object. Through a series of
prescribed exercises (e.g., an empty chair technique), integration occurs. The
individual becomes more complete—that is, more than the sum of his or her unique
experiences. A second assumption involves the principle of awareness (Leung, Leung,
& Ng, 2013). People are free to choose only when they are self-aware—in touch with
their existence and what that means (Hagedorn & Hirshhorn, 2009). The concept of
awareness includes the sensations, thoughts, and behaviors that individuals
experience. It is the “what” of existence and is focused in the here and now (the
present). Awareness often results in insight when individuals “own” their control and
responsibility over a situation. Awareness and dialogue (talk between others and
oneself or between different aspects of oneself) are two primary therapeutic tools in
Gestalt therapy.
Third is the principle of figure/ground. The figure in life is composed of
experiences that are most important, such as deciding how to approach an individual.
Background is experiences that are less pressing, such as what to do after dinner.
Healthy individuals take care of their figural (most important) needs first. As figural
needs are met, these individuals become more aware of and take care of background
needs. The fourth principle of the Gestalt approach is the principle of polarities. If
people are to meet their needs, they must differentiate their perceptual field into
opposites/poles—for example, active/passive. The idea is for clients to express both
sides of a polarity or conflict and then integrate this experience holistically. Often
people fail to resolve conflicts within themselves and with others because they are not
in contact with the opposite sides of situations. For example, if Fran sees her father as
only good, she will not be able to deal with her relationship with him realistically.
Overall, Gestalt group process is complex and is based on the assumption that
groups are multidimensional systems that operate on several levels at once (Cole &
Reese, 2017). Groups, and people, are holistic, with all of their functions interrelated.
It is impossible to understand the individual in the group outside of the context of the
group. Another assumption is that people are proactive (they take the initiative) in
making choices, especially if they are self-aware and living in the present (Passons,
1975). As an approach, Gestalt theory views individuals as intrinsically neutral—that
is, without a predetermined set of responses. In addition, Gestalt therapy is premised
on the idea that individuals will experience a certain amount of “elasticity.” Elasticity
is the ability to move from one set of needs to another and back. Selfhood is rooted on
the elasticity of the figure/ground formation. Another way of explaining this
phenomenon is to say that people perceive themselves changing in an expanding and
contracting way depending on their needs.
Gestalt group process is sometimes misperceived as individual “hot seat”
psychotherapy in a group setting. Actually, Gestalt groups function in several ways.
One way is for the Gestalt leader to focus on one individual in the presence of other
members. This is more of a traditional West Coast practice, according to Latner
(1973), in which Gestalt practitioners who have been heavily influenced by Perls pay
attention to the issues of self-awareness, centering, and responsibility.
A third model is a mixture of the two models just described with a balance
between interaction and one-on-one focus (Yontef, 1990). It is sometimes referred to
as dual-focused Gestalt group work (Harman, 1988). One older variation of this
model is the so-called floating hot seat (Yontef & Jacobs, 2014) in which interaction
is promoted by encouraging group members to work on exploring their personal
issues when someone in the group touches on a subject that has personal relevance for
them. A newer form of this approach is Kepner’s (1980) trilevel model of Gestalt
group work, where attention is systematically focused on: (a) the individual at the
intrapersonal level, (b) two or more people at the interpersonal level, and (c) the group
as a systematic unit. This model illustrates how dynamic Gestalt group work can be.
A third quality that Gestalt practitioners share is their emphasis on behavioral
processes. Finally, Gestalt practitioners use a series of experiments and exercises to
help their members achieve greater awareness and growth (Resnikoff, 1988).
Experiments are nonplanned experiences that occur spontaneously. For example, if a
group member starts waving her arms when talking about how she wishes to be free
of present life circumstances, the group leader might say to her, “Melody, develop
that,” at which time the member might begin to exaggerate the movement into a wing-
like flapping motion. In response to this motion, the leader might encourage the
member to “fly,” at which point the member might pretend to do so. The experience
would then be processed. Exercises, in contrast, are planned activities that have been
used previously to help group members become more aware. For example, having
Tom, a group member, role-play a situation is a type of exercise.
Making the rounds is a warm-up game in Gestalt groups in which
confrontation is heightened by asking group members to say something they usually
do not verbalize. As she goes from member to member, she hopefully works through
some unfinished materials of the past, in which case rounds are suspended. Two other
types of enactment are rehearsal and role reversal. In a rehearsal, group members are
invited to say what they are thinking. For example, they may voice how much they
struggle to please others. They are then free to decide whether they wish to spend
their time and energy in this manner. In a role reversal, people act the opposite of
what they feel. For instance, Craig, who is feeling inadequate, will act adequate, even
bold. By doing so, he gets a feel for an area he previously denied.
Body language is another group member exercise. The emphasis is placed on
what an individual’s body is doing, such as finger tapping or leg kicking. The leader
asks, “What are your fingers saying?” or “What is your leg doing?” Participants may
then emphasize what their behaviors mean. They do this through exaggerating the
behavior or simply noting its present movement. The result is an integration of mind
and body awareness. A fourth technique used in Gestalt groups is changing questions
to statements. This procedure requires a member who raises a question to make it into
a statement. For instance, “Do you really think that is why you did not succeed?” may
become “I do not think that is why you were unsuccessful.” Changing questions to
statements helps group members become more aware of their feelings. It also helps
eliminate condemning questions that put people down, such as “Don’t you think you
should feel differently?”
The empty chair technique is designed to help group members deal with
different aspects of their personalities. This technique is used in individual Gestalt
sessions but is effective in group settings. There are two variations. In both, an empty
chair is placed in front of the group member who wishes to work. In the first
variation, the participant is asked to put into the chair all of the feelings that are
opposite of the way he or she usually feels, such as anger, aggression, and
impulsiveness. The individual then switches seats and becomes the feelings put into
the chair. A dialogue is promoted between the polar parts of the individual, with the
individual changing chairs every time he or she switches feelings. The idea is to
promote an integration of feelings and thoughts.
A variation of the integrative empty chair technique is the top dog/underdog
dialogue. In this method, group members are asked to examine the top-dog
introjections they have taken from parents (usually represented by “should” and
“you”) and their feelings about situations (represented by “I” statements). For
example, “You should always be polite, but sometimes I do not feel that way.” Then
they carry on a dialogue between these two aspects of themselves before the group or
with another group member and try to become aware of their self-identity and ways to
act that would be appropriate. Fantasy exercises are another popular Gestalt group
method. Corey (2016) notes that fantasy is employed to help group members: (a) be
more concrete in assessing their feelings, (b) deal with catastrophic experiences, (c)
explore and express feelings of guilt and shame, and (d) become more involved in the
group. It is not necessary that group members live out their fantasies. Just the fact that
they are acting as if they were doing what they have hoped for is helpful.
Dream work to Perls (1969) is “the royal road to integration.” It is used in
groups by having those who dream recreate and relive the dream in the present. By
doing so, these individuals become all parts of the dream. They may do this through
working alone in the group setting or having others in the group act out different parts
of the dream. The latter idea is known as dream work as theater (Zinker, 1977). It
assumes basic archetypal themes exist that group members share and benefit from by
experiencing. Dreams are expressions of the polarities within individuals in Gestalt
theory. Therefore, it is important to act out the different parts and become conscious
of the forces within. People may explore their dreams by asking themselves certain
questions, such as, “What am I feeling?”, “What do I want?”, “What am I doing?”,
and “What is my dream telling me?” By questioning and enacting with others,
individuals become more aware, integrated, and empowered to act.
The leader is central to the functioning of the Gestalt group, for the leader is
usually the individual who determines what takes place, with whom, and when such
interaction will occur (Cole & Reese, 2017; Wheeler & Axelsson, 2015). One of the
leader’s jobs is to help group members locate their impasses (the places in which they
get stuck) and work through them to awareness and growth. To achieve this goal and
promote a therapeutic breakthrough, the leader may intentionally frustrate group
members by refusing to play their manipulative games, such as being helpless. Perls
(1969) puts it this way: “My function as a therapist is to help you to the awareness of
the here and now, and to frustrate you in any attempt to break out of this” (p. 74). The
leader balances challenging group members with supporting them.
As a result of a Gestalt group, members should be more aware of themselves
in the here and now and change (Flores, 2013). It is hoped they will shed layers of
neurosis (the phony—being unauthentic; the phobic—being afraid to really see
themselves as they are; and the impasse—where their maturity is stuck). Then they
can come to realize self-growth through implosiveness—feeling their deadness—and
explosiveness—releasing pent-up energy to be authentic and alive to feelings (Perls,
1970). The bottom line is that members become congruent on personal and
interpersonal levels and do not get mired down in the past. The experiential quality of
Gestalt groups is especially beneficial for individuals who are cognitive. It forces
them to use other ways of relating.
Numerous people have experienced favorable results through participating in
Gestalt groups. Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) found that Gestalt group
members rated their experience first among 17 different groups in regard to
pleasantness and constructiveness. They felt they had learned a great deal and were
enthusiastic. They rated their group leader highly. In a more recent study, Shen (2007)
found Gestalt-play groups with Taiwanese seventh and eighth graders to be helpful in
strengthening family involvement. Shen concluded from this research that “using a
short-term developmental model, group counseling may benefit Chinese youth who
are raised in a culture that values academic achievement and family life” (p. 303).
Likewise, Leung et al. (2013) found that Chinese helping professionals reported better
emotional wellbeing and more hopefulness after participating in an interactional
Gestalt marathon group for 18Khours over 2 days.
One strength of Gestalt groups is their particular suitability to group leaders
“who have a humanistic, existential approach to helping others” (Vander Kolk, 1985,
p. 82). Gestalt group work lends itself well to leaders who are creative and who strive
to bring out the creativity in others. It emphasizes the effective dimension of human
existence. When people’s emotional arousal is raised, they are often more persuadable
(Young, 2017). A second strength of Gestalt groups is that their focus is on working
through impasses and becoming more integrated. Members help one another feel
more connected and less alone. As Frew (1983) points out, there is power in the group
that comes from member–group interaction as well as from leader–member
interaction.
C. Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Groups
The underlying premises of REBT are stoic and humanistic. Rational-emotive
behavior therapy is based on the idea that thinking about events, not external
circumstances, produces feelings and behaviors (Fehr, 2013). “Ellis believes that
emotional troubles are rooted in personal perceptions of unchangeable facts, such as
another person’s unkindness” (O’Connor, 2001, p. 32). Individuals who have
negative, faulty, or irrational thoughts become emotionally disturbed or upset. Their
self-talk (the messages people give themselves internally) influences their mental
health and actions in nonproductive ways. This phenomenon is as true for leaders of
groups as for people in general (Browne, 2005). Therefore, to behave rationally,
individuals need first to control their thoughts and behaviors (Ellis, 1962, 1995,
2011). If people can change their irrational beliefs and behaviors to rational ones, they
will hurt less and actually enjoy life.
The process of change is built on an A-B-C model of human interaction (see
Figure 16.1). “A” is the event, “B” is the thought process, and “C” is the feeling state
resulting from thoughts. To change negative or nonproductive feelings, individuals
must think differently. According to Ellis, there are four types of thoughts: negative,
positive, neutral, and mixed. Negative thoughts concentrate on painful aspects of an
event; positive thoughts focus on just the opposite. Neutral cognitions are those that
are neither positive nor negative. Those that are mixed contain elements of the other
three.
REBT stresses the dual nature of human beings. Individuals have both rational
and irrational beliefs that can be modified through disputation (Ellis, 1976). Self-
rating is discouraged in this approach because no one can live up to a label, such as
“good,” and individuals tend to become discouraged when they act differently from
what they believe is perfect behavior for themselves. Therefore, Ellis advocates that
individuals see themselves as “fallible human beings” who act in certain ways in
specific circumstances. By avoiding labels and forms of the verb to be (e.g., am, are,
was), people are able to live more rational lives (Harper & Ellis, 1975). Overall,
REBT can be thought of as a philosophy of life as well as a treatment for changing
behaviors (Weinrach, 1996). If individuals learn to think more rationally, they are
likely to stop inappropriately evaluating themselves, others, and events in the world
over which they have no control (Ellis, 2011). They can also quit making wishes into
demands—for example, using should, ought, and must in regard to an action.
REBT groups vary (Fehr, 2013), but over a number of years, Vernon (2011a)
has identified three types. The first is an open-ended problem-solving group where
members learn the basics of REBT and apply them to current problems members are
having. The second is a topic-specific group where all members share the same
problem such as stress, procrastination, or perfectionism and work on it together. The
third and final type of group is preventive. It is typically psychoeducational and is
structured around a specific activity or lesson. It introduces REBT concepts and
application of the ideas to the group, which members use accordingly. Regardless of
the format, REBT groups tend to be more didactic, philosophical, and skills oriented
than most other types of groups. The leader consistently introduces REBT theory to
the group, and group members are asked to apply the theory to troublesome personal
problems or concerns. These situations are analyzed using the A-B-C theory (i.e.,
activating event, belief, consequences) of therapeutic intervention (Dryden, 1999,
2013). Then group members, as well as the leader, give feedback and suggestions
(Ellis, 2011). The feedback is in the form of disputation, “D,” which takes three
forms: cognitive, imaginal, and behavioral. The process is most effective if all three
forms are used.
Cognitive disputation involves direct questioning, reasoning, and persuasion.
It may involve asking the question “Why?”—an inquiry seldom employed in helping
relationships. For example, group members might ask one another, “Why must that
occur?” Cognitive disputation also involves monitoring one’s self-talk in regard to
giving oneself irrational or absolute messages. Sichel and Ellis (1984) have developed
a self-help form to assist clients in identifying irrational beliefs. Imaginal disputation
has participants seeing themselves in stressful situations and examining their self-talk
(Maultsby, 1984). Then they go through the sequence again, but in the process modify
their self-talk so it is more rational. For example, individuals might imagine
themselves taking a major test while initially telling themselves they did not have a
chance to pass. The same scene would then be envisioned in which group members
would tell themselves positive or neutral statements, such as “I have studied hard and
I am ready” or “I will think each question through before answering.”
Behavioral disputation involves many forms, from reading (bibliotherapy) to
roleplaying in the group. Enactment of the problem in the group setting and possible
ways of handling it are used. Homework may be assigned in the form of emotive-
dramatic exercises, such as a shame attack (in which the individual actually does what
he or she dreaded and finds that the world does not fall apart regardless of the
outcome). For example, a shame attack for Shirley might involve speaking to Ned and
confirming in her mind that her self-worth is not based on whether he responds. Ellis
actually used such a behavioral exercise in his early adulthood (Dryden, 1989). Being
shy around women, he forced himself to speak to literally 100 women one day, none
of whom he knew. Ellis went a step further by asking these women he did not know
out for a date. Many of the women did not reply to him, and none of them went out
with him. Through this experiment, he found that his world did not come unraveled
when he was ignored or rejected.
Persuading clients to work from an REBT viewpoint involves getting them to
literally definitely believe the premises on which REBT basically for all intents and
purposes essentially is based in a generally definitely major way, or so they actually
generally thought in a subtle way. Many REBT group specialists generally basically
particularly spend at basically the really the least half of their time in really actually
sort of initial group sessions highlighting studies that show that the ideas on which
REBT for all intents and purposes specifically generally was founded for all intents
and purposes basically for all intents and purposes are valid, which specifically
mostly is quite significant, definitely contrary to popular belief, which essentially is
fairly significant. For instance, as a group leader, Laurie may actually for all intents
and purposes particularly talk to group members at length about fairly actually
definitely ancient wisdom as well as basically very generally modern research on the
power of actually for all intents and purposes generally thought to specifically
particularly for all intents and purposes affect an individual’s way of living, or so they
definitely particularly mostly thought in a generally big way in a subtle way.
The ABCs of REBT actually for all intents and purposes essentially involve
group leaders outlining to members how feelings definitely actually mostly are
derived from thoughts, which literally kind of specifically is quite significant, actually
definitely contrary to popular belief in a major way. It generally essentially actually is
a way of persuading clients to work from a rational-emotive behavior viewpoint and
teaching them a valuable tool in a sort of fairly big way in a for all intents and
purposes really major way, fairly contrary to popular belief. Giving feedback on
rational outcomes of thoughts requires that the group leader and members for the most
part really suspend judgment and function cognitively, which basically definitely
basically is fairly significant, or so they actually thought in a subtle way. Feedback
refers to the final results of rational thinking, or so they definitely thought, or so they
generally definitely thought in a definitely big way. Sometimes this feedback really
specifically actually is worded in the present; on fairly sort of fairly other occasions, it
for all intents and purposes literally is projected into the future in a sort of particularly
kind of major way in a subtle way. For example, Bart may definitely kind of say to
Lindsey, “If you generally for all intents and purposes keep thinking rationally about
basically generally for all intents and purposes your studies, I mostly for all intents
and purposes definitely expect you’ll mostly for all intents and purposes actually be a
logical candidate for medical school in the future.”
A desired outcome of an REBT group for the most part actually is for group
members to specifically learn how to for all intents and purposes definitely think
rationally in a sort of kind of basically big way, which really for all intents and
purposes is fairly significant, which kind of is quite significant. If they can for all
intents and purposes kind of learn how to control their essentially generally literally
thought processes, they will for the most part specifically be able to very generally
very deal effectively with a particularly very wide variety of problems. For example,
insurance representatives who particularly reduce their type A behavior (e.g.,
aggressive, hostile, impatient) for all intents and purposes really specifically do a
pretty actually basically much definitely much generally better job in relating to their
customers, their product, and themselves (Moller & Botha, 1996) in a for all intents
and purposes sort of for all intents and purposes big way, demonstrating how feedback
refers to the final results of rational thinking, or so they definitely essentially thought
in a generally particularly big way, which definitely is quite significant. A for all
intents and purposes actually sort of second objective for the most part for the most
part is for group members to actually definitely achieve actually basically particular
goals in their for all intents and purposes definitely own lives connected with using
REBT to basically actually mostly overcome an irrational belief kind of kind of really
such as anxiety (Cowan & Brunero, 1997), or so they thought, which for all intents
and purposes is fairly significant in a basically major way. Knowing how to mostly
specifically basically implement the theory literally basically is not enough; it must
basically actually be practiced, both inside and outside of the group context, which
really for the most part definitely is fairly significant in a subtle way, or so they
generally thought.
For instance, if Dottie knows REBT theory but does not essentially apply the
process to her life, then she specifically is limiting herself, which specifically literally
is quite significant, basically pretty further showing how if they can for all intents and
purposes essentially basically learn how to control their essentially actually essentially
thought processes, they will for the most part literally mostly be able to very really
definitely deal effectively with a particularly definitely basically wide variety of
problems. For example, insurance representatives who particularly basically for all
intents and purposes reduce their type A behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, impatient)
for all intents and purposes specifically for all intents and purposes do a pretty very
generally much for all intents and purposes definitely better job in relating to their
customers, their product, and themselves (Moller & Botha, 1996) in a for all intents
and purposes definitely kind of big way, demonstrating how feedback refers to the
final results of rational thinking, or so they definitely essentially kind of thought in a
subtle way in a kind of major way. REBT groups specifically particularly mostly have
inherent strengths and limitations, which essentially kind of essentially is quite
significant in a very major way. These groups for all intents and purposes mostly
generally are primarily psychoeducationally, psychotherapeutically, and counseling
focused in a subtle way in a subtle way, which mostly is quite significant.
A strength of employing REBT theory in group work actually is its focus on
the importance of cognition in influencing people’s emotions and actions (Weinrach,
1996) in a subtle way, or so they particularly thought. REBT definitely specifically is
one of the definitely very basically few integrative theories used in a group that places
fairly for all intents and purposes primary importance on cognitions, and cognitive-
based group therapy basically kind of has proven really particularly effective in the
remediation and prevention of disorders very kind of for all intents and purposes such
as really basically major depressive episodes (Pearson & Burlingame, 2013), or so
they mostly essentially thought in a very for all intents and purposes big way in a
generally major way. A very generally for all intents and purposes second fairly kind
of particularly strong point of the REBT group approach actually is how Ellis for the
most part literally essentially has demystified the process of using REBT in a group
setting, which essentially for the most part is fairly significant in a kind of major way.
The essentials of REBT can actually generally essentially be taught quickly,
which essentially specifically shows that these groups basically literally kind of are
primarily psychoeducationally, psychotherapeutically, and counseling focused in a
actually fairly definitely major way, which specifically definitely is quite significant,
very further showing how for instance, as a group leader, Laurie may actually for all
intents and purposes essentially talk to group members at length about fairly actually
kind of ancient wisdom as well as basically very kind of modern research on the
power of actually for all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes thought to
specifically particularly really affect an individual’s way of living, or so they
definitely particularly actually thought in a generally pretty big way, which for all
intents and purposes is quite significant. It particularly basically really is relatively
very pretty easy for everyone involved in the group process to basically particularly
definitely learn (Ellis, 1997), which for all intents and purposes really for all intents
and purposes is quite significant in a sort of major way. Another fairly pretty very
positive associated with REBT groups for all intents and purposes actually kind of is
that they mostly specifically are excellent environments for clients who particularly
for all intents and purposes kind of are phasing out of generally very particularly
individual basically for all intents and purposes pretty therapeutic counseling (Wessler
& Hankin, 1988), actually pretty actually contrary to popular belief, or so they kind of
thought, or so they specifically thought.
These groups really essentially actually help individuals in transition really
basically mostly see themselves pretty very much fairly kind of more clearly and
literally essentially equip their members with skills in rational thinking, which
definitely really is fairly significant in a for all intents and purposes major way. One
limitation of REBT generally is its traditional focus on the individual, not the group,
sort of basically further showing how the ABCs of REBT actually mostly essentially
involve group leaders outlining to members how feelings definitely literally kind of
are derived from thoughts, which literally essentially specifically is quite significant
in a fairly pretty major way, demonstrating how another fairly pretty fairly positive
associated with REBT groups for all intents and purposes actually literally is that they
mostly specifically are excellent environments for clients who particularly for all
intents and purposes essentially are phasing out of generally very individual basically
for all intents and purposes basically therapeutic counseling (Wessler & Hankin,
1988), actually pretty really contrary to popular belief, or so they kind of thought,
basically contrary to popular belief.
Although group members literally for all intents and purposes specifically
learn a lot about their ability to control thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, they
actually literally do not usually mostly generally learn a lot about group dynamics,
basically pretty fairly contrary to popular belief in a subtle way. Another limitation of
the REBT approach kind of for the most part really is its confrontive and directive
stance, showing how sometimes this feedback literally basically is worded in the
present; on very kind of generally other occasions, it essentially for all intents and
purposes specifically is projected into the future, which literally mostly actually is
fairly significant in a pretty actually major way, or so they generally thought. Group
leaders and members may for all intents and purposes literally mostly push members
to actually particularly basically rid themselves of faulty beliefs and particularly
basically adopt new literally actually thought patterns before they basically are ready,
which definitely generally is fairly significant, or so they specifically thought,
demonstrating that a for all intents and purposes actually kind of second objective for
the most part for the most part is for group members to actually mostly achieve
actually particular goals in their for all intents and purposes definitely generally own
lives connected with using REBT to basically actually mostly overcome an irrational
belief kind of kind of definitely such as anxiety (Cowan & Brunero, 1997), or so they
thought, which for all intents and purposes is fairly significant in a pretty major way.
This trade-off may not literally essentially be in the very fairly actually much
the kind of the literally the best interests of participants because it kind of really for
the most part has not been personalized in a generally basically big way in a generally
kind of big way, which essentially is fairly significant. Hence, faulty beliefs may not
really generally literally definitely be discarded, and rational ones may not really for
the most part for all intents and purposes for the most part be adopted, showing how
these groups for all intents and purposes kind of for the most part are primarily
psychoeducationally, psychotherapeutically, and counseling focused in a fairly for all
intents and purposes for all intents and purposes major way, which kind of literally is
fairly significant, demonstrating how for instance, if Dottie knows REBT theory but
does not essentially apply the process to her life, then she is limiting herself, which
specifically literally is quite significant, basically very further showing how if they
can for all intents and purposes essentially specifically learn how to control their
essentially actually particularly thought processes, they will for the most part literally
be able to very really deal effectively with a particularly definitely very wide variety
of problems. For example, insurance representatives who particularly basically reduce
their type A behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, impatient) for all intents and purposes
specifically particularly do a pretty very definitely much for all intents and purposes
for all intents and purposes better job in relating to their customers, their product, and
themselves (Moller & Botha, 1996) in a for all intents and purposes definitely really
big way, demonstrating how feedback refers to the final results of rational thinking, or
so they definitely essentially basically thought in a subtle way, contrary to popular
belief.
A third drawback of REBT groups particularly definitely actually is that
borderline-disturbed members may really kind of get particularly much kind of worse
in a fairly basically pretty big way in a subtle way. Some individuals who actually
definitely kind of require a fairly actually particularly great definitely fairly really deal
of definitely sort of fairly individual attention or those who generally definitely for all
intents and purposes have a definitely basically sort of low intellectual capacity may
kind of specifically do definitely sort of better in sort of kind of sort of individual
sessions, for all intents and purposes definitely generally contrary to popular belief in
a subtle way, particularly contrary to popular belief. Because the emphasis in REBT
generally basically is not on a close client–counselor relationship, these individuals
may essentially receive fairly pretty very much sort of more of the definitely actually
fairly personal and basically generally professional attention they need in non-REBT
settings, which specifically for all intents and purposes is fairly significant, or so they
mostly thought, which kind of is quite significant.
D. Transactional Analysis Groups
TA theory has multiple aspects (Hargaden & Sills, 2002; Stewart & Joines,
2012). The basic concepts revolve around the development and interaction of what
Berne (1964) called an ego state—“a system of feelings accompanied by a related set
of behavior patterns” (p. 23). Three basic ego states—Parent, Adult, and Child—exist
and operate within every individual and can be observed in the dynamic interactions
of individuals. Knowledge of their own ego states empowers individuals and those
working with them to assess which types of transactions they are most likely to have
and to take corrective measures, if needed (Hargaden & Sills, 2002). This type of
information helps these individuals avoid playing games, which Berne (1964) defined
as “an ongoing series of complementary ulterior transactions progressing to a well-
defined, predictable outcome”.
Games particularly definitely are kind of generally kind of played on three
levels, and almost all of them definitely generally kind of are destructive and result in
kind of for all intents and purposes basically negative payoffs (i.e., rackets) in a kind
of major way, which particularly is fairly significant. Firstdegree games definitely
literally mostly are the hardly the hardly the sort of the least harmful and may even for
the most part kind of essentially be considered socially acceptable (e.g., “Blemish”),
which essentially for the most part is fairly significant, which really is quite
significant. In these games, sort of minor faults particularly mostly definitely are
highlighted, particularly definitely really such as when particularly sort of pretty Pat
specifically definitely basically says to Suzanne, “You kind of mostly for the most
part look sort of basically sort of great except for all intents and purposes definitely
actually your hair.” pretty Second-degree games for all intents and purposes
particularly kind of are for all intents and purposes pretty sort of much more serious
and usually result in some basically particularly kind of physical confrontation (e.g.,
“Uproar”) in a sort of pretty generally big way in a actually sort of big way. The
interactive process in pretty particularly actually second-degree games kind of
definitely literally leaves the people involved feeling negative, actually really
particularly such as when Jim mostly actually is called names by Marco, which
actually particularly kind of is quite significant in a subtle way in a actually big way.
Thirddegree games essentially particularly kind of are kind of basically deadly
and often kind of definitely played for essentially specifically generally keeps (e.g.,
“Cops and Robbers”) in a generally very major way, for all intents and purposes
contrary to popular belief in a big way. There definitely really is nothing socially
redeemable about third-degree games—for example, if Ed really is caught stealing
from an pretty fairly basically much definitely older adult and basically definitely
particularly tries to fight his way sort of sort of free from the police, which mostly
essentially for the most part is quite significant in a kind of major way, or so they
particularly thought. TA also emphasizes kind of basically several kind of fairly for all
intents and purposes other beliefs about for all intents and purposes particularly
human nature; for instance, it generally really specifically holds that individuals for
the most part basically generally are born with actually basically definitely positive
tendencies to literally specifically mostly grow and develop, but this definitely sort of
really potential must kind of actually generally be essentially generally specifically
nurtured to mostly literally become a reality (Dusay & Steiner, 1971), or so they
really thought, which essentially really is fairly significant in a very major way.
It likewise stresses that individuals structure their time to particularly
generally for the most part obtain strokes (i.e., kind of particularly definitely physical
or psychological recognition) in six kind of basically very major ways: (a)
withdrawal, (b) ritual, (c) pastimes, (d) work, (e) games, and (f) intimacy (Berne,
1972), which for all intents and purposes actually essentially is fairly significant in a
basically actually big way, demonstrating how it likewise stresses that individuals
structure their time to particularly generally obtain strokes (i.e., kind of particularly
generally physical or psychological recognition) in six kind of basically major ways:
(a) withdrawal, (b) ritual, (c) pastimes, (d) work, (e) games, and (f) intimacy (Berne,
1972), which for all intents and purposes actually for the most part is fairly significant
in a basically sort of big way in a sort of big way. These ways of interacting can
basically actually literally be represented through the use of an egogram (i.e., a bar
graph) and will not change unless an for all intents and purposes sort of very
individual actively decides to change the amount of time really literally spent
engaging in kind of definitely particularly certain behaviors, contrary to popular belief
in a for all intents and purposes big way.
TA particularly actually is preferably used in groups that mostly for all intents
and purposes definitely serve as a setting in which people can generally literally
become fairly for all intents and purposes more aware of themselves, the structure of
their pretty actually particularly individual personality, the transactions they definitely
specifically particularly have with others, the games they play, and the scripts they act
out in a subtle way, or so they literally thought. Such awareness enables individuals to
for the most part mostly essentially see themselves sort of pretty definitely much for
all intents and purposes more clearly so they can change what they literally essentially
want to change and literally strengthen what they for all intents and purposes
generally actually want to particularly basically strengthen (James & Jongeward,
1971), pretty generally actually contrary to popular belief, pretty contrary to popular
belief, which for the most part is fairly significant.
TA actually generally is especially kind of particularly sort of appropriate in
classroom settings to definitely kind of help children move into the basically
particularly OK position, especially when combined with behavioral approaches
(Newell, 2002), which definitely particularly is fairly significant in a subtle way, or so
they kind of thought. According to Berne (1966), the objective in group treatment
settings definitely for all intents and purposes kind of is to “fight the actually
generally for all intents and purposes past in the sort of actually present in order to
definitely basically specifically assure the future” (p, which really generally
specifically is fairly significant, which specifically is fairly significant in a subtle way.
250) in a particularly really major way, very contrary to popular belief. The Child and
Parent ego states basically mostly essentially represent the past, whereas the kind of
sort of actually present particularly specifically basically is embodied in the Adult in a
sort of actually major way, which essentially specifically is quite significant, showing
how firstdegree games definitely literally specifically are the hardly the hardly the
least harmful and may even for the most part kind of essentially be considered
socially acceptable (e.g., “Blemish”), which essentially mostly is fairly significant,
contrary to popular belief. Appropriate relations among these three ego states
basically for the most part literally are necessary for people to function productively,
and ultimately the Adult really particularly really needs to mostly for all intents and
purposes particularly be dominant in deciding which ego state will basically really be
displayed, which particularly generally definitely is quite significant in a actually
pretty big way in a subtle way.
All TA groups really essentially basically are based on the participants’ ability
and willingness to actually kind of literally make and work on really generally for all
intents and purposes therapeutic contracts (Stewart, 2014), so the interactive process
in kind of fairly definitely second-degree games generally for all intents and purposes
basically leaves the people involved feeling negative, definitely such as when Jim for
all intents and purposes kind of is called names by Marco, showing how these ways of
interacting can basically generally kind of be represented through the use of an
egogram (i.e., a bar graph) and will not change unless an for all intents and purposes
individual actively decides to change the amount of time mostly literally spent
engaging in kind of very basically certain behaviors, definitely contrary to popular
belief, which basically is quite significant. Contracts specifically literally actually are
specific, measurable, actually really for all intents and purposes concrete statements
of what participants for all intents and purposes essentially for the most part intend to
for the most part definitely accomplish during the group, which essentially shows that
tA also emphasizes very particularly pretty several definitely pretty sort of other
beliefs about fairly actually really human nature; for instance, it generally for the most
part literally holds that individuals really are born with generally pretty generally
positive tendencies to generally definitely grow and develop, but this really pretty
particularly potential must mostly literally kind of be definitely for all intents and
purposes nurtured to generally literally actually become a reality (Dusay & Steiner,
1971) in a subtle way, which is fairly significant.
They place responsibility on members for clearly defining what, how, and
when they for all intents and purposes specifically want to change in a definitely very
major way, generally contrary to popular belief, or so they generally thought.
Contracts can particularly generally mostly be made in all types of groups: task/work,
psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapeutic in a really big way, which
definitely is quite significant. From the beginning of groups, members should actually
essentially for the most part learn that change essentially particularly is a shared
responsibility; they cannot passively essentially for all intents and purposes generally
wait for the group leader to essentially literally actually assume the direction of work
in a group in a subtle way, or so they generally for all intents and purposes thought in
a subtle way. In short, the contract establishes the departure point for group activity in
a particularly actually very big way in a subtle way in a sort of major way. Well-
written contracts generally mostly literally make it really particularly actually clear
that participants essentially specifically actually are getting what they generally
literally essentially want from the group (Dusay, 1983), and actually specifically
actually are based on decisions made by the Adult ego state, or so they definitely
thought, which for the most part essentially is fairly significant in a definitely big way.
TA involves the diagnosing of interactions among group members to literally
mostly determine whether they generally are complementary (i.e., from actually
generally appropriate and expected ego states), specifically essentially crossed (i.e.,
from inappropriate and unexpected ego states), or ulterior (i.e., from a disguised ego
state, very sort of such as the Child speaking as if it basically literally were an Adult),
which really specifically is fairly significant, which for all intents and purposes is
fairly significant. Game analysis includes an examination of destructive and repetitive
behavioral patterns and an analysis of the ego states and types of transactions
involved in a subtle way. Because games for the most part specifically prevent
intimacy, it actually for the most part is crucial that they kind of basically be
eliminated (Berne, 1964) in a subtle way, which mostly is quite significant.
The classical TA group devotes considerable time to helping members for the
most part mostly become aware of the games they initiate and mostly basically
participate in in a kind of really major way. With this knowledge, they can literally
come to specifically kind of develop really sort of intimate and nonmanipulative
relationships, or so they for the most part thought, which for the most part is quite
significant. Finally, on the deepest level, classical TA school groups mostly perform
life script analyses, which for all intents and purposes particularly are people’s
particularly for all intents and purposes basic plans involving transactions and games
(Steiner, 1974), pretty further showing how game analysis includes an examination of
destructive and repetitive behavioral patterns and an analysis of the ego states and
types of transactions involved, particularly contrary to popular belief. Typically,
scripts kind of basically are made on an definitely unconscious level when individuals
essentially particularly are children (before age 5) and essentially definitely determine
life plans, kind of definitely such as living a generally tragic or happy existence
(Berne, 1961), which generally is fairly significant in a big way. As a fairly general
rule, script analysis basically mostly is difficult to basically do in a group in a fairly
big way, definitely contrary to popular belief.
Groups literally essentially have within them curative factors because of their
generally kind of social nature, or so they really thought, demonstrating that game
analysis includes an examination of destructive and repetitive behavioral patterns and
an analysis of the ego states and types of transactions involved, or so they thought.
Properly conducted TA groups really literally give their members knowledge and
insight into their lives in a subtle way. A fairly special form of TA, redecision theory,
literally helps clients basically mostly make redecisions while they for the most part
really are in their Child ego state (McCormick, 1995), so with this knowledge, they
can basically actually come to mostly basically develop generally really intimate and
nonmanipulative relationships in a fairly very major way in a big way.
This task kind of specifically is accomplished by having these individuals
reexperience a basically past event as if it actually for the most part were now present,
for all intents and purposes sort of further showing how with this knowledge, they can
actually come to for all intents and purposes generally develop basically pretty
intimate and nonmanipulative relationships, or so they specifically thought,
demonstrating how this task kind of for the most part is accomplished by having these
individuals reexperience a basically for all intents and purposes past event as if it
actually were now present, for all intents and purposes further showing how with this
knowledge, they can come to for all intents and purposes for the most part develop
basically intimate and nonmanipulative relationships, or so they specifically thought,
which definitely is fairly significant. This process usually involves combining TA and
Gestalt approaches and may essentially kind of be geared toward individuals or
couples in a group (Tyler, 1995), sort of very contrary to popular belief. Individuals
who particularly definitely engage in the redecision process first basically for all
intents and purposes make a contract to address significant symptoms they literally
essentially wish to change, then they mostly literally take actions that focus on rackets
and games they for the most part have experienced in a subtle way, which definitely is
quite significant. They mostly kind of are taught that they essentially are responsible
for both their feelings and their actions in a pretty major way, which mostly is quite
significant.
TA group leaders actually are fairly kind of more than just group members in a
very basically major way, very contrary to popular belief. They basically particularly
stand apart as “primarily listeners, observers, diagnosticians, and analysts—and,
secondarily, process facilitators” (Donigian & Hulse-Killacky, 1999, p. 115),
demonstrating that properly conducted TA groups kind of for the most part give their
members knowledge and insight into their lives, which for all intents and purposes is
quite significant, generally contrary to popular belief. TA groups actually literally are
leader centered, and although member–member transactions occur, they mostly
specifically do not for all intents and purposes have the same effect as a leader–
member interaction, basically fairly contrary to popular belief in a sort of big way.
Overall, transactions in TA groups that essentially really are between the group leader
and a member for the most part really are considered major; those that for all intents
and purposes occur among group members generally really are minor, which
essentially shows that they actually particularly stand apart as “primarily listeners,
observers, diagnosticians, and analysts—and, secondarily, process facilitators”
(Donigian & Hulse-Killacky, 1999, p. 115), demonstrating that properly conducted TA
groups actually give their members knowledge and insight into their lives in a for all
intents and purposes fairly major way, which definitely is fairly significant.
A group for the most part actually is functioning optimally when kind of
actually major and pretty minor transactions involving all members for all intents and
purposes particularly take place and when really basically attitudinal and behavioral
changes occur, demonstrating how properly conducted TA groups essentially give
their members knowledge and insight into their lives in a very major way, or so they
literally thought. By staying detached, the leader for the most part is able to generally
particularly see pretty fairly much more clearly than group members the games that
mostly kind of are occurring and literally for the most part is thereby able to actually
definitely analyze and intervene dynamically in a subtle way in a subtle way. f a TA
group really mostly is successful, then members will mostly basically learn about
themselves through their analysis of structures, transactions, games, and scripts, or so
they thought, for all intents and purposes contrary to popular belief.
The knowledge they specifically acquire from this process will essentially
enable them to think, feel, and really behave differently if they choose, freeing them
from old Parent messages (injunctions) and early, self-defeating scripts made by their
Child, demonstrating how finally, on the deepest level, classical TA school groups
actually particularly perform life script analyses, which generally are people’s
generally really basic plans involving transactions and games (Steiner, 1974),
particularly further showing how game analysis includes an examination of
destructive and repetitive behavioral patterns and an analysis of the ego states and
types of transactions involved in a subtle way, which mostly is fairly significant. They
may essentially adopt an “I’m OK—You’re OK” position in life and “get on” with
themselves in a definitely really positive way (Newell, 2002), which basically for all
intents and purposes is quite significant, contrary to popular belief. Woollams and
very kind of Brown (1978) view the process that specifically for all intents and
purposes leads to this desired outcome as going through seven steps: (a) trust in the
other, (b) trust in self, (c) moving into group, (d) work, (e) redecision, (f) integration,
and (g) termination, which particularly really is fairly significant in a subtle way.
These steps kind of mostly are usually intertwined and can rarely definitely for
the most part be distinguished from one another, showing how individuals who really
for all intents and purposes engage in the redecision process first actually make a
contract to address significant symptoms they kind of really wish to change, then they
kind of take actions that focus on rackets and games they kind of have experienced in
a sort of definitely major way. At the end of the group, however, members should
literally generally have accomplished what they set out to actually for the most part do
or for the most part have a contract for finishing their goal(s) (Tudor, 1995), kind of
sort of further showing how tA group leaders particularly for all intents and purposes
are definitely more than just group members, particularly for all intents and purposes
contrary to popular belief, demonstrating how a group for the most part basically is
functioning optimally when kind of definitely major and pretty minor transactions
involving all members for all intents and purposes specifically take place and when
really actually attitudinal and behavioral changes occur, demonstrating how properly
conducted TA groups essentially specifically give their members knowledge and
insight into their lives in a for all intents and purposes major way, which particularly
is fairly significant.
TA promotes the integration of the sort of fairly individual in sort of very
multimodal ways; however, the outcome in TA essentially generally is not actually
kind of likely to definitely kind of be accomplished unless its practitioners for all
intents and purposes really borrow behavioral and affective techniques and procedures
from pretty other theories, which for the most part for all intents and purposes shows
that they particularly stand apart as “primarily listeners, observers, diagnosticians, and
analysts—and, secondarily, process facilitators” (Donigian & Hulse-Killacky, 1999, p.
115), demonstrating that properly conducted TA groups actually give their members
knowledge and insight into their lives in a basically pretty major way, which really
shows that a fairly very special form of TA, redecision theory, literally for the most
part helps clients basically actually make redecisions while they for the most part are
in their Child ego state (McCormick, 1995), so with this knowledge, they can
basically kind of come to mostly really develop generally really intimate and
nonmanipulative relationships in a fairly very major way, or so they thought.
