WPC 480_ASU_ASSIGNMENT_2024_BEEF CATTLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES BASED ON SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATLAND ENVIRONMENTS

BEEF CATTLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES BASED ON SPECIFIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATLAND ENVIRONMENTS

INTRODUCTION:

Central Kalimantan Province has potential as one of the beef cattle development

areas in Indonesia. This is because it is supported by extensive land potential (15.3 million

hectares (BPS Central Kalimantan 2020)) and adequate availability of forage. In addition, the

demand for beef and feeder cattle in this region is also quite high, until now the demand for

beef has only been met around 53.34% of the total demand (BPS Kalteng 2020). In the long

term, the opportunity for beef cattle development in Central Kalimantan will be even greater,

because it will become one of the buffer areas for the meat needs of the Archipelago's capital

city in East Kalimantan.

Peatland is one of the agroecosystems that is widely utilized for beef cattle farming.

The potential of peatland in Central Kalimantan Province is recorded at 2,659,234 ha spread

across 12 districts/cities (Ritung et al. 2011). The community has been developing beef cattle

on peatlands for a long time. The development of beef cattle on peatlands is suspected to be

one of the reasons why beef cattle productivity in this region has not been optimized. This can

be seen from the low population size and very slow population growth. In 2019 the beef cattle

population in Central Kalimantan was only 74,285 head (27th out of 34 provinces), with a

contribution to the national population of 0.43%. Over the last ten years the population has

only grown by 7.82% year on year-1 , and there was even a considerable decline in population

(-17.27%) from 2017 to 2018 (BPS Central Kalimantan 2020).

The suboptimal productivity of beef cattle in Central Kalimantan's peatlands is

thought to be strongly related to the hot and humid climatic conditions, as well as the acidic,

wet, poros, infertile and nutrient-poor characteristics of the peat soil. These environmental

conditions have the potential to cause heat stress and nutrient deficiencies that can have a

negative impact on animal comfort, health and productivity. On the other hand, current

cultivation management has not considered the specific characteristics of the peatland

environment.

Livestock that experience microclimate stress will not produce optimally, because

comfortable environmental conditions are one of the requirements for livestock to produce

optimally (Suretno 2016). Although beef cattle have high adaptability to microclimate stress,

if the intensity and duration of the stress exceed the ability of the cattle to cope with the

stressor, the production performance, reproduction, health and welfare of the cattle can be

disrupted (Hahn 1995). Heat stress in beef cattle will adversely affect the reproductive

function of livestock (Dobson and Smith 1995) in the form of; decreased fertility and estrus

intensity, impaired ovarian function and embryonic development (Ullah et al. 1996; Gupta et

al. 2013). Heat stress will also interfere with the body's ability to process protein and energy

which will result in reduced growth, milk production and animal health (Gupta et al. 2013).

The interaction between heat stress and nutrients can be seen in the presence of nutrient

deficiencies due to a reduction in feed intake, in an attempt to reduce heat stress decreased

metabolic rate and increased daily nutrient requirements (West 1999; Kadzere et al. 2002;

Hamzaoui et al. 2013).

Peat soils are characterized as acidic, fragile, infertile and mineral-poor (Subagyo et

al. 2000b; Ritung et al. 2012; Subardja and Suryani 2012; Setiadi et al. 2016) will affect the

quality of forage and the productivity of cattle reared in that environment. According to

Fridjayanti et al. (2019) and Besung (2013) the availability of nutrients in plants is strongly

influenced by the condition and type of soil, so that the mineral content in the soil also greatly

affects the mineral content in feed crops and livestock bodies. If the soil where the forage

grows is poor in mineral elements, then livestock that consume the forage will show

symptoms of mineral deficiency (Gartenberg et al., 1990). (1990). On the other hand,

minerals are one of the most important nutrients in the growth, health, production,

reproduction and immunity of livestock (Velladurai et al. 2016). Minerals play an important

role in livestock productivity, due to their close relationship with reproductive ability (Kumar

et al. 2011; Pradhan and Nakagoshi 2008). Mineral deficiencies in livestock can cause

reproductive failure and various reproductive problems (Gupta et al. 2005; Sharma et al.

2007). Ca, Mg and P mineral deficiencies can cause low fertility (Akhtar et al. 2014), delayed

postpartum ovulation, pregnancy failure, abortion (Santos et al. 2010), low pregnancy rates,

long lambing intervals, embryonic mortality, stillborn calves and delayed sexual maturity

(Ceylan et al. 2008), as well as reproductive problems such as placental retention (Goff and

Horst 1997), and metritis in dairy cows (Martinez et al. 2012). Cu and Zn mineral deficiencies

can also reduce livestock reproductive performance (Yosathai 2014) and reproductive

disorders such as; placental retention (Gupta et al. 2005), abortion (Mee 2004) and weak calf

syndrome (Logan et al. 1990).

Potential heat stress and nutrient deficiencies that can negatively affect beef cattle

productivity on peatlands require appropriate control strategies, but these issues have not yet

been addressed by farmers and relevant policy makers. In addition, comprehensive scientific

data to inform policy making for beef cattle development on peatlands is limited. Research

related to the microclimate environment and beef cattle productivity on peatlands has been

conducted by several previous researchers, including; Adrial (2018) on reproductive

performance of Balinese cows, Hermawansyah (2018) on physiological responses of Balinese

cows, Astuti (2019) on production performance of Balinese cows, and Amiano et al. (2020)

on the productivity of Balinese cows' mothers and calves. These researchers have generally

conducted partial studies and have not comprehensively examined peatland environmental

issues and their influence on productivity and the development of beef cattle populations.

Local government programs and policies to accelerate the development of beef cattle

population in Central Kalimantan have also been quite numerous including; 1) the distribution

of breeding cows, 2) the development of cattle-oil palm integration, 3) the development of

beef cattle breeding areas in potential areas, 4) the development of cattle in pastures, and 5)

the effective implementation of artificial insemination (IB) (BAPPEDA Central Kalimantan

2015). In fact, these programs and policies have not had a significant impact on population

development.

1.1 Abstract

A comfortable microclimate environment and adequate nutrient availability are

important factors affecting beef cattle productivity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the

microclimatic environmental conditions of pens and mineral content in peat soil, and their

effects on physiological responses, nutrient adequacy and productivity of beef cattle.

Microclimate data from 41 housing units and cattle physiological parameters were collected

in the morning, afternoon and evening. Physiological response measurements used 313 cattle,

consisting of 179 Balinese and 134 crossbred cattle. A total of 4 soil samples, 6 forage

samples and 167 blood samples were used to evaluate the mineral content of soil, forage and

blood serum. Soil and blood samples were analyzed in the laboratory using the atomic

absorption spectrophotometry method, and forage samples were analyzed using the

association of official analytical chemists method. Feed consumption data collection involved

216 cows, consisting of 149 Balinese and 112 crossbred cows. Production performance data

were obtained through measurement and weighing of 313 beef cows consisting of 170

Balinese cows and 133 crossbred cows. Reproductive performance data were obtained

through direct interviews with 39 farmers, with a total of 116 mothers involved, consisting of

57 Balinese cows and 59 crossbred cows. The results showed that the microclimate conditions

in the pen were not in the comfort zone required by the cows, so the cows suffered from heat

stress with mild to moderate stress levels. Crossbred cattle were more susceptible to heat

stress than Balinese cattle, while calves and pregnant cows were the most susceptible to heat

stress. The mineral content of Ca and Cu in peat soils is very low, resulting in low levels of

these minerals in forage and blood serum. Heat stress and mineral deficiencies result in low

calf production performance and reproductive performance of mothers.

Abstract:

A comfortable microclimate and adequate nutrition are important factors affecting

beef cattle productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the microclimate conditions of cattle

barns and mineral content in peat soil, and their effects on physiological responses, nutritional

adequacy and productivity of beef cattle. Microclimate data on 41 units of cattle barns and

physiological parameters of beef cattle were collected in the morning, at noon, and in the

afternoon. The physiological parameter measurements involved 313 beef cattle, consisting of

179 bali and 134 crossbred cattle. A total of 4 soil samples, 6 forage samples and 167 blood

samples were used to evaluate the mineral content of soil, forage and blood serum of cattle,

respectively. Soil and blood serum samples were analyzed in laboratory using atomic

absorption spectrophotometry method, while forage samples were analyzed according to the

association of official analytical chemist method. Feed consumption data was collected from

216 beef cattle, consisting of 149 bali and 112 crossbred cattle. Production performance data

were obtained through measurement and weighing of 313 beef cattle consisting of 170 bali

and 133 crossbred cattle. Reproductive performance data was obtained through direct

interviews with 39 farmers, with a total of 116 cows involved, consisting of 57 bali and 59

crossbred cows. The results showed that the microclimate conditions within cattle barns were

not a comfort zone for beef cattle. These conditions had an impact on the physiological

responses of the cattle, indicating that they were suffering from heat stress with low to

moderate levels. Crossbred cattles were more susceptible to heat stress than bali cattles.

Calves and pregnant cows were the most vulnerable to heat stress. The availability of Ca and

Cu in peat soil were very low, resulting in low levels of these minerals in forage and blood

serum. Heat stress and mineral deficiencies resulted in low calf production performance and

reproductive performance of cows.

1.2 Introduction

Peatland is one of the agroecosystems that is widely utilized for beef cattle farming

in Pulang Pisau District. Beef cattle development on peatlands has the potential to face a

variety of problems that can interfere with livestock productivity. Hot and humid climatic

conditions and acidic, infertile and mineral-poor peat soil characteristics are environmental

conditions that have the potential to cause heat stress and nutrient deficiencies in cattle. Heat

stress and nutrient deficiencies are very detrimental and dangerous environmental stresses for

cattle, as they can have a direct impact on comfort, health and productivity.

Air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and wind speed are microclimate

parameters that directly affect livestock comfort and productivity (Yani and Purwanto 2006).

This is because temperature, solar radiation and relative humidity have a direct effect on

livestock in maintaining energy, heat, water balance, hormones and minerals (Silanikove

1992). If changes occur in the microclimate environment, livestock will experience stress that

will affect welfare, health and productivity (Lees et al. 2019). Heat stress is one of the effects

of the microclimatic environment that greatly affects livestock productivity and is considered

a major factor that must be controlled in livestock production units (Alejandro et al. 2014).

Stress is described as a measure of the magnitude of environmental influences on the body of

livestock that will have a cumulative effect on reducing the body's work system, resulting in

losses in livestock health and productivity (Silanikove 2000a). Heat stress is the most

common stress nowadays, due to the changing climate (Silanikove and Koluman 2015) and is

the main stressor in the tropics (Nardone et al. 2006).

Beef cattle productivity is strongly influenced by the adequacy of nutrients provided

(Haryanto 2012), while the production and quality of nutrients in Forage is highly dependent

on the environmental conditions in which it grows, especially soil and climate conditions

(Bationo et al. 2007). The acidic, crumbly and infertile characteristics of peat soils (Subardja

and Suryani 2012) and the low content of macro- and micro-minerals (Subagyo et al. 2000a;

Setiadi et al. 2016) are thought to have an impact on the nutrient content of the forage grown

in peat soils and the productivity of beef cattle consuming the forage. The low mineral content

of peat soil is expected to result in low mineral content in the forage and in the body of the

cattle, which will have a negative impact on their production and reproductive performance.

This is because minerals are micronutrients that play an important role in livestock growth,

health and productivity (Velladurai et al. 2016) and are essential for maintaining growth,

reproduction and health (Jones and Tracy 2013).

Beef cattle development on peatlands with specific characteristics is suspected to be

one of the reasons why beef cattle productivity in Pulang Pisau District is not yet optimal. The

high risk of heat stress and mineral deficiencies that will negatively affect productivity are

serious problems that must be solved. The aim of this study was to evaluate the microclimate

of the cowshed and the mineral content of the peat soil, and its effect on physiological

responses, nutrient adequacy and productivity of beef cattle.

1.3 Methods

The research was conducted in Pulang Pisau District, Central Kalimantan from

December 2020 to July 2021. The location was selected using purposive sampling by

considering the presence of peatlands, population size and availability of research materials.

The main location was Maliku Subdistrict, which has the largest peatland area in Central

Kalimantan and is the center of the beef cattle population in Pulang Pisau District.

Materials and Equipment

The materials used in this study included: beef cattle, pens, forage, soil, and blood

serum. The cattle used in this study were Balinese cattle and crossbred cattle (crossing local

cattle with Bos taurus cattle through artificial insemination) in a cow-calf operation kept on

peatland. The 39 respondent farmers were selected by purposive sampling, taking into

account the location of the farm, the purpose of the business, the location of the forage source,

the length of time managing the business (at least 5 years) and owning cattle with the required

physiological status (≥5 head). Farmers were selected from 6 different villages according to

the availability of research materials.

Microclimate condition data were collected from 41 units of cages grouped based on

differences in physical conditions and vegetation around the cage. Physiological response

measurements used 313 beef cows, consisting of 179 Balinese cows and 134 crossbred cows

grouped based on differences in physiological status, namely; calves, young cows, empty

mothers, pregnant mothers and lactating mothers. Feed consumption data collection

The study was conducted in 41 housing units, involving 216 cows consisting of 149

Balinese cows and 112 crossbred cows with different physiological status; young cows, empty

mothers, pregnant mothers, lactating mothers and adult males. Evaluation of mineral content

in soil, forage and blood serum used 167 cows, 4 soil samples and 6 forage samples.

Production performance data collection used 313 cows, consisting of 170 Balinese cows and

133 crossbred cows with different physical statuses: calves, young cows and adults.

Reproductive performance evaluation involved 116 mother cows, consisting of 57 Bali cows

and 59 crossbred cows.

Equipment used in this study included: questionnaires to collect data on farm

management, reproductive performance, and identification of mineral deficiency symptoms;

meters and compasses for measurement of physical condition of cages; Beurer HM16 thermo-

hygrometer, anemometer, Omron rectal thermometer model MC-245, classic ABN

stethoscope, stopwatch and hand tally counter for microclimate data collection; rectal

thermometer, stethoscope and stopwatch for physiological response data collection; scales,

sickles, shovels, plastic bags, needles, vacutainer tubes without anticoagulant, eppendrof tubes

and icebox for feed consumption data collection, forage samples, soil samples and blood

samples; livestock scales, measuring tape and measuring stick for production performance

data collection.

Research Procedure:

a. Identification of existing conditions of cultivation management

Information related to the existing condition of cultivation management was

conducted through direct interviews guided by a structured questionnaire. Information

collected included; quality of human resources of farmers, population structure, cage

management, feed management, reproduction management and livestock health management.

To verify and deepen the information obtained from farmers, direct interviews were also

conducted with veterinarians, inseminators and field officers.

b. Evaluation of the existing condition of the microclimate environment

Data on cage microclimate conditions were collected using the observation method

through observation and measurement. The number of cages observed was 41 units. Data

collected included; physical condition of the cage and microclimate in the cage. Physical data

collection was conducted through direct observation and measurement. Parameters observed

included; cage type, orientation, material, roof type and height, and vegetation around the

cage. Data on microclimate conditions were collected in the morning (06.30-07.30 WIB),

afternoon (11.30-12.30 WIB) and evening (16.30-17.30 WIB) and carried out every month

during the study. Measurements were taken in different places, namely; left side, center, right

side and the outside of the cage. The parameters observed include; ambient temperature,

relative humidity, wind speed, and Temperature Humidity Index (THI). Data on temperature,

relative humidity and wind speed were obtained through measurements using a thermometer,

hygrometer, and anemometer, respectively. THI is used as an index that combines air

temperature and relative humidity, while wind speed is used as an index.

c. Evaluate the physiological response of cattle

Measurement of cattle physiological responses was conducted at the same time as the

measurement of microclimate conditions. Data collected included; rectal temperature, heart

rate, respiratory rate, and heat tolerance coefficient (HTC). Rectal temperature was measured

by inserting a thermometer into the rectum ± 10 cm deep for three minutes (until the

thermometer reads). Heart rate was measured using a stethoscope and stopwatch by placing

the stethoscope near the left axilla bone for one minute. Respiratory rate, expressed as the

number of breaths per minute, was measured using a stethoscope and stopwatch on

auscultation of respiratory movements by placing the stethoscope on the chest to count

inspiratory and expiratory breathing for one minute. Heat tolerance coefficient (HTC) was

used as an index combining respiratory frequency and rectal temperature, calculated using

Benezra's formula HTC = (Tb / 38.3) + (Rr / 23.0), Tb is the average body temperature, Rr is

the average respiratory frequency for one minute, the value of 38.3 is the standard number of

normal body temperature of cattle, and the value of 23.0 is the standard number of respiratory

frequency for one minute.

d. Evaluation of the mineral content of soil, forage and blood serum of

cattle This study used observational methods supported by analysis

Laboratory. Soil and forage samples used for laboratory analysis were composite

samples from sub-samples collected from 6 villages. Soil and fodder forage samples from

each village were taken at the main locations where fodder forage grows, namely irrigation

canal bunds, plantations, fodder forage gardens and fallow land.

Soil sampling at each location uses the diagonal spot technique according to Budi

(2015). Soil samples at each location were taken at 9 points. The amount of soil taken at each

point was 200 g at a depth of 10-20 cm. Soil samples from each point were then grouped

based on differences in location. A collection of soil samples from the same location was then

homogeneously mixed and 1000 g was taken. Composite samples from each location were

then packaged and analyzed in the laboratory.

Forage sampling techniques at each location were carried out according to Soejono

(2007). A total of 200 g of fresh forage was taken randomly at 9 points in each location.

Forage samples from each point were then separated and grouped by forage type. The same

set of samples from each location was chopped into 3-5 cm pieces and mixed homogeneously.

A total of 1000 g of each type of forage was taken to be dried and analyzed in the laboratory.

A total of 3-5 ml of blood was drawn through the jugular vein from each cow, the

blood was then collected in a vacutainer tube without anticoagulant. The tube containing the

blood was then tilted to expand the surface area for 20 minutes until the serum separated from

the clot. Serum was then transferred to an eppendorf tube and placed in an ice box to be

collected brought to the laboratory. Upon arrival at the laboratory, serum samples were stored

at -20o C until ready for analysis.

Analysis of mineral content in soil was conducted at the Laboratory of the Soil

Research Center (BALITTANAH) Bogor, using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

method. Analysis of mineral content in forage was conducted at the laboratory of the Center

for Quality Testing and Feed Certification (BPMSP) Bekasi, using the Association of Official

Analytical Chemists method. Blood mineral content analysis was conducted at the Diagnostic

Laboratory of the Bogor Veterinary Research Center (BBLitvet), using the Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometry method.

e. Evaluation of nutrient adequacy

Evaluation of nutrient adequacy was conducted on cows that were intensively reared

in pens. The cattle used were the same cattle as the physiological response assessment. Data

collection was conducted every month during the study. This activity began with the

identification of the type and composition of forage fed to the cows, as well as the type and

amount of supplementary feed. Identification of the type of feed ingredients is done through

observation and weighing of feed to be given in the feed bin. Calculation of feed composition

is done by separating the types of forage that will be given to cows in each cage, then grouped

according to type. Each type of forage was then weighed to determine the composition of

each. For laboratory analysis purposes, each type of feed material from each cage was

collected and grouped according to type. A collection of similar feed ingredients from each

cage is then mixed homogeneously and a sample is taken to be analyzed in the laboratory. The

number of feed samples analyzed was 6 types which are the main types of forage most

commonly given by farmers to cows every day.

Feed consumption data was collected by subtracting the amount of feed given from

the amount of feed remaining in the feed bins. In cattle using shared feed bins, individual feed

consumption was calculated by dividing the total group feed consumption by the number of

livestock units (ST) in the group. Nutrient adequacy was determined from the total

consumption of each nutrient component compared to the standard nutrient requirements of

cattle according to Kearl (1982). The observed variables included; type and composition of

feed ingredients, consumption of fresh matter, dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, energy,

and minerals Ca, P, Cu, and Zn.

f. Evaluation of production and reproductive performance

Production performance data were collected through measurement, observation and

weighing. Production parameters observed included; body weight, body condition score

(BCS), body length, chest circumference, shoulder height, and hip height. Live weight

measurement was conducted through weighing using livestock scales. Measurement of body

length, hip height and chest circumference was conducted using a measuring tape.

Measurement of body parameters was carried out when the animals were standing normally

with their heads upright and body weight resting on all four legs (Gilbert et al. 1993) as

follows; (1) chest circumference measured circumferentially just behind the scapula (cm), (2)

height hip measured from the highest part of the hip perpendicular to the ground (cm), (3)

body length measured from the ischii tuber to the humeral tuberosity (cm). Observations of

body condition scores were made through the assessment of body condition scores (BCS)

using a scale of 1-5 which was measured based on the scoring system according to Paul et al.

(2020), namely; BCS 1: very thin, BCS 2: thin, BCS 3: medium, BCS 4: fat and BCS 5: very

fat. Determination of BCS is done by observing and touching the fat deposits on the body.

the back and a quarter of the back of the cow's body.

Reproductive performance data were collected through direct interviews with

farmers, data recording and information from inseminators. Reproductive performance

parameters observed included; Age at puberty, age at first lambing, service per conception,

post partum estrus, length of gestation, lambing interval, and calf birth weight.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

To see the differences between treatments were analyzed using Duncan's multiple range test

and least square mean test according to Kaps and Lamberson (2004). The data analysis

process used SAS procedures (V. 9.1; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA).

Region profile:

Pulang Pisau Regency is one of the regencies located in the central part of Central

Kalimantan Province which is located in the equatorial region, between 03 ºLS - 0 ºLU and

110-116 ºBT. This district has an area of 8,997 km2 or about 5.85% of the area of Central

Kalimantan which is spread across 8 sub-districts. The topography of the southern region

consists of beaches/coastal, and swamps with an altitude of 0-5 meters above sea level with an

elevation of 0-8º and is influenced by tides. The northern part is hilly, with an altitude of 50-

100 meters above sea level with an elevation angle of 8-15º. The region has many waters in

the form of lakes, swamps, and is crossed by major rivers, namely the Kahayan and Sebangau

Rivers (BPS-Pulang Pisau 2021).

The soil types in this area follow the pattern of the topography. In the southern part,

the dominant soil types are peat and alluvial soils, especially in areas with poor drainage

conditions. In the north, podsoil and alluvial soils dominate. Riverside areas are generally

dominated by alluvial soils derived from river deposits. Peat soils are the dominant soil type

in Pulang Pisau District, covering an area of approximately 604,033 ha (67.14% of the total

area) and spread across all kecamatan. Peat thickness varies between 50-300 cm with

landforms of back swamp, tidal topogenous peat and tidal ombrogenous peat (Ritung et al.

2012). Peatlands with a depth of more than 300 cm dominate with 433,033 ha (71.69%) of the

total peatland area.

Pulang Pisau Regency has a tropical climate with high humidity. Temperatures range

from 21.1-35.4o C and 44-100% humidity. Its location close to latitude 0o causes the weather

in this region to tend to be hot with an average daily sunshine duration of around 54.1-83.5%.

Wet months occur between 7-9 months and dry months are less than 2 months. Rain occurs

almost throughout the year and the most rainfall falls in the months of October-December and

January-March which range from 2,000-3,500 mm annually, while the dry months fall in

June-September (BPS-Pulang Pisau 2021).

a. Existing conditions of beef cattle farming in Pulang Pisau Regency Pulang Pisau

Regency is one of the development locations for beef cattle.

This region is a national agricultural area with a priority commodity of beef cattle,

which is determined based on the Decree of the Minister of Agriculture No. 830 of 2016. The

development of beef cattle in this region is supported by the availability of large tracts of land,

the potential for adequate feed resources, the availability of sufficient water resources and the

long experience of farmers in managing beef cattle farms. Opportunities for beef cattle

development in this region are also supported by the strategic position of the region which is

in the middle between Palangka Raya City and South Kalimantan Province which is a

consumer area.

Pulang Pisau Regency is one of the largest livestock producing regions in Central

Kalimantan Province, especially beef cattle, as well as the largest meat supply area for

Palangkaraya City. However, the development of beef cattle population in this region in the

last five years (2015-2020) tends to be stagnant, even experiencing negative growth with an

average annual growth of -0.47% (BPS-Pulang Pisau 2021). The distribution of the beef cattle

population is only concentrated in two sub-districts, namely Maliku sub-district with a

contribution of 48.97% and Pandih Batu sub-district with 36.20%, while in other sub-districts

the population is very small. The typology of ruminant livestock businesses also differs

between agroecosystems in each sub-district. In swampland agroecosystems most cattle are

kept semi-intensively, while in shallow peatland agroecosystems cattle are generally kept

intensively.

b. Beef cattle farming pattern

Beef cattle are the main livestock commodity cultivated by farmers in Pulang Pisau

Regency. Beef cattle farming is generally practiced part-time on farmland, with Balinese

cattle and crossbred cattle (local cattle crossed with Bos taurus). The pattern of beef cattle

farming on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 shows that cow calf operations are the most common type of operation

practiced by farmers on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District. Beef cattle breeding operations

implemented by farmers generally aim to produce weaned calves as feedstock for prospective

mothers and fatteners. The products sold are generally young cattle under one year old. The

beef cattle business is generally only a side business, to support the main business as a crop

farmer food and plantation crops. The consequences of side businesses have an impact on the

time devoted to managing the business. Farmers generally only utilize their morning and

evening time to look for grass, feed and care for livestock, while the main time is used to

manage agricultural and plantation businesses. As a side business, the contribution of income

received from the beef cattle business is relatively small and can only be used to meet certain

urgent needs, such as house construction costs, children's school fees, and other needs that

require large amounts of money at certain times.

Beef cattle are generally kept intensively in cages. Cattle are only taken out of the

pen at certain times such as for exercise, health care and mating. The majority of cattle are

kept in individual pens, which are one building divided into several dividers, and each cow is

placed individually in one partition. Although there are some farmers who build collective

pens in one place, the management of the pens is still individual. With this type of cage

model, cattle physical activity is very limited because there is almost no exercise space in the

cage. Exercise is only done at certain times by taking the cattle out of the pen and tying them

up in the yard. Cowsheds are generally built in the yard of the house, except for some

cowsheds that are built collectively in one place by the group. Collective pens are generally

20-100 m away from the farmer's house. Cage buildings are generally quite close to the

location of feed sources with a distance of 100 m to 3 km.

The mating system of beef cattle generally uses Artificial Insemination (IB)

technology and only a small number of farmers use a combination of natural mating system

with IB. The choice of IB technology is closely related to the availability of males in a very

limited population, even around 90% of farmers have difficulty accessing males, both their

own and other farmers' males that can be used for mating. High dependence on IB technology

is also a problem for most farmers in this region. Although the availability of inseminators is

relatively sufficient, due to limited IB service posts, long distances, inadequate road facilities,

and non-continuous availability of IB facilities such as straw and liquid nitrogen, IB services

are often delayed or even fail. This condition causes many cases of delayed mating and

untimely mating. In addition to delays due to IB services, delays in mating also often occur due

to farmers' delay in reporting signs of lambing to officers, farmers' lack of ability to recognize

signs of lambing, and the presence of symptoms of quiet lambing in mother cows that are

difficult for farmers to recognize.

Animal health services are generally handled by veterinarians. The limited number of

officers, the distance of animal health services from the location of farmers, and the

inadequate road infrastructure cause animal health services to be delayed. In addition, the

absence of accompanying veterinary medical officers who can support veterinarians also

causes the workload of veterinarians to be heavier, on the other hand the veterinarian also

doubles as an inseminator officer. This condition causes some animal health service tasks to

be carried out by private inseminators who relatively do not have sufficient competence in

handling animal health.

Feed provision is generally done by cut and carry with a frequency of twice a day.

The type of feed given is only forage without the provision of reinforcing feed or mineral

supplementation. The forage given is natural grass and cultivated grass that grows in fodder

forage gardens, plantation land, open land, irrigation canal bunds and yard land. Most farmers

have a fodder forage garden with an area varying between 0.25-5.00 ha. The type of grass

grown is Brachiaria humidicola, while other types of grass such as elephant grass, king grass

and Mexican grass are relatively limited in number because they are considered less adaptive

in peatlands.

The availability of forage tends to fluctuate. Feeding difficulties often occur in

certain seasons, especially in the dry season due to the death of most natural grasses due to

pyrite poisoning in peatlands. During the rainy season, forage is also often scarce in riverine

areas due to waterlogged land and impassable access to feed sources. Fluctuations in the

availability of forage generally occur because the livestock population has accumulated in

Maliku sub-district, resulting in high competition for the use of forage, while in other sub-

districts the livestock population is very limited, while the availability of forage is quite large.

Mobilization of forage from areas with limited forage availability also occurs relatively

uneventful due to road facilities and the relatively long distance between locations.

Providing reinforcing feed as a source of protein and energy in cattle is generally

very limited, and only practiced by <10% of farmers. Supplementary feeding is only practiced

by farmers who keep crossbred cattle. The frequency of supplementary feeding is also not

regular and is only given in limited quantities by mixing with drinking water. The type of

supplementary feed given is generally rice bran. The limited provision of supplementary feed

is due to the high price of bran, which increases production inputs that will burden farmers.

Mineral supplementation has also not been an important concern for most farmers, so only a

small number of farmers have provided minerals. The frequency of mineral supplementation

is irregular and is only given when government assistance is available or when their cattle

show severe symptoms of mineral deficiency.

Cage Microclimate Environmental Conditions

a. Physical condition of the building and the environment around the stables

In areas with hot and humid climatic conditions such as Pulang Pisau Regency, the

role of enclosures in protecting livestock from negative environmental influences is

significant. This is especially true in intensive rearing, as cattle live almost their entire lives in

cages. If the enclosure is unable to protect livestock from environmental stress, the comfort,

health and productivity of livestock will be compromised. The physical condition of buildings

and the surrounding environment of beef cattle pens on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District are

shown in Tables 2 and 3.

Based on Table 2, it can be seen that all farmers use individual-type cages, which are

one building divided into several partitions, and each cow is placed individually in one

partition. The area of each partition varies between buildings with an area of 3-4 m2 . Feed

troughs and drinking water containers are placed in front of the cows. The feed trough is

generally made to extend the length of the pen, and there is no barrier between the feed bins.

The feed trough also serves as the location for the drinking water container, as there is no

special place provided to collect drinking water. Drinking water is generally provided using a

bucket or basin and placed on top of the feed trough next to the forage. The majority of

farmers have not provided special pens for calving and lactating mothers, so almost all cows

live in the same pens throughout the year. The mothers are only released at certain times by

being tied up in the yard for exercise, mating and veterinary care. The availability of exercise

space is quite limited, with only <20% of farmers providing exercise space.

In lowland areas such as Pulang Pisau District, differences in cage orientation are

expected to affect sunlight entering the cage and wind speed inside the cage. As shown in

Table 2, the majority of farmers in this region build cages with an orientation that extends

from west to east. There are no special considerations for farmers in choosing the orientation

of the building, farmers only build cages according to the availability of land, as cages are

generally built behind the house on the remaining vacant land.

The results showed that there are three types of roofs used by farmers in cage

buildings, namely; shed roof, semi gable, and gable roof. The shed roof type is a roof shape

that uses one flat plane with one of the planes installed lower than the other parts. In this type,

the slope of the roof is very low so it looks more like a flat roof. The gable type is a roof

shape that uses two equal roof planes installed to form the letter "A" with a high slope so that

the two roof planes form the same inclined plane. The semi gable type is a combination of a

gable type roof with a shed roof that has two roof planes, but one of the roof planes forms a

flat plane and the other one forms a sloping plane so that the flat area is twice as wide as the

sloping plane. This type of roof is generally a gable type that is expanded with the addition of

a flat plane with a low slope. Gable and Semi gable is the most common roof type chosen by

farmers. There are no special considerations for farmers in determining the roof type, as

farmers generally only build cages according to cost availability, material availability and

ease of construction.

Asbestos and zinc are the two main types of materials used by farmers as roofing

materials in the research locations. Asbestos is the most widely used material by farmers as

roofing material. The choice of asbestos as a roofing material is closely related to the ease of

installation, the availability of materials and the relatively more durable strength of the roof.

Zinc roofing, although easy to install and widely available in building shops, is easily

corroded and quickly damaged, causing only some farmers to utilize zinc as roofing material.

In contrast to asbestos and zinc, the use of roof tiles as roofing materials is very rarely used in

this region, this is because tile materials are relatively difficult to obtain and the installation

costs are relatively large.

The height of the roof generally varies between cages, with a height of 1.5-4 meters

from the floor surface. Farmers' considerations in determining roof height are based solely on

construction considerations (building area) and cost availability. The difference in roof height

is also caused by differences in the type of roof used. On gable and semi gable type roofs the

roof height is generally much greater than on shed roof type roofs, because the high roof on

shed roof type roofs allows rainwater to enter the cage and is not proportional to the building

area.

Most farmers use cement as a flooring material. The use of cement as a floor material

is done with various construction patterns, such as through direct casting, casting with a steel

frame, and floor construction using the installation of bricks first as a base, then casting on the

surface. Consideration in the construction of this floor is the durability of the floor, because

on dirt floors or cement floors where the casting is not strong, the cage floor will easily

muddy and form puddles, on the other hand if the floor is damaged, groundwater easily seeps

up to the floor and makes the cage floor wet. The use of wood as flooring material by some

farmers is closely related to the high cost of construction using cement.

Each pen has a different floor area per individual depending on the number of cows

kept. Floor space per individual cow is generally around 2.8-4 m2 , but the most common

space used by farmers is ≤ 3 m2 . This variation in floor space per individual is highly

dependent on the number of cattle in the pen. In pens with a small population (<5 cows) each

cow has a larger floor area, but if the population of cows in the pen is large, the floor area per

individual cow will be smaller.

Vegetation around the enclosure is one factor that is thought to influence

microclimate conditions in the enclosure. The condition of vegetation around beef cattle pens

on peatland is presented in Table 3. Vegetation that is thought to affect the microclimate

conditions in the pen is the plants that grow around the pen building. The presence of trees

that While tall trees around the enclosure can help reduce solar heat gain, trees with dense

branches and leaves at a height that is equal to the height of the enclosure, as well as dense

vegetation around the enclosure can potentially block wind speed, and reduce the role of wind

speed in reducing humidity in the enclosure.

Based on Table 3, it can be seen that the condition of vegetation around cage

buildings on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District varies in terms of density, height, distance

from the building and the position of the vegetation. The research found that almost all cage

buildings were surrounded by vegetation in the form of trees, either fruit plants, plantation

plants, or wild trees. Based on population density, it is known that the majority of cage

buildings are surrounded by dense vegetation. This population density is calculated by

looking at the distance of the trunk and the distribution of branches between one tree and

another. Dense vegetation is characterized by a meeting between the branches of one tree and

the next, potentially blocking the flow of wind and sunlight into the building. Vegetation is

considered sparse if the trunks and branches between one tree and another are far apart, and

there is open space for sunlight and wind flow to enter the enclosure. According to Rogan et

al. (2013) tree density is one of the factors of vegetation characteristics that can contribute to

reducing ambient temperature.

The height of the vegetation and the distance of the vegetation from the cage

building are thought to affect the microclimate of the cage. This is because tall trees can

reduce the heat received by the roof, so that the sun's heat entering the cage can be reduced.

Vegetation that is low and close to the building is not effective in blocking solar heat from

entering the cage, but has the potential to block the flow of wind into the cage. According to

Lin et al. (2017), important characteristics that vegetation must have in order to function

optimally in reducing ambient temperature are stem height, canopy distribution, and leaf size

and arrangement. Tall trees with wide canopies can play a role in reducing ambient

temperature through direct shading and evapotranspiration (Monteiro et al. 2019).

b. Microclimate conditions in the cage

Microclimatic conditions in beef cattle pens on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District

(Table 4) are not in the comfort zone required by livestock. This is indicated by high air

temperature and relative humidity, and low wind speed. According to Yani and Purwanto

(2006) air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and wind speed are microclimatic

parameters that directly affect livestock productivity. Based on the temperature and humidity

index, it is known that THI in the cage is not at a normal level (≤74) throughout the day. The

THI value has shown an alert level (78.99) since morning, emergency level (87.08) in the

afternoon and danger level (83.08) in the afternoon.

The high THI in the cages was caused by high air temperature and relative humidity,

as well as low wind speed. In the morning, although the average air temperature was still

27.52o C, the humidity reached 80.77%, causing the THI in the cages to be at the alert level.

In the afternoon, although the relative humidity decreased, the increase in air temperature

which reached 36.10o C caused the THI in the cage to be at the emergency level. The same

thing was also seen in the afternoon, although the air temperature had begun to decrease to

31.63o C, but because the humidity increased again to 65.98%, the THI in the cage was still at

a dangerous level. The high temperature and humidity in the cage were relatively not helped

by the role of very low wind speed, whereas wind speed is very important to remove heat and

moisture from the cage (Yani and Purwanto 2006) and wind speed also serves to reduce heat

stress in livestock (Beede and Collier 1986).

The high air temperature and relative humidity inside the cage are closely related to

the climatic conditions outside the cage, which also show high temperature and humidity at

the same time. The high air temperature is closely related to the position of the region near

latitude 0o (equator) (03 ºLS - 0 ºLU). According to Feeley and Stroud (2018), this region is

included in the core tropical area that receives direct solar energy perpendicularly. At the Earth's

surface perpendicular to the position of the sun, the region will receive maximum solar energy

equal to the magnitude of the solar flux at that level (Wald 2018).

The high relative humidity is closely related to the high rainfall and the

characteristics of the peatland ecosystem. According to Ritung et al. (2012), one of the

specific characteristics of peatland ecosystems is the high water content because they are

almost always flooded all the time. According to Nurdin (2011), water and organic matter are

the main structures that form peat soil, so the water content in peat soil can reach four times

the organic matter. In addition, the high fiber content of the organic matter causes the peat soil

to have a very high porosity (83.62-95.13%) (Nugroho and Widodo 2001), so it can store a

very large amount of water. The high water content of the soil and the large number of

swamps around the cage location, as well as the high heat of the sun received by the earth's

surface, causes the evaporation process to take place quickly, which will have an impact on

increasing air humidity. According to Nurdin (2011) air temperature is directly proportional to

water evaporation, so an increase in air temperature and length of sunlight will also increase

the volume and rate of evaporation.

The low wind speed in the cage is one of the microclimate environmental parameters

that contribute to the high THI. This is because low wind speed has relatively no effect on

heat and moisture dissipation in the cage, whereas wind speed is very important to help

dissipate heat and moisture from inside the cage (Yani and Purwanto 2006). The low wind

speed inside the cages is in line with the low wind speed outside the cages, which is also very

low. The low wind speed in this area is strongly related to the flat topography of the area and

is in the lowlands, so there is relatively no air pressure gradient. The flat condition of the area

and the absence of forests around the location cause the sun's heat to be received by the earth's

surface evenly, so the air pressure imbalance between areas is relatively small.

Variations in the type, material and height of roofs on the cages affected the

microclimatic conditions inside the cages (Tables 5 and 6). Table 5 shows that the difference

in roof type only has a significant impact on the difference in air humidity in the afternoon,

indicating that the relative humidity in cages with gable type is lower than other types.

Although there is no statistical difference, in general, the gable roof type is the most suitable

type to be used on peatland. This is because the gable roof shows a lower THI compared to

the other types in the morning, afternoon and evening. On the other hand, shed-type roofs

show a much higher THI compared to the other types, so the potential risk of heat stress in

this type of cage is much higher.

The lower air temperature and THI of the gable type roof is closely related to its

better ability to block direct sunlight and solar heat from the roof into the cage. This type of

roof has two sloping planes that can block sunlight from entering the enclosure in the cage

directly. The existence of two equal inclined planes causes the angle of incidence of sunlight

to be received by the inclined surface and this inclined plane will reflect most of the sunlight

so that only a little is absorbed in (Wald 2018). In addition, the two obstructing planes are

effective in blocking direct sunlight from entering the enclosure. The high slope angle at the

meeting of the two roof planes will also provide ample space for air circulation, so that airflow

can enter and prevent heat under the roof from entering the cage. According to Kholiq and

Syarif Hidayat (2016), the type of roof will affect the air temperature of the space underneath

due to the difference in the cavity under the roof surface, a sloping roof that has a wider cavity

than a flat roof will show a lower room temperature than a flat roof because the heat from the

roof surface can be reduced by the roof cavity.

The use of shed-type roofs has the potential to cause considerable heat stress risk to

beef cattle in this region. This is because the THI on shed-type roofs is higher than other

types. The high THI on shed roofs is closely related to the high air temperature due to the

large amount of solar heat entering the pen. The shed roof, which has only one plane with a

low slope, allows more solar heat to be received by the roof surface. The low slope will cause

the roof surface to be flat, and on a flat surface solar energy will be received directly

perpendicular to the flux. (Wald 2018). In addition, roof constructions that are only protected

by one slope will create wide gaps, allowing large amounts of sunlight to enter the cage

directly. A low roof slope will also block airflow into the cage, allowing heat under the roof to

enter the cage directly (Rury et al. 2015).

The semi gable roof type has almost the same problem as the shed type, although it

has two sloping planes. This type of roof is generally built with a low slope and a flat surface

area twice as large as its sloping plane. With this kind of construction, the roof's ability to

receive solar heat is almost the same as the shed type because the roof surface that receives

direct sunlight perpendicularly is larger than the sloping plane that will reflect sunlight. In

addition, the large flat surface of the roof causes limited air ventilation under the roof, so that

the heat flow under the roof can enter directly into the cage building.

Based on the different roofing materials used (Table 6), it is known that zinc roofing

has a significant impact on increasing air temperature and THI in the cage in the morning and

afternoon (P<0.05). The high THI in cages with zinc roofs was caused by the high air

temperature due to the high solar heat entering the cage. On the other hand, the relatively low

wind speed did not help to remove heat and moisture from the cage.

The difference in THI between the two types of roofing materials is closely related to

the difference in their ability to absorb, retain and reflect solar heat. According to Kholiq and

Syarif Hidayat (2016), differences in roofing materials will affect the difference in room

temperature due to differences in heat propagation in each material. A zinc roof made of thin

steel sheets coated with zinc has a very high thermal conductivity, making it very easy to

absorb and conduct heat. On the other hand, the thin roofing material causes the ability of zinc

to reflect the sun's heat to be reduced, so that most of the sun's heat will be absorbed by zinc

to an optimal limit. If the ability of zinc to retain solar heat is optimal, the heat under the roof

will penetrate the bottom and enter the cage either by radiation, conduction, or convection

(Yani and Purwanto 2006). Unlike zinc, asbestos is a roofing material composed of

magnesium, calcium and silicate in the form of fibers. Asbestos is also formed in the form of

thicker sheets. With materials and construction like this asbestos does not easily absorb heat

and has low conductivity (Nuriyasa et al. 2015). The nature of the material with low

conductivity and low ability to absorb heat will isolate the solar heat received, so that it can

block heat from entering the cage room.

The variation in roof height also has an impact on the difference in THI inside the

cage. The results found that cages with a height of ≤2.5 meters significantly (P<0.05) showed

a higher THI compared to cages with a height of >2.5 meters during the day (Table 6). The

high THI in cages with a height of ≤2.5 meters during the day is strongly related to the

amount of solar heat that enters, resulting in an increase in indoor temperature. The low roof

height causes the empty space between the underside of the roof and the building room to be

limited, so that its function in reducing the heat flowing from the roof surface is reduced. The

limited free space also causes airflow to not run optimally, so that heat reduction through

airflow is also limited. According to Kholiq and Syarif Hidayat (2016), the air cavity under

the roof surface plays an important role in reducing the heat flow from the roof surface, if the

cavity functions optimally, the heat under the roof surface will be isolated from the room

below.

The analysis showed no significant differences (P>0.05) in the interaction between

type and roof material, type and roof height, material and roof height, and the interaction

between material, type and roof height on temperature, humidity, wind speed and THI in the

cage. Although not statistically different, the combination of gable type roof, asbestos

material and height >2.5 meters showed a better microclimate response than other

combinations, both to air temperature, relative humidity, and THI. The combination of shed-

type roof with zinc material and a height of ≤2.5 meters is the least suitable roof combination

for use on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District. This is indicated by the much higher THI value

compared to the other combinations, especially during the day. The high THI during the day

is in line with the high air temperature and the amount of solar heat outside the cage, which is

the main cause of the high THI.

The results showed that differences in vegetation density significantly (P<0.05)

affected air temperature and THI in the morning, as well as air temperature, relative humidity

and THI during the day. In the morning, cages surrounded by dense vegetation showed

significantly lower air temperature and THI compared to those with sparse vegetation. The

same condition was also observed during the day, where temperature, wind speed and THI in

dense vegetation were significantly lower than those in sparse vegetation. This difference is

strongly related to the difference in the ability of trees to retain solar heat entering the cage,

especially during the day. In cages surrounded by dense vegetation, the presence of trees is

very helpful in blocking sunlight entering the cage, so that the increase in temperature in the

cage is not too large. Despite being able to reduce direct sunlight entering the cage, the

humidity is also higher in dense vegetation. This occurs due to the high water vapor produced

in the cooling process by the trees and the obstruction of wind flow by the dense branches of

the trees. According to Monteiro et al. (2019), temperature reduction by trees is mainly

caused by two factors: direct shading and evapotranspirational cooling. Next

It is explained that during the cooling process, part of the energy absorbed by the

plant is used to evaporate water in the leaves, t h e resulting water vapor is then transported

through the pores of the leaves into the air without warming the surrounding air, but can

increase the humidity in the vicinity. According to Sathiameena et al. (2020) areas with dense

vegetation have better temperature mitigation capabilities compared to sparse vegetation, this

is because densely vegetated areas can reflect more solar radiation, so that only a little is

absorbed by the environment.

Differences in vegetation height did not show a significant effect on microclimate

conditions in cages in the morning and afternoon (P>0.05), differences in vegetation height

only had a significant effect (P<0.05) on air humidity in the afternoon which showed that

cages surrounded by vegetation with a height of >10 meters had lower humidity compared to

vegetation height ≤10 meters. The high relative humidity in cages surrounded by vegetation

with a height of ≤10 meters is strongly related to the low wind speed entering the cage. This is

because the height of the tree with the position of the branches relatively parallel to the height

of the cage will interfere with the flow of wind into the cage, so that the wind speed is not

optimal in reducing the humidity in the cage. During the day, cages surrounded by trees with

a height of >10 meters showed lower air temperature, humidity and THI. This fact proves that

the presence of tall trees around the cage is quite helpful in blocking the amount of sunlight

entering the cage during the heat of the day, and tall trees also do not interfere too much with

the airflow into the cage. According to Lin et al. (2017), important factors that affect the

function of trees in reducing ambient temperature are tree height, canopy spread, leaf size and

arrangement. In addition, the presence of vegetation can create an oasis for the environment in

reducing ground surface temperature (Akbari et al. 2001). According to Rogan et al. (2013)

tall and large tree structures, with high density coverage, and large canopy volume greatly

contribute to the cooling effect of the environment.

The results showed that there was no effect of different vegetation growing distances

with cage buildings on microclimate conditions in the cage, both morning, afternoon and

evening (P>0.05). This indicates that for vegetation in the form of trees with tall trunks, even

though it is >5 meters away from the cage, it can still protect the cage from the sun.

Conversely, even though it is close to the cage building, vegetation in the form of trees

relatively does not interfere with the flow of wind into the cage. The results of the analysis

showed no significant differences (P>0.05) in the interaction between density and height of

vegetation, density and distance of vegetation from the cage, height and distance of vegetation

from the cage, as well as the interaction between density, height and distance of vegetation

from the cage building on temperature, humidity, wind speed and THI in the cage. Although

not statistically different, dense vegetation, with a height of >10 m and a vegetation distance

of ≤5 m from the cage showed a better microclimate response than other combinations, both

to air temperature, relative humidity, and THI, especially during the day with intense heat. On

the other hand, sparse vegetation, with high altitud ≤10 m, and distance from the cage >5 m

were relatively unhelpful in reducing microclimate stress in the cage. This data informs us

that the presence of vegetation around the cage is quite important in reducing the temperature

inside the cage, but the vegetation must be tall trees with a wide canopy spread. This is

because the function of trees in reducing ambient temperature is highly dependent on their

function in retaining solar radiation and evaporative cooling, so only trees with a tall structure

with a wide canopy spread can contribute to environmental cooling (Rogan et al. 2013).

Physiological Response Conditions of Beef Cattle in Peatlands

The microclimatic conditions in beef cattle pens on peatlands that are not in the

thermo-neutral zone have an impact on the physiological responses of beef cattle kept in

them. The physiological responses of beef cattle on peatland are shown in Tables 8, 9 and 10

able 8LSMeans(±SE) of physiological responses of beef cattle on peatland in Pulang Pisau

District based on nation differences.

In general, cattle reared on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District are indicated to

experience heat stress, characterized by rectal temperature, heart rate and breathing frequency

that are above normal. The level of heat stress experienced by cattle in this area is still

categorized as mild to moderate, despite exposure to extreme microclimate conditions. Cattle

have been showing symptoms of heat stress since the morning, indicated by high heart rate

and respiratory rate. Indications of heat stress

In the afternoon, rectal temperature, heart rate and respiration rate were clearly

visible, which were well above normal. Similar conditions were observed in the afternoon,

although there was a slight decrease compared to the afternoon, rectal temperature, heart rate

and respiration rate were still above normal.

Elevated rectal temperatures above normal, as well as high heart and respiratory

rates, are indicators that peatland microclimate conditions impact on beef cattle comfort and

that cattle reared in these areas suffer from heat stress. According to Helal et al. (2010) rectal

temperature, respiratory rate and increased heart rate are physiological parameters that are key

indicators of livestock discomfort in response to microclimate stress. Gupta et al. (2013)

explained that heat stress is a discomfort felt by livestock that has an impact on changes in

physiological conditions due to exposure to hot and extreme environments.

The above-normal rectal temperature and the high change in rectal temperature from

morning to afternoon in this study indicate that peatland microclimate stress has an impact on

the thermal balance of cattle, as cattle are unable to dissipate body heat sufficiently to

maintain their thermal balance (Bernabucci et al. 2010). According to Sarangi (2018) and

West (1999) rectal temperature is the best index as an indicator of thermal balance, so an

increase in rectal temperature is a physiological indicator that the animal is suffering from

heat stress.

The high heart rate and respiratory rate of beef cattle from this study are also

indicators that cattle in this region are experiencing heat stress. According to Adedeji (2012),

increased heart rate under heat stress conditions leads to increased blood flow to the body

surface to allow more heat to be lost through conduction, convention and radiation, and

diffusion of water from the skin. An increase in respiratory rate indicates an attempt by the

animal to maintain its normal body temperature by increasing heat dissipation through

increased respiratory rate (Hamzaoui et al. 2013). Phulia et al. (2010) explained that the

respiratory rate will increase due to the influence of environmental temperature as an attempt

to increase heat loss through evaporative cooling. According to Silanikove (2000a),

assessment of respiration rate is the easiest method to evaluate the impact of heat stress on

livestock in extreme conditions, stress levels based on respiratory rate are; low: 40-60,

medium: 60-80, high: 80-120, and severe: > 200 times a minute-1 . Based on the respiratory

rate, the heat stress level of cattle in this region is still in the low category. Although it is an

indicator of heat stress, the increase in heart rate and respiratory rate can also change due to

physical and biological activities of cattle (Silanikove 2000b; Alam et al. 2011). According to

Sarangi (2018), an increase in heart rate is caused by two things: an increase in muscle

activity in controlling the respiratory rate and a reduction in vascular and arterial peripheral

resistance.

The results found that microclimate stress affects the high heat tolerance coefficient

of beef cattle (HTC >2). HTC values have been >2 since morning, and increased dramatically

in the afternoon and only in the afternoon.

It dropped slightly in the afternoon. This high HTC value illustrates that heat stress in

beef cattle pens on peatland has exceeded the ability of livestock to adapt, resulting in stress.

This is consistent with Hahn's (1995) opinion that if the intensity and duration of

environmental stress exceed the ability of livestock to adapt, then livestock will experience

stress and this will have a negative impact on their productivity.

Physiological responses based on national differences as shown in Table 8 indicate

that there are significant differences (P<0.05) in physiological parameters and HTC values

between Balinese and cruciferous cattle. Rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate and

HTC values of crossbred cattle were significantly higher than those of Balinese cattle in the

morning, afternoon and evening. This suggests that crossbred cattle are more susceptible to

heat stress than Balinese cattle. The differences in physiological responses and heat tolerance

coefficients between the two cattle breeds are closely related to differences in their genetic

ability to adapt to heat stress. According to Adamczyk et al. (2013) and Yazgan et al. (2013),

the ability of livestock to respond to heat stress varies greatly depending on the genotype

(breed) of livestock.

The low adaptability of crossbred cattle to microclimate stress is strongly related to

the presence of Bos taurus blood in their genetics. The crossbred cattle reared in this study are

the result of a cross between local cattle and Bos taurus cattle (Simmental and limousine),

which originated from temperate zones and are accustomed to living in cold temperatures

(Astuti et al. 2002), while Balinese cattle are native to Indonesia that have adapted to

Indonesia's tropical climate conditions for a long time and have been proven to be adaptive to

heat stress (Suretno 2016; Sutarno and Setyawan 2015; Zulkharnaim et al. 2010). According

to Beatty et al. (2006), Bos taurus cattle are more susceptible to continuous heat stress than

Bos indicus.

Based on the differences in physiological status as shown in Table 9, there is a

significant difference (P<0.05) in response to heat stress between the physiological status of

livestock. Calves and pregnant mothers are groups that show higher physiological responses

and HTC values compared to other groups, both in the morning, afternoon, and evening. The

high rectal temperature, heart rate, respiration rate and HTC values in these groups indicate

that calves and pregnant mothers are the most vulnerable to peatland microclimate stress.

According to Brown-Brandl and Jones (2011), livestock responses to microclimate stress vary

depending on their physiological status. The level of heat stress experienced by livestock is

related to three main factors; climatic conditions (Hahn 1995), animal susceptibility (Brown-

Brandl and Jones 2011), and the cultivation management used (Brown-Brandl 2018).

The differences in physiological responses and HTC values between physiological

statuses are closely related to differences in biological activities that take place in the body of

livestock, because biological activities will produce high metabolic heat (Alam et al. 2011;

Silanikove 2000b). Pregnant sows are known to have high biological activity during

gestation, so the metabolic heat generated by their bodies is also very high (West 2003; Beatty

et al. 2006). The high metabolic heat from the body will accumulate with heat stress from the

microclimate environment, so they will have difficulty in regulating thermal balance. To

maintain thermal balance, livestock will increase respiration rate as a homeostatic reflex

function of blood flow according to the metabolic rate in the body (Aboul 1997).

The high physiological response and HTC value of calves indicate that calves are

very susceptible to heat stress, even though compared to pregnant and lactating mothers the

biological activity in the calf's body is relatively small and the metabolic heat generated from

the body is also less. However, the high physiological response of calves is also influenced by

physical activity, because calves are very active in doing physical activities. According to

Sarangi (2018) physical activity carried out by livestock also has an effect on increasing the

body's metabolic rate, increasing heart rate and respiration rate. The high susceptibility of

calves to heat stress is an indication that the adaptability of calves to heat stress is not optimal,

on the other hand the intensity and duration of heat stress received has exceeded the limits of

their ability to adapt, so the impact of heat stress cannot be avoided (Hahn, 1995).

The effect of the interaction between nation and physiological status on physiological

responses and HTC values of beef cattle is shown in Table 10. The results of statistical

analysis showed that the interaction between nation and physiological status had a significant

effect (P < 0.05) on rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory frequency and HTC values.

HTC value. Pregnant crossbred cattle are the most susceptible to peatland

microclimate stress. This can be seen from the rectal temperature, heart rate and breathing

frequency which are significantly higher than the other groups, and this condition was

observed at all observation times in the morning, afternoon and evening. When referring to

the heat tolerance coefficient, the HTC value of pregnant crossbred cows was 2.57 in the

morning, reaching 3.33 in the afternoon and 3.10 in the evening. The high susceptibility of

pregnant crossbred cattle to heat stress is strongly related to the low adaptability of crossbred

cattle in dealing with heat stress and the high susceptibility of pregnant mothers when

exposed to heat stress. This is consistent with Hahn (1995) and Brown-Brandl and Jones

(2011) that the level of heat stress felt by livestock is highly dependent on microclimate

conditions and animal susceptibility, so that when microclimate stress occurs, the most

vulnerable livestock are most affected.

Nutrient Adequacy of Beef Cattle

a. Type and composition of feedstuffs fed in the cage

The intensive maintenance pattern applied by farmers on peatlands in Pulang Pisau

District is directly related to the cut and carry feeding pattern. In this system, cattle are fed in

the pen for 24 hours. The frequency of feeding is generally twice a day in the morning and

evening. With this pattern, the fulfillment of the nutrient needs of beef cattle is highly

dependent on the feed provided in the cage, because cattle do not have access to direct feed

sources. The type of feed given is generally only forage with no supplementary feed or

mineral supplementation, except for some crossbred cattle which are given on a limited basis.

The sole provision of forage without supplementary feed and minerals causes the fulfillment

of the nutrient needs of beef cattle to depend entirely on the quality of the forage. The main

type of forage given to beef cattle is only grass, while forage in the form of legumes is very

rarely given to cattle. The type and composition of feed ingredients given by farmers to beef

cattle on peatlands are shown in Table.

Production and Reproduction Performance

Production performance:

The production performance of adult Balinese cattle reared on peatlands in Pulang

Pisau District is shown in Table 17. In general, adult Balinese cattle in this area show good

production performance, as evidenced by body weights, body condition scores, and body

dimension measurements that are in line with the minimum standard according to the

Indonesian National Standard (SNI).

In addition to live weight and body dimension measures, the body condition score of

adult Balinese cattle in the study site is also in the medium category and is still quite ideal for

breeding purposes. According to Paul et al. (2020) the body condition score of mother cows

depends on the purpose of rearing, for breeding purposes the ideal body condition score range

is 2.5-3.5. The average body length, chest circumference and shoulder height of adult

Balinese cows in this region are in accordance with the minimum standards set by BSN

(2017) in SNI 7651-4:2017 concerning SNI for Balinese cattle breeding. Referring to SNI,

Balinese cows in this region are categorized as class II and III, while bulls are categorized as

class III. The results of this study are relatively similar to Astuti's (2019) study, which found

that i n general, Balinese cows in the seedling source area of Maliku Subdistrict, Pulang

Pisau Regency fall into categories II and III based on SNI 7651.4:2017.

The production performance of adult cattle in this region is moderate, and relatively

similar to research results in other parts of Indonesia. The production performance of cattle in

this region is lower than that of Balinese cattle kept in Sobangan Badung Balinese cattle

breeding center (Bagiarta et al. 2017), BPTU Pulukan Bali and VBC Barru South Sulawesi

(Hikmawaty et al. 2014), and Balinese cattle kept in Denpasar Bali (Awang et al. 2016).

However, cattle production performance in this region is higher than that of Balinese cattle

reared in Polewali Mandar (Hikmawaty et al. 2018), Bangka Belitung (Ni'am et al. 2012) and

West Sumatra (Syaiful et al. 2020).

The reproductive performance of young crossbred cattle aged 1-1.5 years is shown in

Table 18. Young crossbred cattle reared on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District show good

production performance and are in accordance with the minimum standards set by BSN

(2020) in SNI 7651- 8:2020 concerning Indonesian simmental cattle breeding standards.

In general, the average body length, shoulder height and chest circumference of

crossbred cattle from this study are in accordance with the minimum standards set by SNI for

young cattle aged 1-1.5 years, so they are suitable enough to be used as prospective seedlings.

The production performance of young crossbred cattle in this area is in the medium category,

and is relatively similar to other areas in Indonesia such as in Pobolinggo City reported by

Affandhy et al. (2006) and in West Sumatra (Agung et al. 2014).

The production performance of beef cattle calves on peatlands in Pulang Pisau

District is shown in Tables 19 and 20. Based on Table 19, it can be seen that Balinese cattle

calves reared on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District show quite low production performance.

The average body length, chest circumference, and shoulder height of Balinese calves in this

area are below the minimum standards set by BSN (2020b) in SNI 7651-4:2020 on Balinese

cattle breeding standards, both for male and female calves.

The production performance of Balinese cattle calves in this region is also lower than

that in Bengkulu Province according to Kadarsih (2003) with live weight, shoulder height,

body length and chest circumference of male Balinese cattle calves respectively; 62.0-90.95

kg, 82.26±7.52 cm, 82.19±8.53 cm, and 97.38±7.5, and 67.41-92.5 kg, 82.39±5.04 cm,

81.46±6.74 cm, and 96.83±7.39 cm for female calves.

Crossbred calves reared in this region also show low production performance (Table

20). Referring to the Indonesian simmental cattle breed SNI 7651-8:2020 for 205-day-old

calves, the production performance of crossbred calves in this region is below the minimum

standard set by the SNI, both for males and females. The production performance of crossbred

cattle calves from this study is also lower than results from other regions in Indonesia such as

in West Sumatra reported by Agung et al. (2014) and in Probolinggo City according to

Affandhy et al. (2006).

Based on the evaluation of production performance described above, it can be seen

that heat stress and Ca and Cu mineral deficiencies in the peatlands of Pulang Pisau District

have a significant impact on calf production performance for both Balinese and crossbred

cattle. For young and mature cattle, the effect of the peatland environment on production

performance is not as great. Despite suffering from heat stress and mineral deficiencies,

young and mature cattle still perform quite well, although not optimally according to their

genetic potential. According to Hahn (1995), cattle are dynamic and adaptable and are able to

maintain life and productive performance in a relatively wide range of environmental

conditions, but if the intensity and duration of environmental stressors exceed the ability of

the cattle to cope with these stressors, then production performance, reproduction, health and

welfare may be compromised.

The low calf production performance of this study is in line with the results of

previous research which found that calves and lactating mothers are the most vulnerable to

heat stress in peatland microclimates. The high level of heat stress felt by calves will result in

impaired comfort and decreased milk consumption. On the other hand, the high level of heat

stress suffered by lactating mothers will also have an impact on milk production, due to a

decrease in feed intake. Low mineral content in feed, accompanied by low feed consumption

due to heat stress will further aggravate the condition of lactating mothers. This is because

under conditions of heat stress, a decrease in feed intake accompanied by high lactation needs

will cause the mother to require a high concentration of minerals in the feed, if the mother

lacks minerals, milk production and quality will also be low (West 2003).

Ca mineral deficiency and the imbalance of Ca and P in pregnant and lactating

mothers from this study also had an impact on slow growth calves on peatland. Although not

entirely influenced by mineral deficiencies, given the importance of Ca and P minerals during

fetal growth in the womb and early calf growth, the large Ca deficiency in this area is thought

to play a role in slow calf growth. This is because Ca and P are minerals that are needed by

livestock during growth, especially for bone formation, metabolic processes, enzyme activity,

and carbohydrate, fat and vitamin metabolism (Kebreab and Vitti 2010). In addition to Ca and

P minerals, Cu mineral deficiency is also suspected to play a role in cases of growth disorders

in calves in this region. This is because Cu minerals also play an important role in enzyme

activity, hormones and cell development (Yosathai 2014), so deficiencies in Cu minerals can

also have an impact on growth disorders (Darmono and Bahri 1990).

a. Reproductive performance

Beef cows reared on peatlands in Pulang Pisau District show poor reproductive

performance. This can be seen in the late age of puberty and first lambing, slow postpartum

estrus, high number of matings until pregnancy, long lambing intervals, and low birth

percentages (Table 21).

The reproductive performance of beef cattle is influenced by many factors, however,

the low reproductive performance of beef cattle in this region is strongly related to the

influence of heat stress and considerable Ca and Cu mineral deficiency, as well as Ca:P

mineral imbalance in the body of cattle. The impact of heat stress on reproductive

performance of cows is the result of the cattle's body response to changes in the microclimate

environment. According to Dobson and Smith (1995), livestock will respond to environmental

changes with adaptation mechanisms regulated by hormone release, this mechanism will

adversely affect the reproductive function of livestock. The initial reproductive response of

livestock to heat stress is a decrease in estrus intensity and fertility (Ullah et al. 1996). Heat

stress will also affect ovarian function and embryonic development resulting in decreased

fertility (Gupta et al. 2013). Heat stress will also interfere with the ability of the livestock's

body to cope with heat stress (Gupta et al. 2013) synthesize protein and energy which will

result in decreased growth, reproduction, production and health of livestock (Gupta et al.

2013).

The indirect impact of heat stress on reproduction occurs through decreased feed

intake, because livestock experiencing heat stress will reduce feed intake to reduce metabolic

rate (Kadzere et al. 2002). In addition, heat stress also results in an increase in the daily needs

of livestock so that energy intake is not sufficient to meet the daily needs of livestock

(Hamzaoui et al. 2013). Under conditions of heat stress, decreased feed intake and high

lactation requirements in lactating mothers cause cows to require large increases in mineral

concentrations, so mothers will also experience mineral deficiencies and these changes in

mineral metabolism will also affect the electrolyte status of cows (West 2003). Although the

level of heat stress suffered by cattle in this region is categorized as mild to moderate, due to

the continuous duration of the stress, the negative impact on reproductive performance is

inevitable. According to Hahn (1995), cattle are dynamic and adaptable and able to maintain

life and productive performance in a relatively wide range of environmental conditions, but if

the intensity and duration of stress exceed the ability of cattle to cope with these stressors,

then production performance, reproduction, health and livestock welfare can be disrupted.

The low reproductive performance of beef cattle on peatlands is also strongly related to the

low content of Ca and Cu minerals in the feed, which results in severe Ca and Cu mineral

deficiency and an imbalance of Ca and P minerals in the blood. Low feed intake accompanied

by low mineral content in the feed and high mineral requirements for metabolism during hot

weather is a dangerous combination of risks to reproductive performance of beef cattle on

peatlands. This is because macro minerals including Ca and P have a very important role in

the reproductive process of livestock (Pradhan and Nakagoshi 2008; Kumar et al. 2011), so

mineral deficiencies and imbalances can cause reproductive failure (Gupta et al. 2005;

Sharma et al. 2007). Bindari et al. (2013) stated t ha t Ca deficiency will negatively affect

cattle production and fertility. Cows that experience Ca deficiency will experience impaired

ovarian function, resulting in delayed estrus and first ovulation (Yosathai 2014). Macro

mineral deficiencies also result in delayed post-calving ovulation and pregnancy failure and

abortion (Santos et al. 2010), decreased pregnancy rates, longer calving intervals, embryo and

calf mortality after birth, and delayed sexual maturity (Ceylan et al. 2008). In addition, micro-

minerals such as Cu also play an important role in beef cattle reproduction, so cattle lacking

this mineral will show poor reproductive performance (Yosathai 2014). Cu deficiency also

has an impact on the disruption of estrogen metabolic processes needed for fertility and

pregnancy (Darmono 2011), disrupts ovarian activity (Ahmed et al. 2009) and affects the

achievement of fertility (Darmono 2011).

Puberty, age at first lambing, postpartum estrus time of Balinese cows were

significantly (P<0.05) faster than those of crossbred cows. In addition, Balinese cows also

showed a shorter lambing interval compared to crossbred cows. The difference in

reproductive performance between Balinese cows and crossbred cows is closely related to

their genetic potential and adaptability to the environment. Balinese cattle are known to have

high adaptability to tropical climate and poor forage quality (Sutarno and Setyawan 2015;

Suretno et al. 2017). Bali cattle also have a high reproductive capacity (Noor et al. 2001;

Purwantara et al. 2012), although under poor nutritional status they can still reproduce

(Diwyanto and Inounu 2009). On the other hand, crossbred cattle with more than 50% Bos

taurus blood are very sensitive to nutrient deficiency and under nutrient deficiency conditions

their reproductive performance becomes very low (Diwyanto and Inounu 2009). According to

Astuti et al. (2002) one of the shortcomings of crossbred cattle compared to local cattle is that

their reproductive performance tends to be lower than that of local cattle.

In general, Balinese cows in this region have not been able to show the best

reproductive performance in accordance with their genetic potential, even though Balinese

cows are local livestock that have high reproductive abilities (Noor et al. 2001; Purwantara et

al. 2012). According to Toliehere (2003) Balinese cattle are the most superior cattle in

fertility and conception rate. Balinese cattle are known to have fertility between 83-86%,

although extensively reared in the dry areas of Timor, the fertility rate of Balinese cattle still

reaches 75% (Fattah 1998). The reproductive performance of Balinese cattle in this region is

much lower than in Balinese cattle population centers in other parts of Indonesia such as in

Bali Province based on research (Pane 1991; Siswanto et al. 2013; Pemayun et al. 2014; Rauf

et al. 2015; Suryani et al. 2017), West Nusa Tenggara Province (Pane 1991; Panjaitan et al.

2003; Soekardono et al. 2009), East Nusa Tenggara Province (Pane 1991; Tonbesi et al.

2009), and South Sulawesi Province according to Pane (1991). Crossbred cattle reared in this

region also have not shown optimal reproductive performance, and are much lower when

compared to other regions in Indonesia as reported by several previous researchers (Affandhy

et al. 2006; Christoffor and Baliarti 2008; Iswoyo and Widiyaningrum 2008; Ihsan and

Wahjuningsih 2011; Anggraini et al. 2016)

Production Performance of 0-3 Month Old Preweaned Calves

Improvements in microclimate conditions and feed management carried out on

pregnant mothers 3 months before giving birth and 3 months after giving birth have a

significant impact on improving the production performance of 0-3 month old calves. In

general, treated 3-month-old calves showed better production performance compared to the

existing conditions.

The improvement in calf production performance is evident from the live weight and

body dimensions of the treated calves, which are significantly higher than those in the existing

conditions. Although in the crossbred calves the measures of shoulder height and hip height

did not show statistical differences (P>0.05), the quantitative increase was also considerable.

The high production performance of 3-month-old calves from the results of this study is

strongly related to the increase in calf birth weight, which increased significantly from 11.99

kg to 14.39 kg in Balinese cows and from 31.80 kg to 34.22 kg in crossbred cows. The

proportional increase in birth weight was also followed by an increase in other body

dimensions such as body length, chest circumference, shoulder height and hip height.

CONCLUSION:

Beef cattle development on peatlands can be optimized through modification of pens

to mitigate the effects of microclimate stress and feeding management through macronutrient

supplementation and calcium-rich minerals that can increase productivity, so as to accelerate

population development with an average growth of 16.06% - 23.03% per year-1 according to

simulation results in scenarios II and III. The recommended development strategies are: 1)

improving the reproductive performance of female cattle, 2) reducing livestock mortality in

each production phase, 3) reducing the number of productive female culls, and 4) controlling

the entry and exit of livestock from the population.

WPC 480_ASU_ASSIGNMENT_2024_BEEF CATTLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES BASED ON SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATLAND ENVIRONMENTS

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