Introduction Appearing as a significant
Appearing as a significant phenomenon around 2000, globalization has
increasingly become a galvanizing force in the world (Goldsmith, Greenberg,
Robertson, & Hu-Chan, 2003). Across many domains, globalization continues to drive
change—notably in international commerce. Specifically, of the top 100 economies in
the world, 51 are global corporations, whereas only 49 are actual countries (Maak &
Pless, 2009). There are numerous reasons for such large-scale growth. Global
corporations have leveraged advances in technology, enormous amounts of data, and
communication enhancements to increase their revenues. Along this journey,
corporations have also developed new resources, linkages, and learning in their new
marketplaces. These assets have increased internal organizational resources that
global corporations subsequently use to fuel their growth.
Globalization and Organizational Change
While searching for more profits overseas, global businesses have experienced
deep organizational transformations, mainly at American-based Fortune 500
companies. Global transformation creates a strong gravitational pull on organizations,
requiring them to pivot from reactive to proactive organizational strategies. According to
Sánchez (2000), “As an organization extends its boundaries to international locations,
its strategy, structure, design, process and systems are likely to require change to allow
the organization to adapt to the new international environments” (p. 6). Such
organizational transformations are multidimensional and require change that is
comprehensive, rapid, and evolutionary in nature.
Other factors confound organizations when they globalize. When in
transformation organizations must now deal with newer challenges inherent in people,
processes, structures, and systems. In these domains, global organizations encounter
many challenging differences that can foment misunderstanding. When they embrace
diversity, however, global organizations can create strategies to drive innovation,
improve productivity, and increase engagement.
Global Leadership Complex
Whether in public or private organizations, global entities rely on their internal
business leaders to envision and guarantee long-term corporate success. Thus, it is
important to understand what qualifies one to be a global leader. Definitions of global
leadership are ample in the research, with a majority of them focusing on behaviors and
outcomes—or some combination thereof. Osland (2013) defined a global leader as “an
individual who inspires a group of people to willingly pursue a positive vision in an
effectively organized fashion while fostering individual and collective growth in a context
characterized by significant levels of complexity, flow and presence” (p. 75). This
multifaceted definition focuses on outcomes within a complex global environment and
poses significant challenges for global leaders. For example, leaders must now
transcend geographies and time zones for successful transformation of and interaction
with worldwide cross-cultural teams (van Luinen, 2015).
It is important to further address the cross-cultural domain of leadership, for this
adds additional complexity and opportunity to the work of global leaders. Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner (1998) found that,
If, [in the global context], business people want to gain understanding of and
allegiance to their corporate goals, policies, products or services wherever they
are doing business, they must understand what those and other aspects of
management mean in different cultures. (p. 3)
This is the true work of the global leader. While it may be comforting tactically for
leaders to reference dos and don’ts for guidance, it is more valuable for global leaders
to look to specific skills that are needed to frame meaning and achieve results when
working interculturally.
The challenge global leaders face when communicating interculturally is further
nuanced by the varying levels of diversity in team makeup. Company leadership seems
only minimally prepared to succeed in the domain of intercultural communication with
their teams. According to Robbins and Judge (2013), less than 20% of companies have
targeted strategies for communicating with employees across cultures, and about 30%
require that leadership messages be customized to other cultures. Looking at these
statistics, it appears that too much leeway is being left to the global leader to sink or
swim when addressing the complexities of effective global leadership. Companies need
to improve upon these alarming statistics by creating opportunities to identify challenges
and training leaders to practice global skills when influencing, communicating, and
negotiating in the cross-cultural contexts in which global leaders are increasingly
operating.
Given the complexity of their roles, global corporate leaders are currently under
more stress than ever before. With globalization driving massive organizational change
inside companies, leaders are keenly aware of problems that impact them first before
they appear in any other business sector. Obsolete leadership paradigms are the
source of the adverse impact experienced by global leaders today. The shift toward
globalization presents leaders with complex choices as they attempt to achieve
improved organizational results.
Redefining Effective Global Leadership
The growing complexity of global leaders’ roles offers an opportunity to redefine
effective global leadership. Organizational leaders engaged in global leadership
development have tried to identify the unique constellation of strategies and
experiences that make global leaders more competent. However, global leadership
development efforts are now targeting more novel approaches that focus on skills and
experiences. Such approaches foster global leaders who are focused on skill
development and growth experiences in addition to offering a promising gateway to
concept, product, and service innovations that today’s Fortune 500 companies are
eager to harness.
Background of Problem
Global business leaders and their teams have myriad opportunities to profit,
develop, and learn. However, many leaders are stymied by the vexing problem of how
best to absorb and adjust to the combined change calculus of cultural, generational,
technological, economic, linguistic, and virtual management challenges that are
hallmarks of globalization. Fortunately, global leaders who embrace continuous
learning behaviors may have identified a key differentiator. Pusch (2009) emphasized
that leaders who love learning demonstrate a critical attribute of global leadership. In
many cases, global leaders who embrace learning can develop effective change
management skills, a key component of effective global leadership.
The criteria by which leaders are promoted into global leadership roles vary from
industry to industry and from company to company. Frequently, mastery of technical
skills such as marketing or finance is the principal reason leaders are promoted to
regional or global roles with expanded responsibilities. After such a promotion,
however, leaders in global organizations may quickly discover that technical skills are
not enough to address the challenging complexities in their new roles. As indicated by
both the burgeoning leadership development industry and relevant literature, global
leaders are realizing that developing intercultural skills is a prime pathway to increase
professional effectiveness.
Intercultural competence can be defined as “the ability to communicate
effectively and appropriately in a variety of cultural contexts” (J. M. Bennett, 2007, p. 1).
It is assumed that this communication occurs among interlocutors with different
experiences. Scholarly work in intercultural competence spans approximately 50 years
and encompasses three approaches: culture-specific, culture-general, and intercultural
competence (Schaetti, Ramsey & Watanabe, 2009). These approaches will be
explored successively.
The concept and practice of intercultural competence in current global leadership
development efforts is of particular import. Jenkins (2006) asserted that cross-cultural
and intercultural management skills are becoming indispensable leadership tools—
specifically, effective intercultural skills that encompass strategies and practices leaders
possess or can cultivate to achieve positive and impactful interaction, influence, and
communication with global audiences. This definition is not new, as DeTurk (2001)
noted that trainers and scholars have been seeking to isolate the traits, skills, attitudes,
behaviors, and experiences that define intercultural success for decades. While the
particular elements leaders may employ to develop intercultural competence vary,
Sánchez (2000) agreed that the goal remains the same; effectively navigating cultural
differences can create changes in the roles and styles of leaders as they implement
organizational change. This in turn can ultimately change individual behavior among
teams. It would behoove global leaders to continue to focus on developing intercultural
skills through conscious strategies and practices as they navigate their role-based
global challenges.
There are many reasons for developing intercultural skills. Globalization’s
continual integration of cultures, peoples, and organizations will continue apace. For
example, in this domain, one clear benefit of developing intercultural communication
competence is that culturally diverse employees can work together effectively (Barna,
2009). Working together effectively is the sine qua non for any organizational leader
navigating the deep transformation inherent in globalization and its influence on
workplace productivity and diversity. A study by the American Management Association
(2012) noted in a key finding that cross-cultural innovation is the focus for global leaders
in the coming years.
Culture-specific competence refers to generalizable information about
communication styles or value orientations of particular cultural groups (Schaetti et al.,
2009). This approach may be beneficial to expatriates moving to a new country to learn
the overarching cultural themes of a particular group. The author of this study
employed this technique during an expatriate assignment to Italy, where his knowledge
of value orientations provided a modicum of success in cultural interactions with the
target group. Schaetti et al. (2009) cautioned that this approach alone is insufficient to
develop intercultural competence, since it focuses on one group that, due to the effects
of globalization and individual differences, may not be identifiable or representative of
the whole culture.
Next, culture-general approaches to intercultural competence offer an expanded
view of knowledge and skill for global leaders. Therefore, leaders may take an agnostic
approach that applies to all cultures. “The focus here is on the general cultural
contrasts that apply in [most] interaction, regardless of the particular cultural groups
involved” (Schaetti et al., 2009, p. 128). For example, Hall (1976) noted that
highcontext and low-context communication patterns are consistent contrasts among all
cultures. To illustrate, American culture focuses on low-context communication, where
few cues are needed to ascertain meaning, whereas Japanese culture focuses on
highcontext communication, in which abundant cues provide the needed context for
clarity. Schaetti et al. (2009) asserted that general approaches to intercultural
competence are also limiting in that the process becomes an intellectual exercise
devoid of meaningful application to real-world contexts.
A third approach to intercultural competence involves practice, with the other two
approaches providing necessary pretexts (Schaetti et al., 2009). This approach
recognizes that “knowledge of [cultural] content does not automatically translate into
mastery of process” (M. J. Bennett, 1998, p. 10). Today’s global leaders encounter
multiple opportunities for practice in differing cultural contexts; however, the challenge
of rapidly shifting cultural contexts may prove overwhelming to anyone seeking to
effectively navigate multiple contexts while developing intercultural competence. This is
where conscious practice can help the global leader. Essentially, global business
leaders who continue to refine their intercultural competence as part of their normal
routine act as a sort of “living laboratory” (Schaetti et al., 2009, p. 129). Further, with a
link between intercultural competence and emotional intelligence, Goleman (1998)
noted that practice requires a commitment to self-awareness, self-reflection, and
selfmonitoring as a pathway to the intentional development of competence in any arena.
Inherent to this process is an evolutionary characteristic with potential application to the
development of intercultural competence.
The current study sought to identify and explore new strategies and practices of
developing intercultural skills to build global leadership capability working within the
context of the initial intercultural theories described previously. In turn, practitioners can
leverage these paradigms to create strategic approaches and tactical tools to develop
intercultural skills. Developing competent global leaders remains an unmet
organizational challenge, and the talent management staff charged with developing
global leaders is eager for new tools to accomplish that mission. Expanding the
boundaries of intercultural skill development and increasing the tools to do so offers a
compelling opportunity for these cadres and, in addition, increases the return on
investment (ROI) by enhancing global leaders’ effectiveness.
Some global leaders achieve early success in their new roles due to a
combination of focus, determination, and experimentation. To be successful, effective
global leaders also typically leverage key support from their organizations—for example,
family benefits, coaching, and home leave. Early performance success in a global role
can be difficult to achieve and is often due to dedication on the part of the leader;
however, such success can be misleading since the experience is so foundational,
practical, and hard won that it can serve to unwittingly cement a uniform approach that
may not work in all contexts. According to Neely and Kaplan (2014), in many cases
Global leaders underperform because they fail to adapt their management strategies
and practices to multicultural environments. Savvier global leaders understand that
flexibility in leadership styles enables them to circumvent a staid approach when
working in this domain. In the process of developing global leaders, organizations
would benefit from identifying how variances in style and approach can help increase
intercultural skills.
In response to globalization’s cultural challenges and in light of how leaders
continue to struggle in this domain, organizations need to develop well-rounded global
leaders at a more urgent pace than ever to remain competitive in diverse world markets.
House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004) noted, “in a survey of Fortune 500
firms, having competent global leaders was rated as the most important factor for
business success” (p. 5). Even though the need is critical, organizations continue to
struggle to prepare full cadres of competent global leaders. In the same survey, House
et al. found that 65% of executives believe that their existing leaders need additional
skills to meet global leadership challenges. Company leaders who are developing a
deep bench of successful global leaders know it is an evolutionary process—with key
learning coming from the changes in the areas of global market presence and talent
demands.
Purpose Statement
This study sought to determine:
• The salient challenges global leaders face in developing intercultural skills,
• What common strategies global leaders engage in to develop their
intercultural skills,
• How global leaders measure success in developing their intercultural skills,
and
• What recommendations global leaders have for emerging leaders who wish
to develop intercultural skills.
First, this study sought to identify the salient challenges global leaders face in
developing intercultural skills. Given that global roles are becoming more complex, the
study strove to delineate what aspects of leaders’ jobs impede their successful
navigation across cultures for the purpose of accomplishing goals, driving change,
managing relationships, and developing talent. With these challenges elucidated,
global leaders can better contextualize, and therefore understand, the why behind the
importance of developing intercultural skills.
Next, with these global leadership challenges identified, this study then aspired to
define the most common strategies and practices global leaders utilize to develop
intercultural skills. There are two key assumptions here: demonstrating intercultural
competence offers the best mode for emerging global business leaders to succeed, and
no one leader ever arrives at fully functioning intercultural competence—it is an ongoing
effort for all leaders. This study aimed to uncover a unique amalgam of strategies and
practices that encourage and promote global leaders’ ongoing efforts to develop
intercultural skills.
Third, this study elucidated the guidelines by which global leaders measure their
success in developing intercultural skills. Leadership effectiveness in any skill area,
particularly intercultural competence, has proven difficult to measure. Nonetheless, this
study sought to highlight a few of the macro- and micro-measures global leaders use to
determine whether their intercultural skills are helping them succeed.
Lastly, a common definition of mastery includes having the ability to teach others.
Toward this end, global leaders who have strong intercultural skills should be able to
coach others in this domain. With potentially years of practice developing their
intercultural skills, global leaders are in a good position to prioritize recommendations
for the newer generation of leaders who are in the early stages of developing their own
intercultural skills. The researcher utilized a qualitative research method focused on
targeted interviews. The goal was to identify best practices of global business leaders
that have allowed them to succeed in a complex world. Structured interview questions
included the impact of relevant development experiences that serve to show the
evolution of maturing levels of intercultural competence in global business leaders.
Significance of Study
Globalization is progressing at breakneck speed. How global leaders succeed
best in the work environment will be of continued interest to many scholarly and
practitioner-based communities. It is expected that this study will be important to the
intercultural community, global business leaders, internal global human resources and
talent management staff, and external global consultants, coaches, and mentors who
develop global leaders.
Research Questions
• What challenges do global leaders face in developing intercultural skills?
• What common strategies and practices do global leaders utilize to develop
intercultural skills?
• How do global leaders measure success in developing their intercultural
skills?
• What recommendations do global leaders have for emerging leaders who
wish to develop intercultural skills?
Clarification of Terms
Two key terms are referenced frequently in this study: globalization and
intercultural skills. These terms are defined subsequently. Globalization refers to the
worldwide shift toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration of
companies, countries, and peoples. Intercultural skills refer to the constellation of
strategies and experiences that global leaders have or can cultivate for positive and
impactful interaction, influence, and communication with global audiences to achieve
results. These terms are the principal investigator’s own creation, yet for both he found
inspiration in others’ research. For globalization, Thomas Friedman influenced this
particular definition. For intercultural skills, Darla K. Deardorff, P. Christopher Earley,
and Soon Ang influenced this definition.
Summary
The overarching purpose of this study was to present a strong case
demonstrating that building intercultural skills among global leaders provides them the
best opportunity to succeed in their business roles. Referencing relevant literature and
targeted interviews, the study sought to identify the challenges global leaders face in
developing intercultural skills. After a thorough review of these challenges, the study
explored the specific strategies and practices global leaders employ to become highly
skilled in the intercultural domain. A key part of building the case involved identifying
the success measures in the intercultural space that leaders practice to determine
whether they are effective in their work. Rounding out the study are specific
recommendations that leaders can provide to the next generation of emerging talent
seeking to build their own intercultural acumen in an increasingly globalized business
world.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
With the preeminence of globalization and its transformational impact on
organizations clearly evident, global business leaders are inevitably witnessing
unprecedented change. Hence, the definition of effective global leadership is quickly
morphing into increased complexity. This study proposed that leaders who focus on
developing intercultural skills have a strong opportunity to be effective in their
everexpanding global business roles. Contextually, this chapter reviews the literature
on leadership, globalization, and intercultural skills, culminating in a review of strategies
and current practices of global leaders developing intercultural skills. This chapter
concludes with a review of measures and recommendations for developing intercultural
skills with implications for global human resources and talent management leaders
charged by their organizations to develop successive global business leaders.
Leadership
If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become
more, you are a leader
--John Quincy Adams
Leadership began at the dawn of time. Ever since, students of history and
erstwhile researchers have delved into leadership and what makes leaders effective. In
the Adams quote, three core elements come to the fore: actions, inspiration, and others.
Certainly, other definitions of effective leadership abound. Northouse (2013) defined
leadership as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal” (p. 5). Northouse’s definition is distinctly purposeful and
focuses on measurable results. Many other researchers have embraced this Northouse
definition, making it the progenitor of many subsequent theorists and models delving
into broad aspects of leadership effectiveness.
Leadership comes in many forms. In the inevitable debate about whether
leaders are born or made, theorists who favor the conclusion that they are born
espouse trait theory as the more accurate position. Zaccaro (2007) defined leader traits
as consistent patterns of characteristics that engender effective leadership in
organizational and team situations. Inherent in this definition is leader as problem
solver within specific leadership contexts, which can vary significantly depending on a
leader’s daily routine. Given their philosophical position, trait theorists are also skeptical
of the purpose, impact, and results involved in the development of leaders. “Leadership
quality is immutable and, therefore, not amenable to developmental interventions” (p. 6).
For trait theorists, native characteristics are the strongest determinant of leadership
effectiveness.
In contrast, theorists on the opposite side of the spectrum hold that leaders are
made, not born. In this school of thought, behaviorists contend that leaders can
become better with help from support, coaching, and development. Mumford, Campion,
and Morgeson (2007) validated this position and also found that the focus shifted from
the leader in the role—a nod to trait theory—to the role itself, a more skills-based
behavioral approach. Mumford et al. cited cognitive, interpersonal, business, and
strategic skills that define effective leadership, the skill mastery of which depends on the
leader’s organizational level. These higher-level skill areas are expansive enough to
capture subsets of skills crucial for effective global leadership.
Expanding upon the trait and behavioral theories of leadership, ensuing
researchers explored the relationship between leaders and followers. This relationship
is codified in leader-member exchange theory. Cogliser, Schriesheim, Scandura, and
Gardner (2009) defined leader-member exchange as high quality dyadic relationship
between leader and follower characterized by trust, respect, and driving toward positive
workplace contributions. This dynamic results in the leader and follower engaging in a
close working relationship. Whereas in other leadership theories the leader is the focus,
in leader-member exchange, the perception and characteristics of the follower are
equally if not more important. Murphy and Ensher (1999) focused on subordinate
characteristics in the relationship, with the leader detailing ability and self-efficacy in the
followers as key determinants to a strong relationship. In additional research findings,
Murphy and Ensher found self-efficacy to be an acute assessment of an individual’s
abilities to organize self-action for positive outcomes. When analyzing in-group
potential, the leader can leverage follower self-efficacy, which can also strengthen the
working relationship.
An additional leadership theory with significant research behind it is path-goal
theory. Whereas the aforementioned leadership theories focus on the leader, path-goal
theory pivots to focus on the follower and his/her well being. House (1996) crystallized
the focus of path-goal theory, stating that effective leaders “engage in behaviors that
compliment subordinates’ environments and [their] satisfaction and individual and unit
work performance” (p. 323). For leaders to benefit from path-goal theory, their
effectiveness lies in uncovering team members’ motivations and leveraging appropriate
rewards. Northouse (2013) noted that the underlying assumption of path-goal theory is
expectancy theory. Leaders who best identify employee motivators and link them to
individual rewards ultimately create the optimal work environment in which to achieve
outcomes.
Pivoting to another leadership theory, the transformational leadership model
makes a notable contribution to the research on leaders and leadership effectiveness.
Burns (1978) suggested that transformational leadership occurs when two or more
people engage with others to elevate everyone to increasingly higher levels of
motivation and morality. Transformational leadership is a fusing of both leader and
follower purpose to create the greater good. For example, Burns (1978) mentioned
Gandhi as an exemplar of the quintessential transformative leader, as his relationship
with his followers fomented their commitment to bring deep transformational change to
political, social and interpersonal spheres. The transformational leader recognizes the
motivations behind the transformation and amplifies them in his/her followers, binding
them closer together.
Leadership theories have informed strategies and practices of leader efficacy.
Burns (1978) acknowledged that learning is germane to shaping effective leaders. For
example, leaders who regularly reflect on their experiences can gain key insight into
their personal effectiveness. This journey, however, is a personal one for each leader.
Burns noted, “The learning experience of each leader is so unique that fruitful
generalization becomes impossible” (p. 63). Each leader has a unique mindset, skill
set, and experience makeup, and development—particularly at senior leadership levels
—is specific to the individual. Focusing on skill sets, Mikkelsen and Jarche (2015)
suggested that since skills seem to have a shelf life of about 5 years, the best leaders
now must get comfortable with growth as a continual process. The concept of
becoming mirrors the external pace of change and subsequently shapes the internal
demands placed on today’s leaders. Hence, global business leaders should focus on
promoting learning in themselves as well as in others. Although leadership learning is
personal, Burns nonetheless advocated a universalistic view of the sources that affect
leaders across all cultures. Globalization is one source to explore with myriad
opportunities to further define leadership effectiveness.
Leadership Intelligence
Emotional intelligence. As cited earlier, research on leadership theory over the
past two decades has benefitted from emotional intelligence (EI) complemented by a
leader’s intellectual (IQ) horsepower. There are five critical components of EI: knowing
one’s emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in
others, and handling relationships (Goleman, 1995). There are two dimensions at work,
namely the intrapersonal and the interpersonal, both key components of EI.
In the research Goleman (1995) conducted on the science, awareness, and
benefits of EI, he saw immediate application to the work of leaders. If indeed leadership
is not about dominating but rather the art of persuading people to work toward a
common goal (Goleman, 1995), then a focus on increasing positive feelings while
mitigating negative emotions to rally a team are viable methods to build transformational
leadership. While IQ, or cognitive abilities, serves leaders well, it is EI that over time
differentiates effective global leader performance. In one study, almost 90% of leaders’
success in leadership came from demonstrating EQ (Goleman, 1998). Thus, heart
leadership appears to be more effective than head leadership—both of which global
leaders can leverage effectively in their work. Later studies on engagement denote that
leaders who seek higher levels of employee rationale and commitment can evoke EI to
optimize team and individual contentment.
Examples abound of EI not only benefitting individuals and teams but also
informing organizational approaches to operational and leadership excellence. While
organizations are understandably complex, it is the people element where collaboration
and, ultimately, change occur, with impact on the bottom line (Goleman, 1998). The
challenge is whether expectations are set and leadership role modeling is present that
demonstrate the precepts of EI. Both elements need to be present for the impact of EI
to be felt. Such an informed strategic approach to leading can provide inspired
leadership practices within teams that can influence the broader organizational culture.
“Emotional intelligence can be an inoculation that preserves health and encourages
growth…with a premium on people who themselves are emotionally intelligent” (p. 312).
Social intelligence. Researchers have also found that social intelligence (SI)
was one of the first differentiators in the exploration of the field of general intelligence.
Investigators validated the distinction between EI and SI and noted that SI is linked to
predictive behaviors (Kobe, Reiter-Palmon, & Rickers, 2001). As the originating
theorist, Thorndike (1920) provided the earliest definition of SI: “The ability to
understand and manage men and women…to act wisely in human relations” (p. 228).
Several decades hence, SI has evolved with the aforementioned EI researcher
Goleman expanding context into the biological realm:
Now social neuroscience challenges intelligence theorists to find a definition for
our interpersonal abilities that encompasses the talents of the low road—
including capacities for getting in synch, for attuned listening, and for empathetic
concern. These basic elements of nourishing relationships must be included in
any full account of social intelligence. (Goleman, 2006, p. 101)
The aforementioned expansion of SI from earlier research takes the focus from the
cognitive to the emotional realm, creating more depth in this area.
For the practitioner, SI is comprised of two components: social awareness and
social facility. The sine qua non of social awareness is the internal ability to read
situations and feelings, and innately understanding complex social situations. The
application of SI awareness creates a bridge to effectiveness, where global leaders may
apply SI skills. Taking into account social awareness, global leaders can work toward
ensuring smooth social interactions by demonstrating care and concern (Goleman,
2006) among colleagues and teams.
In the area of leadership, Goleman and Boyatzis (2008) expanded SI research to
leader-follower relations. Biologically, Goleman and Boyatzis found that neurons are
mimicked between leader and follower evidenced when leader emotions tend to be
mirrored in their followers. When analyzing a study focusing on delivering performance
reviews, Goleman and Boyatzis found that leaders are effective when they are
demanding and positive at the same time. As leadership is a distinctly social endeavor,
the ongoing research on SI will be of import to global leaders. Cherniss (2000) found
that when EI is linked to SI, more than half of effective global leadership behaviors fall in
the emotional or social realms.
Researchers have made links between SI and cultural intelligence (CQ).
Typically, global leaders competent in CQ may be high in SI as well (Crowne, 2013).
Further, Crowne (2013) determined that CQ is subsumed under SI because CQ is
typically unnecessary for global leaders if they operate within a domestic context.
Expanding on Crowne’s research, Wawra (2009) found that global leaders may
leverage the superordinate emotional component of SI to enhance intercultural
interpersonal connectivity through nuanced communication. For example, global
leaders who care for others and demonstrate empathy elements through different
cultural lenses effectively bridge SI and CQ (Dong, Koper, & Collaco, 2008).
Cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence (CQ), a relatively new body of
research and application, postdates social intelligence (SI) and emotional intelligence
(EI), and offers a strong construct to arrive at effective practices of global leaders
developing intercultural skills (Ng, Van Dyne, & Ang, 2012). While CQ is a broad term,
Earley and Ang (2003) defined it as “a person’s capability to adapt effectively to new
cultural contexts” (p. 59). Inherent to the definition is the notion of addressing
differences. To expand the definition, CQ also can be viewed as a complementary level
of intelligence that determines the extent to which an individual successfully copes with
diversity (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015). As cited earlier, diversity spawns complexity, a
challenge with which global leaders must contend with in order to be effective in their
roles.
There are certain unique characteristics of CQ that are worthy of mention. “As a
form of intelligence, CQ clearly refers to an individual’s capabilities, as opposed to
personality traits or interests” (Ng et al., 2012, p. 33). Further, CQ is not culturespecific;
rather it is a culture-free construct that is also malleable (Ng et al., 2012). CQ’s
malleability means that global leaders may develop this skill.
To be skilled in cultural adaptation—the measure of effective CQ—requires
recognizing the confluence of cognitive, motivational, and behavioral skills (Earley &
Ang, 2003). Acknowledging that global leaders need all three elements to demonstrate
CQ, this study focused on this particular behavioral ability in global leaders. However,
the cognitive element of CQ is important, and Earley and Ang (2003) posited that it
begins with “using knowledge of the self, knowledge of the social environment and
knowledge of information handling” (p. 68). Reinforcing this position, Earley and
Mosakowski (2004) noted that while there is a connection between CQ and EI, CQ
expands the realm of effectiveness to intercultural contexts. In describing this cognitive
element of CQ, Earley and Ang focused more on someone’s skills in a new cultural
environment, rather than on more rehearsed responses global leaders may
demonstrate stemming from EI skill effectiveness.
The motivational factor associated with CQ presupposes that an individual has
the drive to be effective in intercultural contexts. Early and Ang (2003) noted that the
motivational factor is identified by three components: enhancement, self-efficacy, and
consistency. Among these, self-efficacy may be the more commonly known and
possibly more influential motivator. Self-efficacy denotes the extent to which someone
believes he/she can perform tasks and achieve goals (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy, an
intrinsic motivation, serves as an important aspect of CQ, since global leaders who are
successfully interacting in the intercultural domain need a sense of social confidence in
new settings (Earley & Ang, 2003). Therefore, global leaders may increase their
selfefficacy when experiencing intercultural communication success with different
interlocutors in new contexts.
The final component of CQ effectiveness is behavior. This component assumes
that CQ development is not only possible but also a foundational pursuit for global
leaders. Earley and Mosakowski (2004) found that while leaders possess innate CQ
resources, motivated global leaders could work to develop appropriate levels of CQ.
The triumvirate of cognition, motivation, and behavioral skill effectiveness allows global
leaders to demonstrate successful CQ. In many cases, cognition is not enough to
produce intercultural effectiveness in global leaders. For example, when global leaders
demonstrate robust CQ, not only what and why are understood, but also their response
is appropriate to the cultural context (Earley & Ang, 2003). Over time, it is hoped that
global leaders will develop these nuanced CQ behaviors as a result of the myriad
intercultural domains in which they operate. In their investigation, Li, Mobley, and Kelly
(2013) found that behavioral adaptability is instrumental for global leaders specifically
seeking to improve communication effectiveness and build cross-border relationships.
The research in CQ and cross-border leadership effectiveness is
underdeveloped. There are, however, nascent findings exploring this research area.
Since leadership effectiveness is driven by specific cultural values and expectations,
cross-border leadership requires malleability to function in diverse contexts (Rockstuhl,
Seiler, Ang, Van Dyne, and Annen, 2011). In their study of the Swiss military, Rockstuhl
et al. (2011) determined that EQ is effective for domestic leadership, yet CQ is a critical
component of global leadership effectiveness. Hence, global leaders with stronger
propensities in CQ may see more effectiveness in their international roles.
Globalization
Globalization is not a new construct; in fact, Levitt (1983) first coined the term
when he found “the globalization of markets is at hand” (p. 1). As evidence of this
phenomenon, Levitt cited the consumer desire for uniform products and pricing and the
emergence of technology as key drivers of globalization. Noting an early
transformational effect of globalization, Levitt tied the new phenomenon to the transition
from a multinational corporation to a new and emerging global corporation.
Globalization has allowed global companies the opportunity to provide the best products
at the best prices to anyone at any time. Many companies are succeeding at this goal.
Among many manifestations, globalization has created a new type of
interconnectedness driven by its sine qua non: the search for more profit outside of a
country’s national borders. For example, over 40% of the earnings of American S&P
companies now originate their profits from outside the country (Charan, 2013). This
profit search enables access to new resources that promote linkages, learning, and
revenues, all compelling in their own right. Further, advances in technology, big data,
and communication all buttress globalization, allowing it to continue apace.
While acknowledging yet advancing Levitt’s themes, Zeiler and Eckes (2002)
also highlighted technological innovation as the other principal impetus for globalization.
Technological innovations have made the world a smaller place. In the previous
century, technological advances altered diplomacy, thanks to jet aircraft, satellites,
optical fiber cables, and the Internet. Although technology and economics shape global
business and relationships, they are reinforced by significant world events, such as the
fall of the Berlin Wall and the ensuing collapse of the Soviet Union.
Expanding on Levitt (1983) and Zeiler and Eckes’s (2002) research, it can be
argued that the world has entered a new phase of globalization. “Globalization 3.0
(which started around 2000) is shrinking the world from a size small to size tiny and
flattening the playing field at the same time” (Friedman, 2005, p. 3). At this stage, the
focus is on the individual. Friedman (2005) also noted that the epicenter for
Globalization 3.0 involves non-Western and non-White participants. Confirming
Friedman’s assertion, Charan (2013) noted that the world is now tilting toward
developing countries including China, India, Indonesia, and Brazil. Some global
companies have already recognized this shift, whereas others still need more time to
appreciate the scope of this transformation and its market implications.
The nexus between global brand and local culture merits exploration. For
example, the business case study of McDonald’s in Hong Kong provides an interesting
primer on the perceived globalization of tastes and commercialism going mainstream
from one culture to another. Watson (2012) traced the history of McDonald’s opening in
Hong Kong and the mental models that needed to be acknowledged and altered by
McDonald’s: namely, the transition of a company that was originally a snack destination
with an exotic appeal to a meal destination that became ordinary. The transformation
did not occur swiftly, yet it demonstrates the adroit use of cultural levers of perception,
language, and intuition. Watson noted while the original intent was to capitalize on the
novelty of the American fast-food experience, the insightful use of the Cantonese
language to articulate and link the food to staples in the Chinese diet helped create a
new mental image of the company and its products. Given the influence of globalization
on consumers’ expanding desires coupled with the growth of a wealthier middle class,
McDonald’s benefitted from these factors and their global expansion strategy. Watson
noted that McDonald’s is now an integral part of the Hong Kong landscape, an ordinary
experience for the Chinese citizenry.
Irrespective of global conglomerate success in the new marketplace,
globalization affects the inner workings of organizations differently. Often, as
Ghemawat (2012) noted, more visible evidence such as travel creates a perception that
a firm is more global than it really may be. Strategies, structures, and processes may
still be more internationally focused rather than globally integrated. To counter this,
firms can conduct an audit to gain an “accurate read on the extent of globalization in
one’s firm and industry” (p. 3). Ghemawat explained that the audit may include a
combination of hard data on economics, politics, and market footprint. Such an audit is
a necessary activity to ensure internal hard and soft assets are in alignment with the
broader market strategies of global firms. A firm’s human assets are the most notable,
and they are certainly not immune to globalizing phenomena.
Global Leadership
Market focus, forces, and dynamics directly correlate with the challenges that
global leaders face. Livermore (2010) noted, “executives surveyed cite understanding
customers across various contexts as the greatest of all the global leadership
challenges” (p. 15). As in the Hong Kong McDonald’s case, global sales and marketing
strategies are inexorably linked to local market cultural issues. Navigating between the
global and local requires that global leaders develop the elasticity to deal with the
complexity inherent in delivering on their organization’s strategies. Therefore, global
leaders must first obtain revenue goals within a continually changing market landscape.
Whether in public or private organizations, leadership remains the linchpin of
long-term success. However, given the contextual complexity of today’s rapidly
changing world, the previous paradigms of how to lead in an increasingly global world
are undergoing a profound test. Olson and Kroeger (2001) offered a definition of a
globally competent leader as one who “has enough substantive knowledge, perceptual
understanding, and intercultural skills to interact in our globally interdependent world”
(p. 117). Whether working globally or in diverse America, global leaders have multiple
opportunities to navigate complexity on a daily basis.
Unpacking the complexity global leaders face provides a framework of how to
best measure effectiveness in business leadership roles. Specifically, there are four key
elements that define global leadership complexity (Lane, Maznevski, Mendenhall &
McNatt, 2004). Global leaders first face issues of multiplicity, reflecting the fact that they
deal with more and different stakeholders than in previous years. Nor is addressing
these issues in isolation a possibility. Next, Lane et al. (2004) highlight the global
interdependencies that force interactions among global actors across disciplines—the
social, political, and economic. The global leadership implication to interdependencies
necessitates a generalist rather than a specialist approach to improving knowledge,
skill, and acumen across multiple disciplines. Also, Lane et al. cite ambiguity as another
complex element bedeviling the most capable of global leaders. Interpersonal
relationships steeped in global diversity create ambiguous situations in which
perceptions lead to multiple interpretations of values, norms, and behaviors. Rounding
out the complexity issue, global business leaders can experience all three
aforementioned elements in a permanent state of flux. Flux resists linear approaches to
strategy, execution, and tactics more normative to a leader focused on national
marketplaces.
Many researchers argue that leadership traits, skills, and acumen easily translate
to the global arena, obviating any distinction between the national and international. In
contrast, Osland and Bird (2006) noted that global leadership “differs from domestic
leadership in degree…relating to connectedness, boundary spanning, complexity…and
building learning environments and teams [with] large-scale change efforts—across
diverse cultures” (p. 123). These leadership challenges provide inherent opportunities
for growth and development. Mendenhall et al. (2013) asserted that global business
leadership work is transformative in itself, netting new mental models through the
process of becoming more competent with global complexity. Globalization and
leadership conspire to create global leadership that more researchers claim merits
further study. In addition to the scholarly community, Osland (2008) noted that
transnational companies have a vested interest in developing global leadership for
competitive advantage.
It is evident that global leaders can be made in ways that complement their
innate skills to increase their effectiveness. However, becoming an effective global
leader is a process that may take years; this includes building up the reputation that one
seeks both internally, and, potentially, in the perception of the external marketplace.
This focus on reputational capital is of particular interest to global leadership
researchers. Petrick, Scherer, Brodzinski, Quinn and Ainina (1999) found that truly
“excellent global leaders are able to understand complex issues from different strategic
perspectives…by playing multiple roles in a highly integrated and complementary way”
(p. 60). Ultimately, the essence lies in a balanced approach to global leadership in
which leaders leverage multilayered skill sets. For example, if a leader is not gifted in
maintaining high morale while leading his/her globally diverse team members, the team
may not perform well, causing an economic impact that manifests itself in a lack of goal
achievement. Hence, maintaining morale, acknowledging how that appears to be
different cross-culturally, and adding the virtual element to effective leadership all
conspire to illustrate the complexity that global leaders must possess to enhance their
reputations.
Martin and Nakayama (2015) affirmed Petrick et al.’s (1999) findings when they
found that intercultural workplace encounters are complicated, involving multiple
identities between leader and teams. Hence, global leaders may employ multiple
leadership strategies at the same time to reflect and respond to the dynamism of the
workplace and their roles. Martin and Nakayama took a dialectic view toward
intercultural relating, where the dynamic is fluid, ongoing process. For example, beyond
cultural makeup, gender, class, race, and age—personal characteristics involving
another level of cultural or national diversity— also have influence and can determine
the perception of a global leader’s intercultural competence.
Global leaders who embrace intercultural relating through the notion of
mindfulness may well be better poised to be more effective (Thomas, 2006; Thomas et
al., 2008). Tuleja (2014) noted that mindfulness is an effective bridge between
knowledge and behavior for global leaders that involves reflective practice. Without
some reflection on leaders’ efficacy in intercultural interaction, they may rely on
borrowed methods rather than acknowledging the situational complexities in the highly
relational aspects of their role. Reflection is a key practice in a leader’s effectiveness
journey: one that can help continue progression toward more mature intercultural skills.
GLOBE Study
Based on Hofstede’s (1993) work and interest in charismatic leadership theory,
House et al. (2004) conceived, developed, and launched a definitive intercultural study
named the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research
Program (GLOBE). The study was designed “to explore the fascinating and complex
effects of culture on leadership, organizational effectiveness, economic competitiveness
of societies, and the human condition of members of the societies studied” (House et
al., 2004, p. 10). The study took an ethno-relativist approach to culture and leadership.
Ultimately, House et al. identified nine major global cultural attributes and six major
global leadership themes emanating from the 62 societies that were under study. The
global leadership dimensions are charismatic/value-based leadership, team oriented
leadership, participative leadership, humane oriented leadership, autonomous
leadership, and self-protective leadership.
The leadership dimensions listed previously were rated in order of priority
importance to specific countries. Of significance in many countries are the first two
dimensions. These dimensions further illuminate global leadership complexities and
inform the skills on which global leaders can focus their development in intercultural
contexts discussed further in this chapter.
The GLOBE data revealed a number of findings relevant to global leadership.
Principally, “the portrait of a leader who is universally viewed as effective is clear: The
person should possess the highest levels of integrity and engage in
Charismatic/ValueBased behaviors while building effective teams” (House et al., 2004,
p. 678). While all global leadership dimensions scored as important across the cultures
in the study, House et al. (2004) found that regional clusters created variances in global
leadership dimension priorities. The unique value of the GLOBE study is that it informs
intercultural global business leadership strategies and practices quite pragmatically.
“Leaders who are aware of a culture’s values and practices can make…decisions
regarding day-to-day operations and crisis management within an organization”
(p. 712).
Next Generation Global Leadership
With economics driving the dialogue, organizational leaders are increasingly
expanding the definition of effective global leadership while evaluating new models to
develop a new generation of global leaders. Emerging global leaders associated with
the Millennial Generation and their unique wants and needs are expanding the
boundaries of effective global leadership. Millennial Generation leadership looks
different than any other previous generation, albeit with promising possibilities to fill
organizational ranks with globally skilled leaders.
Culturally and generationally, there is another significant gravitational pull
affecting companies and the global business leaders at their helm: a higher focus on
universal norms and values, in essence, doing good to do well. This is a clear priority
for the Millennial Generation. Shawn (2015) noted that the current social good
movement is driven by the Millennial Generation and that this is having a distinct
economic impact. Statistically, “70% of college students [are] more willing to purchase
a product when it is tied to a cause of some kind” (p. 7). Witness global companies and
their business leaders taking notice of this trend; it is becoming a key metric of global
business perception and efficacy. “Consumers and investors increasingly want to
understand a company’s culture and values. They want to analyze its social behavior,
not just its share price” (Ignatius, 2015, p. 51). This focus on corporate social
responsibility (CSR) is expanding into the area of addressing and measuring success in
the area of wider social aims. Yunus (2010) discussed the CSR concept and noted how
it informs good citizenship, which more enlightened global business leaders are trying to
engender. Due to the expanding consumer demands focusing on more than company
short-term profit, global leadership efficacy is broaching new territory.
Intercultural Skills
The previously cited research in this study makes the case that global business
leaders are facing complexity in their roles that defy traditional and repeatable
leadership strategies and practices. Through the identification and development of
finely nuanced intercultural skills, global business leaders may find the strongest ROI in
their efforts to become more effective in their roles. For this section of the research, a
review of current intercultural theorists is followed by a description of the most relevant
intercultural skills upon which global business leaders may focus their development.
Naming conventions are difficult to navigate, and the intercultural field is rife with
a diversity of nomenclature worthy of clarity. Within the research and scholarpractitioner
communities, nomenclature plays a key role in the choice of research focus; addressing
intercultural theories, issues, and practices is no exception. To begin, Trompenaars and
Wooliams (2009) noted confusion over the word competence.
Certainly, this is a common research term that is commonly found in the lexicon of
human resources and talent development leaders. Of more practical use are the terms
skills and skill sets. However, Trompenaars and Wooliams found that confusion
between the terms competence and skills is also rife, with competence comingling
mind-sets and skill sets. For the purpose of this study, the word skill is referenced when
describing intercultural strategies, practices, and development. Spitzberg and
Changnon (2009) defined intercultural ability as appropriate interactions in diverse
situations, grounded in specific attitudes, intercultural knowledge, skills, and reflection.
This expansive definition assumes intercultural effectiveness is based on many factors
and requires a disciplined approach to skill development.
Earley and Ang (2003) offered a model for cross-cultural competencies
germinating from a foundation where “competence in cross-cultural functioning means
learning new patterns of behavior and effectively applying them to appropriate settings”
(p. 263). Here, it is not only to know what is appropriate, but also to apply knowledge to
intercultural interactions. The application may be more or less successful, the
determination of which requires the ability to reflect upon past actions. To perform this
task effectively, global business leaders will need to draw on their ability to learn and
relearn, since cultural competence is not static.
Other noted researchers in the intercultural field acknowledge the breadth of
intercultural skills as well. For example, Bennett and Castiglioni (2004) noted that
competence refers to the bridging of intercultural sensitivity to effective intercultural
behavior in different cultural contexts. Global business leaders may start with innate
sensitivity to other cultures, yet it is the appropriate abilities cited in the GLOBE study in
the intercultural context that make goals achievable and even enjoyable. Since culture
most readily exhibits itself in certain situations, global leaders have a veritable
intercultural laboratory within their business interactions, where unlimited opportunities
exist to practice, reflect, and learn.
Developing Intercultural Skills
After defining intercultural skills, it is important to prioritize these skills for
development purposes. Noted researchers make an important assumption linking
global leadership effectiveness with development and implementation of well-honed
intercultural skills. Pusch (2009) noted “leaders with an ability to deal constructively in
intercultural situations are made [as opposed to being “born”]” (p. 67). With
organizations continuing to strive to create globally effective leaders, finding the most
expedient development strategies are of keen interest to organizational leaders, human
resources executives, and global business leaders themselves. “To lead in a
collaborative global enterprise, it is essential that there be global competency
development to produce leaders who can exhibit intercultural competencies” (Pusch,
2009, p. 68).
The targeted skill sets necessary to develop intercultural acumen can point to a
development roadmap. Such a roadmap is of keen interest to researchers, scholars,
and practitioners in this field. Pusch (2009) related that a search of the literature shows
that nearly all studies identify four skills that are critical for global business leaders to be
effective and appropriate in any intercultural situation:
1. Managing stress,
2. Communicating effectively,
3. Taking advantage of the interface between different cultures and the
knowledge that comes from different cultural orientations, and
4. Managing change in a borderless environment where culture is asserted even
more…and where cultures encounter each other immediately through
technology (Rosen, Digh, Singer & Phillips, 2000, pp. 32-33).
The aforementioned list of skills is informative and directional in scope. Global
business leaders can focus upon the first skill, managing stress, to mitigate the
demands made upon them. Next, communication skills are universal; however, they are
more complex in the intercultural context. In the GLOBE study, House et al. (2004)
delineated the charismatic leadership and team skills necessary for savvy global
business leaders to perfect. The third skill of capitalizing on intercultural interfaces
aligns with multiplicity defined as a component of global leadership complexity.
Similarly, the fourth skill, managing continuous change, also resonates with the constant
renewal that is the last hallmark of global leadership complexity.
Having defined a broad list of intercultural skills upon which to focus, the
research points pragmatically to assessment as a practical place for global business
leaders to begin their intercultural development journey. Among many assessments,
Bennett (1986) has offered the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity.
Measuring intercultural sensitivity first in leaders, this assessment plots the maturity
level between ethnocentric stages and ethnorelative stages on a continuum. Bennett
defined ethnocentric states as denial, defense, and minimization of cultural differences,
whereas ethnorelative states denote acceptance, adaptation, and integration of cultural
differences. To be effective, global business leaders either aspire to or find themselves
already on the ethnorelative side of the intercultural sensitivity continuum. The
competent global leader leverages global differences and channels them to
organizational, team, and individual effectiveness.
Bourjolly et al. (2006) found that Bennett’s (1986) model provides the sound
theoretical underpinning for the development of intercultural sensitivity, the foundation
for developing intercultural skills explored in successively rich research studies. In his
more recent study, Bennett (2009) confirmed “cultural self-awareness is a necessary
precursor of intercultural learning, which involves recognizing cultural differences” (p. 4).
The goal is for global leaders to be at the most advanced point on the Bennett model.
This most advanced point is for global business leaders to be interculturally aware,
sensitized and skilled, performing at the highest levels of effectiveness.
In one list of research-based intercultural skills, communication fluency and
dexterity in the intercultural domain are said to be of paramount importance for global
business leaders (Pusch, 2009). Martin and Nakayama (2015) noted the predominant
term used in their discipline is “intercultural communication competence” (p. 16), with a
focus on the demonstrable skills during global interactions. Nair-Venugopal (2015)
discovered that intercultural communication is not only bounded by political,
geographical, and social constructs, but also constrained by contextual and
interpersonal domains. Of particular import in intercultural or cross-cultural
communication is the notion of etic studies, in which cultural phenomena are viewed
from the perspective of an objective outsider comparing two or more cultural groups.
The basis of etic studies assumes a culturally universalistic approach. In essence,
universal dimensions serve as guideposts to any cross-cultural variations in
communication (Kim, 2005).
Intercultural communication is facilitated in the business environment simply
because the business provides important context and a connecting point. Varner
(2000) stated that “business strategies, goals, objectives and practices are an integral
part of the communication process” (p. 44) and can provide motivation between parties
in intercultural communication. Although it provides a relating point, the business
context does add complexity for a global business leader. Irrespective of country of
origin, Varner reinforced that global business leaders must relate to others on multiple
levels: corporate culture, industry culture, the general business culture, and their
national culture.
Another important dimension to building intercultural skills is the ability to
empathize. This key skill engenders debate about whether it is a trait or
behavioraldriven—or a combination of the two. Essentially, empathy focuses on others.
Expanding on this notion, global business leaders who demonstrated empathy are
skilled at recognizing estimates of others’ points of view in the course of social
interaction (Broome, 1991). Global business leaders who make communication
otherfocused demonstrate relational empathy.
Intercultural skills encompass participative decision making (PDM)—a key tenet
for global business leaders working with dispersed and diverse teams. Sagie and
Aycan (2003) noted that PDM can enable global leaders to better understand the
cultural bases for certain behaviors that global team members may exhibit: avoidance,
lack of initiative, or taking responsibility. Hofstede and Hofstede’s (2005) value-based
framework of cultural dimensions offers a model for cultural understanding and, in one
dimension in particular, can adversely impact PDM among global teams. In the team
setting, one notable Hofstede cultural dimension, power distance, “influences the extent
to which participation is practiced” (Sagie & Aycan, 2003, p. 456). For example, in
higher power-distant cultures, global team members might have a propensity to be
uncomfortable in being delegated to, since power is perceived to be best held in the
authority of the team leader. Imagine the potential for misinterpretation on the part of
the global business leader when team members from high-power foreign cultures are
culturally predisposed to not taking on tasks or owning decisions and follow-up. Hence,
there is a mandate for the global business leader to better plan for the cultural dynamics
of diverse, dispersed team members.
Additional researchers have applied the Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) cultural
dimensions model to intercultural communication. These dimensions can manifest
themselves in various aspects of intercultural team communication. Ting-Toomey
(2010) confirmed the application of Hofstede’s value-based framework in intercultural
communication, yet she continued by stressing its helpfulness in intercultural workplace
conflict communication which, when demonstrated, is impartial, benevolent, and
communal. The power distance value in Hofstede’s framework influences first the
position team members take in a conflict situation. Schein (2010) cites these positions
as artifacts driven by values stemming from underlying assumptions of, in this instance,
leadership and power: important factors when global business leaders and teams face
internal conflict.
Global business leaders often conceive, execute, and deliver on large-scale
global projects. Recognizing what is only a recent phenomenon, Moran and Youngdahl
(2008) purported that global project management can benefit from fusing with effective
leadership and comprehensive intercultural skills. Moran and Youngdahl (2008) cited
four key challenges when global project teams interact:
1. Team members typically dialogue in English as a foreign language,
confounding communication and understanding.
2. Team members from differing cultures demonstrate different values, norms,
and behaviors, potentially inhibiting task and goal accomplishment.
3. Geographically dispersed project team members encounter fewer
opportunities to meet, share important context and develop the trust levels
needed for the work to succeed.
4. Since project leadership stakeholders may not be intact to the team, project
team members who report to joint venture leadership can inhibit swifter
progress toward teamwork and goals.
Mintzberg (1983) offered three strategies for global project leaders and their
teams to address the global project leadership challenges, outlined previously:
1. Setting expectations that global project team members should mutually pivot
to meet others’ needs,
2. Project leaders applying direct supervision when possible, and
3. Creating a standardized work process and output while reinforcing
interdependence when working on and producing project tasks.
Global project leaders have time and space constraints that can wreak havoc on
global team goals and task accomplishment. To compensate, global project leaders
apply a targeted focus in their messaging for virtual team members to clarify the vision.
Van Luinen (2015) affirmed that global project “team members who align not only with
the [leader’s] message but also with group tasks will use a barometer of task
accomplishment toward fulfilling the vision as the primary avenue to build trust and
transcend more feeling-based face-to-face interactions” (p. 66).
Global business leaders will inevitably encounter conflict in the course of
rolespecific intercultural encounters. Given the highly contextual nature of these
interactions, global business leaders may be misunderstood, which can lead to wider
intercultural conflicts. One definition of intercultural conflict competence is the “mindful
management of emotional frustrations and conflict interaction struggles due primarily to
cultural or ethnic group membership differences” (Ting-Toomey, 2009, p. 101). As in
most intercultural interactions, the affective—or interpersonal—supersedes the
technical aspects of global project teamwork. Ting-Toomey (2009) first explored
appropriateness, a barometer against which the interlocutors determine whether the
others’ words and actions subscribe to certain subsuming cultural norms within the
intercultural conflict context. While highly specific, national cultural norms trump
corporate cultural norms; in the global business context, they can detract from shared
meaning, task accomplishment, and team member bonding. Ting-Toomey pointed to
effectiveness in the intercultural conflict context where both interlocutors need to draw
from a strong repository of verbal and nonverbal communication techniques to drive
toward shared meaning. Global business leaders might benefit from employing
Bennett’s (2009) ethnorelative intercultural sensitivity scale to improve intercultural
conflict communication. Lastly, Ting-Toomey cited adaptability as another key
component for global business leaders to address intercultural conflict. When
intercultural communication between two interlocutors is deteriorating, a global business
leader drawing on adaptive skills can better pivot to reach the desired communication
outcome. For successful adaptation in intercultural communication contexts, global
business leaders may draw on a concomitant skill: EI. Under the team orientation
dimension, the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) lists several key attributes that enable
the emotionally attuned global business project and team leader to achieve focus
awareness, development, and effectiveness.
Some intercultural research points to compelling evidence of the benefits of
ethical leadership—that is, concern for the rights of followers. Citing the House et al.
(2004) GLOBE Study, Resick, Hanges, Dickson, and Mitchelson (2006) found that
ethical leaders who demonstrate character, integrity, altruism, collective motivation, and
encouragement are universally viewed as positive figures, regardless of cultural
associations. Falling under the banner of charismatic and team-oriented GLOBE
dimensions, these attributes of global leadership point to a sound ethical basis for
leaders working in the intercultural domain. In essence, global business leaders
demonstrating these ethical attributes will find their intercultural teams to be highly
receptive. With wide cultural applicability, these transcendent components become
more poignant in that they provide a clear roadmap for global leaders practicing and
developing their intercultural skill sets.
As Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) noted in their research, the global business
leader’s national culture is more influential than his/ her professional culture when
global colleagues interact in the intercultural business context. Nonetheless, a more
comprehensive review of how global business leaders best demonstrate intercultural
competence in the work setting is of value. Harkening back to the previously articulated
definition of leadership, which comprises goal setting and influence, global leaders must
be skilled in intercultural business communication. When two business people from
different cultures interact, successful communication depends on understanding not
only their culture and background, but also the context in which the business is taking
place (Bell, 1992; Bolton, 1999). In a sense, when two global leaders discuss “business
strategies, goals, objectives and practices [these] become an integral part of the
communication process and help create the synergy of culture, communication and
business” (Varner, 2000, p. 44). In many cases, corporate culture acts as a binding
agent for different global business leaders coming from different national cultures. For
example, if the corporate culture is strict about being on time, but is operating within in a
national culture that is not so concerned with punctuality, global leaders may need to
flex to meet the time expectation of the national culture.
Potentially discouraging to the most competent global leaders, intercultural
differences may appear vast and difficult to navigate. Recognizing the scope of the
task, Molinsky (as cited in Cliffe, 2015) posited that leaders are the ones going global
and, because of this, are in need of immediate help. Therefore, bridging cultural
differences with appropriate global leadership behaviors can prove to be a helpful
strategy. Molinsky suggested first learning the code of the new culture based on five
dimensions: directness, enthusiasm, formality, assertiveness, and self-disclosure.
Learning the code harkens to a model of advanced planning that Livermore (2010)
mentioned as being critical to decoding new intercultural settings. Next, global leaders
need to determine the “‘zone of appropriateness’ in the new culture for each dimension,
understanding that there is a range of acceptable behaviors” (Cliffe, 2015, p. 4). For
example, global business leaders may need to mute or amplify certain national cultural
dimensions and behaviors in the global business context. Lastly, once global leaders
know what behaviors are appropriate, Molinsky advised that practice will develop and
fortify the necessary skills. Ultimately, global business leaders would benefit from taking
time for reflection after major business interactions to determine the benefits of their
nascent intercultural communication skill awareness, practice, and mastery.
Although the research acknowledges that developing intercultural skills is a
worthwhile and transformational endeavor, global leaders may find it a challenge for
reasons relating to leadership effectiveness. Meyer (2014) found that bridging cultural
gaps is difficult because global business leaders’ management styles stem from habits
developed and practiced over a lifetime. Through years of effort, many global business
leaders employ leadership practices and toolkits tested in the field. Working effectively
in the intercultural domain upends that practice by dint of the global diversity they face
on a daily basis. Further, Meyer stated that global leaders need to demonstrate utmost
fluidity where, for example, remaining true to strategies, goals, and tasks will still require
flexibility in determining how global teams will implement the work in the intercultural
context.
As with McDonald’s, a different case study regarding how another global firm and
its leaders effectively navigated intercultural differences may prove instructive. UPS,
the global parcel delivery service, was developing its strategic market presence in
China. The starting point was to identify cultural facilitators and obstacles. “Embedded
in challenges with training, sales, and overall profitability in a foreign market is the ability
to articulate home company goals in a culturally different environment” (Gao & Prime,
2010, p. 150). Once UPS clarified the goals, it was able to establish a strong starting
point for business operations in China. Gao and Prime (2010) noted the wisdom of the
UPS global leadership team, which was further demonstrated by articulating five
obstacles to and five facilitators of Chinese and American intercultural business
communication. These intercultural levers were then minimized or amplified as
appropriate to help work toward successful implementation of the strategy. As a result
of its strategic and pre-planned approach to intercultural communication (along with
other sound business decisions), UPS enjoyed market success in China.
Much like IQ and EQ have been identified as key drivers for leadership
effectiveness, cultural intelligence, or CQ, is a more recent phenomenon offering an
additional avenue of global business leader success. Livermore (2010) offered some
tips for global business leaders to employ in developing their CQ. In the application
stage, Livermore asked global leaders to plan their cross-cultural interactions by taking
the time to observe visible cultural artifacts. Artifacts can be symbols, pictures, physical
arrangement of items in a room, or clues as to what items are important and rewarded.
Next, Livermore posited that even a simple meeting with an intercultural interlocutor
may bring to the fore such issues as small talk, the extent to which business is
addressed, and the immediacy of action steps. After some post-event reflection, the
global leader’s final step would be to have an intercultural advocate familiar with
different cultural contexts provide feedback on how well the global leader performed in
the interaction.
Measuring Intercultural Skill Effectiveness
Global business leaders are measured on how successfully they implement
strategies, goals, and tasks that improve profit margins. Success metrics may also
include their ability to nurture global team members. Given the fact that global business
leaders operate within an intercultural context to accomplish their goals, company
leadership will be acutely aware of how effectively leaders are performing relative to
their global responsibilities. Similarly, researchers have a vested interest in measuring
intercultural skill awareness, development, and practices. Trompenaars and Wooliams
(2009) “found that reconciling intercultural dilemmas emanating from the complexities of
global leadership [is] the strongest feature to determining success from one global
business leader to another” (p. 164). In this manner, the global business leader can use
intercultural communication, as well as conflict and project leadership techniques to
best shape the organizational and team culture in which he/she operates. Hence, the
recommended global business leadership approach considers the identification,
respecting, and reconciling of intercultural differences a key measure of business
success.
Company leaders have additional vested interests in the ROI for developing
intercultural skills among their global business leaders. However, in this domain, a
benefit of intercultural communication competence is that it can create a stress-free
workplace with culturally different people working together effectively (Barna, 2009, p.
139). Working effectively with one’s team is essential for any organizational leader
navigating the deep transformation inherent in globalization and its influence on
workplace productivity and diversity.
Developing intercultural skills or any derivation thereof provides an additional
ROI to global organizations and to global business leaders themselves. Livermore
(2010) found that “leaders who develop cultural intelligence are less likely to experience
burnout, a major threat to leaders today, particularly those who travel frequently to many
different places” (p. 168). While inveterate global business leaders may focus on
communicating and delivering strategies and work product on their travels, it would
behoove them to focus on the why and how of intercultural dynamics to facilitate
broader understanding and relationship building with global colleagues and team
members.
Expanding global business leadership effectiveness and the corollary human
resources considerations are not the only benefits to developing intercultural skills.
Engaging in international business exchanges can provide individuals, institutions, and
enterprises with numerous financial and social benefits as well (Engelbert, 2004). Both
McDonald’s and UPS gained financially as a result of their prowess in intercultural
communication skills. Keeping these successful measures in mind, organizations and
global business leaders can focus on the positive nature of intercultural business
exchange, where they experience manifold opportunities for financial, social, and
personal gain.
There is another lucrative aspect of ROI for global business leaders—the
profitable arena of unleashing innovation. Hyun (2012) posited that if global leaders
“don’t invest the time and effort to understand the cultural makeup of our team
members, we will lag behind others in navigating global teams, and underuse the very
people who can fuel innovative thinking” (p.15). In this sense, innovation and innovative
thinking span national boundaries, providing opportunities for global leaders to win in
the competitive marketplace. The task for global leaders with their teams is to better
interpret behaviors and actions coming from culturally diverse members, first in building
rapport and engagement, and then ultimately to tap into their innovative thinking as a
key success measure.
Development Strategies for Intercultural Skills
According to a study by the American Management Association (2012), the
majority of companies are failing to adequately develop global leaders. Notwithstanding
select successful case studies, the ROI for global leadership development strategies,
programs, and tools appears unconvincing. What is clear is that increasing global
leadership capacity is no longer a choice for internal organizational leaders and their
talent teams but is now an economic imperative (Molinaro & Weiss, 2005).
Global transformation creates an irresistible gravitational pull on organizations,
requiring them to pivot from reactive to proactive development strategies. Typically,
talent leaders engaged in global leader development have tried to identify the unique
constellation of mindsets, skillsets, and experience to develop competent global
leadership. One effort in recent years focuses on developing intercultural competency
—a relatively new approach and an increasingly convincing tool in the development of
leadership capacity. The nexus between strategic global leadership capacity building
and targeted intercultural competency development offers ample opportunities for
concept, product, and service innovation to meet untapped needs.
The race to develop effective global business leaders began in earnest fairly
recently. Tye (2003) related that this movement toward global education started 20
years ago in the United States. Among other tenets, early global education focused on
intercultural skill development. A clear roadmap for intercultural skill development can
be found in the aforementioned GLOBE study, which details the principles applicable to
increasing skill development in key areas of global business leader education.
Fueled by the need to build global leadership capacity, scholar-practitioners can
explore and develop new paradigms in intercultural competency development. In such
a green field environment, practitioners can further leverage these paradigms to create
strategic approaches and tactical tools in intercultural competency development. As the
research has demonstrated, developing competent global leaders remains an unmet
organizational challenge. As such, the cadres who develop global leaders are eager for
new tools. Expanding the boundaries of intercultural competency development and the
tools to facilitate it offer a compelling opportunity for these cadres and, it is hoped,
increase the ROI of facilitating globally competent leaders’ rapid development in this
domain.
Intercultural Skills Training
Intercultural skills training can offer solutions for global business leaders to
develop. Three methods are described successively. Whatever the method, there is
research into what defines effective intercultural training. Research by Storti (2009)
found the following elements to be foundational:
1. Provide the definition of culture and how it manifests itself in interactions with
people from different cultures;
2. Identify the participant’s own cultural values, assumptions, and norms;
3. Identify the target culture’s cultural values, assumptions, and norms; and
4. Identify areas where challenges, problems, and surprises could occur between
the participant’s own culture and the target culture.
The components of intercultural training frame the content for optimal learning for
global business leaders. The research also addresses the methodology needed for
effective intercultural learning and development. Specific to the learner, the
methodologies change based on where the global business leader falls on the
intercultural sensitivity continuum. Bennett (1986) provided two models are the basis
for the design of intercultural training. He found that most intercultural learners are in
the ethnocentric stages of their development, which made the learning challenging. For
example, let’s assume an American executive new to a global business role and with
limited exposure to other cultures is relocating her family to France. If this global leader
is a first-time expatriate, she is looking at intercultural development through her own
American lens. The other model offered by Bennett is for learners in the ethnorelative
stage of their intercultural sensitivity. The approach Bennett offered in this second
model of intercultural training focuses on support to drive toward even more advanced
levels of adaptation. This theoretical model provides a sound rationale for the choices
intercultural learning and development professionals can make around the content
offered to global business leaders in the learning cycle.
Intercultural Skills Executive Coaching
Executive coaching is a key component of and support to global leader
development. This is a trend that is beginning to appear in many companies. “Close to
40 percent of Fortune 500 firms are integrating coaching into their development
initiatives” (Handin & Steinwedel, 2006, p. 20). Based upon theories of andragogy,
executive coaching focuses on extrapolating experience and measured reflection with
leaders who, agnostic of the organization, have basically the same objectives.
According to Handin and Steinwedel (2006), “Executive coaching is a collaborative
partnership designed to align professional development with organizational goals and
drive performance” (p. 18).
The same vision and benefit of executive coaching applies to developing
intercultural competence. Developing intercultural competence has twin goals:
awareness-building via understanding differences and competence via bridging those
differences to comfortably collaborate, influence, and explore. For both executive
coaching and developing intercultural competence, the process is similar: each
necessitates uncovering mental models and deeply ingrained patterns, challenging
assumptions, and trying new ways to problem solve with real world application (Handin
& Steinwedel, 2006). By blending both executive coaching and intercultural
competency development, seasoned global leaders with a solid track record in both
domains can offer newer leaders the opportunity to uncover and navigate cultural
differences, thereby diminishing the learning curve and hastening speed to competency
in their global roles.
Affirming Handin and Steinwedel’s (2006) assertions, Mendenhall et al. (2013)
found that global education development can best be delivered through the use of
expert coaches. This approach could include savvy global business leaders with
indepth intercultural experience or external global business coaches working with
internal business leaders. Guided by the executive coaching process of assessment,
goals, and targeted advice and reflection, executive coaches may focus on intercultural
skills to provide immediate and relevant help to emerging global business leaders. The
global leader will find many opportunities to experiment with intercultural skill
development during his/her daily global business interactions.
Intercultural Skills Development in Role
Global business leaders opting for expatriation or significant global travel can be
afforded an important opportunity to develop intercultural skills while performing their
job roles. This is driven, in part, by the internationalization of company operations to
pursue overseas profits, necessitating short or longer-term global work assignments to
develop new business. While overseas work may be exciting for the newcomer, global
leaders may face some inherent challenges. These challenges span personality, family
matters, and technical and managerial skills, the latter often the reason for the global
business leader garnering the expatriate assignment in the first place. Of critical
importance is also the job design of the expatriate, and whether there are clear goals
and outcomes determined for success in an overseas role (Earley & Ang, 2003).
Once overseas and well along the adjustment process, global business leaders
have an on-the-job opportunity to develop their intercultural skills in situ while leading
their virtual global teams. Since global leaders rely on dispersed and diverse teams to
accomplish their goals, team meetings provide an ideal opportunity to try out expanded
intercultural communication as well as conflict and project leadership skills. However,
global business leaders seem minimally prepared to succeed in the domain of
intercultural communication with their teams. Robbins and Judge (2013) cited that “only
18 percent of companies have documented strategies for communicating with
employees across cultures, and only 31 percent require that corporate messages be
customized for consumption in other cultures” (p. 356). Judging from these statistics,
van Luinen (2015) noted that global leaders face only sink or swim options to address
the complexities of effective global team leadership and the finely tuned intercultural
communications skills these teams require. Implications for companies to internally
improve upon these alarming statistics include opportunities for developing global
leaders’ intercultural skills in influencing, communication, and negotiation in their daily
work.
Intercultural Professional Training Skills
The evolution of global business leadership effectiveness has influenced
intercultural development strategies, practices, and tools for learning through on-the-
job, relationship-oriented, and formal training methodologies. The burgeoning field of
professional intercultural training now logs billions of dollars of revenue per annum
globally. An effective intercultural professional trainer’s credentials are very specific and
targeted to ensure that learning is both strategic and targeted for success. Storti (2009)
found that intercultural training professionals should possess a thorough knowledge of
the basics of intercultural communications, overseas experience, and training design
and platform skills. The perfect balance of all three knowledge, acumen, and skill areas
can provide optimal learning experiences for global business leaders.
The Expanding Role of Human Resources
Beyond the skill development areas human resources leaders face to increase
intercultural skills among global business leaders, the human resources functional staff
has numerous other challenges. As businesses and their leaders pivot in response to
global market demands, so must the internal human resources function make a
substantive shift in its services and reach in order to be more effective. In addition to
the aforementioned globalization and demographic shifts—in this case to the Millennial
Generation—new technologies, evolving social attitudes, and people-dependent
business strategies are also having an impact. Also, the shift from a national to a global
human resources staffing model is a needed transformation for many global
corporations. The different designations of global staff add additional complexity to
where talent is sourced. Such talent may be from the originating country, the host
country, or a third country (Palthe, 2009). Technology, communication, and global
succession management are all key enablers to a robust global staffing model that will
source the global business leaders of tomorrow.
Summary
Global leadership research rests squarely on significant past studies conducted
on leadership theories and intelligences. Also, globalization is a mitigating factor that
stretches the definition and increases the complexities of global leadership. Global
leaders may best prepare for the globalization of their roles by focusing on identifying
the factors inherent in CQ and developing concomitant skills in this domain. In
essence, developing CQ skills requires unlearning what has been learned and focusing
on approaching intercultural contexts with the cognitive, motivational, and behavioral
propensities to succeed. Additional criteria to develop CQ skills include global leaders
being physically present in global situations and reflecting on their frequent interactions
in intercultural communication, influence, and team and project leadership roles.
Ultimately, the global leader must be cognizant of the myriad formal and informal
development opportunities available to him/her to enhance intercultural skills.
Chapter 3: Methodology
Globalization is a worldwide trend involving the integration of markets, business,
and people. While the debate surrounding globalization’s homogenizing effects
continues, scholars and practitioners acknowledge that the phenomenon appears to be
irrevocably transformational. As for the impact of globalization on business, companies
have shifted operational goals and structures to a focus beyond home country borders.
Therefore, global leaders—those most responsible for delivering on company goals—
now face more ambiguous and complex work that includes leading diverse teams
across borders. This task requires highly nuanced influence and communication skills.
In response to globalization, companies are approaching leadership and leader
development more urgently than ever before. Companies that have enjoyed success in
developing a cadre of successful global leaders realize it is a challenge that requires an
ongoing focus on the changes in global market presence and the ensuing talent wars.
Insightful companies have already begun to leverage intercultural skill building to
develop global leaders as a means of accelerating business success.
This study sought to reveal key practices for intercultural skill building among
global business leaders. Using their roles as context, global leaders first diagnose
principal challenges to developing intercultural skills. In response to these challenges,
effective global business leaders can share particular strategies for intercultural
communication that help them navigate in the course of their work. Reflection upon
these intercultural skills to ascertain their effectiveness on the job is of particular
importance in the next phase of this study. Lastly, global business leaders with finely
tuned intercultural skills are ideally suited to advise and coach emerging leaders.
Nature of Study
This study attempted to illuminate the strategies and practices employed by
global business leaders to develop intercultural competence. There are two major
assumptions at work here: the development of intercultural competence is a unique
phenomenon that is worthy of further exploration, and the process of becoming an
interculturally skilled global business leader is evolutionary in nature. As a result,
interviews with interculturally skilled global business leaders provided a qualitative body
of data revealing strategies and practices that have proved successful in the real world.
The nature of this study focused on exploring the following questions:
• What challenges do global leaders face in developing intercultural skills?
• What common strategies and practices do global leaders engage in to
develop intercultural skills?
• How do global leaders measure their success in developing their intercultural
skills?
• What recommendations do global leaders have for emerging leaders who
wish to develop intercultural skills?
Contextually, it may be helpful to identify the philosophical constructs
underpinning this study. Of the four predominant knowledge claim philosophies, this
study was rooted in the social constructivism domain. Creswell (2003) noted that the
assumptions behind the proponents of social constructivism “hold that individuals seek
understanding of the world in which they live and work” (p. 8). Creswell posited that
these understandings are subjective because they are based in individual experiences,
yet they provide rich insight into complexity rather than a winnowing of experience into a
few themes. Strategically, any researcher must closely attend in order to capture
participants’ views of their experience. On a tactical level, this means facilitating and
encouraging an open dialogue to garner the depth and breadth of relevant experiences.
This study also took into consideration additional elements of constructivist research.
Importantly, Creswell (2003) noted researchers need to isolate the interaction
processes among individuals. An additional overlay to process focuses on the contexts
in which research participants are operating. Secondly, researcher bias is important to
recognize when conducting any study. Notably, Creswell exhorted researchers to be
aware of how their backgrounds can influence interpretation and “how [this] flows from
their own personal, cultural and historical perspectives” (pp. 8-9). Therefore,
researchers gain meaning primarily from limiting the importance of their own experience
so they can best study others’ life experiences.
Based on the philosophical grounding in social constructivism and its knowledge
claims, it is now important to consider appropriate approaches to research. This study
employed a qualitative methodological approach. According to Creswell (2003), a
qualitative inquiry bases knowledge claims on constructivist perspectives, as described
previously. Within this approach, Creswell highlighted numerous strategies of inquiry
that may be employed to gather and assess data.
Among research approaches, academia now recognizes qualitative inquiry as a
legitimate strategy for studies. Such legitimacy is attributed to numerous characteristics
inherent in the qualitative approach, collectively supporting its viability. Rossman and
Rallis (1998) highlighted the strength of qualitative research conducted in a natural
setting, which provides the researcher and participant not only a level of comfort but
also the necessary context in which dialogue and experience can jointly build meaning.
Next, Rossman and Rallis noted another advantage of qualitative research; it focuses
on multiple methods of data collection that are human-centric. For example, the
researcher seeks to gather data as benignly as possible, with the goal of bonding
purposefully yet authentically with study participants. Further, according to Rossman
and Rallis, qualitative research is expansive rather than prescribed. The impetus for
expansion originates from the richly tiered dialogue between researcher and participant.
Consequently, the comfort with the topic and the natural cadence of conversation
potentially leads the interlocutors to topical discoveries. Lastly, Rossman and Rallis
offered two additional benefits to qualitative research; it is both interpretive and holistic.
Qualitative research develops content that the researcher employs to describe and
make interpretations of the data gathered for the study. In addition, the holistic benefit
of qualitative research is that it focuses on macro themes rather than micro data.
Through the contextual lenses of social constructivism and a qualitative approach
guiding this study, it is important to focus on the methodology best suited to addressing
global business leaders acquiring intercultural skills. According to Creswell (2003),
phenomenological research “identifies the ‘essence’ of human experiences concerning
a phenomenon, as described by participants in study, therefore defining this
methodology as both philosophy and approach” (p. 15). Appropriate sampling allowed
this researcher to arrive at major themes emanating from participants’ lived experiences
in global business leadership. Moustakas (1994) noted that the vehicle for arriving at
meaning is prolonged engagement, which, in this case, involved structured interviews.
There are subcategories in phenomenological methodology, one of which merits
further exploration for the purposes of this study: transcendental phenomenology.
Predating Creswell (2003), Moustakas (1994) noted that the transcendental feature of
phenomenology involves setting aside prejudgments and systemizing data analysis.
Setting aside researcher prejudgments refers to formal bracketing in a study. The
balance of Moustakas’s approach refers to data gathering and analysis, where the
researcher “identifies significant statements in the database from participants and
clusters them into meaningful units and themes” (Moerer-Urdahl & Creswell, 2004, p.
6). Moerer-Urdahl and Creswell (2004) noted that the data analysis ultimately ends with
the themes in any study leading to rich description. For this particular study, this
researcher intended to assimilate individual descriptive experiences into a meta-
essence of global business leaders’ experiences in developing intercultural skills.
Moustakas’ (1994) transcendental phenomenology offers numerous advantages
to this study. First, Moerer-Urdahl and Creswell (2004) acknowledged that objective
experience is a possible result from compiling and sorting into themes. An attempt to
achieve this objectivity happened through the compilation of global business leaders’
subjective experiences with intercultural skills. Primarily, there was some anticipation
that global business leaders were going to share experiences through stories and
lessons learned from those stories after having reflected upon them. Moerer-Urdahl
and Creswell further claimed that stories are fundamental lenses through which to
convey deeply personal experiences, since they come from the study participants
themselves.
The felicitous benefits of storytelling merit further discussion. First, global
business leaders did rely on stories to articulate their journey toward becoming skilled in
the intercultural domain. However, they may not have been fully aware of the benefits
stories provide either to themselves or the researcher. Danzig and Harris (1996) stated
that when searching for solutions, “Experienced professionals apply tacit knowledge—a
practical knowledge that guides how problems are managed on an everyday basis” (p.
195). Organizations increasingly require diverse people to collaborate effectively in
order to accomplish goals, complete tasks, and drive innovation on a global scale.
When reflected upon systematically, global business leaders can use stories to drive
intercultural learning in themselves and their diverse teams.
Danzig and Harris (1996) underscored that the goal of all stories is to link
symbolic knowledge with the practical knowledge of individuals’ effective actions. Thus,
stories link the tacit with application, thereby finding immediate value and developing
the practice of intercultural skill development among global leaders. Danzig and Harris
further noted that stories also help leaders interpret the nature of their work by
connecting the personal and the professional domains. Of particular importance to the
scope of this study is how global business leaders leverage personal characteristics
outlined in the literature review and translate these to professional effectiveness in their
global roles.
Alternate Research Methodology
In the process of performing the research for this study, an additional
methodological approach was considered to determine how global leaders develop
strategies and practices in intercultural skills. One such method is grounded theory, a
construct that explores what is happening in a given situation (Richards & Morse, 2013).
Inherent in grounded theory are the notions of change and process; thus, some
application was noted to this particular study. However, phenomenology focuses on
offering “a descriptive, reflective, interpretive and engaging mode of inquiry” (Richards &
Morse, 2013, p. 67) to arrive at the essence of a global leader’s experience in a given
intercultural milieu and how that leader knows he/she is being effective. The mix of the
global leader, the context, and the skill all conspire to create the being in the moment
experience that phenomenology best captures and was of most interest to this
investigator.
Participant Selection
Participant selection for any study must be purposeful, or purposive, in the case
of a qualitative research study. The opposite of purposive sampling is random
sampling. According to Creswell (2003), in purposive sampling the setting, actors,
events, and process are expressly considered to ensure that the data gathered and
analyzed are of highest quality. The purity of the data allowed the best chance to make
determinations therefrom.
The population selected for this study was a Fortune 500 company with
significant revenue sources and a footprint outside the United States and with a specific
focus on its entire global functional leadership. Human resources leaders were
excluded from the population. The ultimate sampling frame numbered approximately
25–35 participants. The following served as the selection criteria of the sampling frame:
• Director-level (or equivalent) and above in the organizational chart;
• Representative of diverse leadership (different functions, genders, ethnicity,
generations);
• From three to a dozen team members working inside and outside of the
United States;
• Occupying a global role for at least two years;
• Having had a successful expatriate assignment or having had significant
global travel;
• Above the age of 30; and
• Possessing a bachelor’s degree at a minimum.
The sampling frame included global business leaders known to this investigator’s
professional network. Although the participant selection was primarily purposive, the
snowball technique was leveraged, which is claimed to be the most widely used method
of sampling in qualitative research (Noy, 2008). Through a combination of purposive
sampling and the snowball technique, a list of approximately 25-35 potential candidates
was drafted to interview.
With the list of potential interview candidates in hand, the principal investigator
engaged in maximum variation of the sampling frame. In this case, maximum variation
meant that specific characteristics of individuals were ensured (i.e., both females and
males, per the selection criteria) were represented in the sample, with the sample being
reflective of a proportion of individuals with certain characteristics of the population
(Creswell, 2003). For maximum variation, both organizational information and
anecdotal data were referenced to validate the 25-35 potential candidates that made up
the ultimate population. As a result, numerous internal leaders were eliminated from
consideration for interviewing as a result of the principal investigator’s maximum
variation work. Ultimately, a final list of 20 global leaders was created, knowing that
some leaders may have been unavailable to participate in the interviews.
Criteria for Inclusion
Ultimately, the population interviewed numbered 15 global leaders to ensure the
study was representative, reliable, and valid—meaning global leaders were selected
according to the selection criteria. The size of the sample yielded a group of global
business leaders from different business functions, representing the demographics
listed previously in the population of interest. Finally, from the sample, the analysis unit
was one global business leader representing any major corporate function inside the
company: R & D, sales, marketing, information technology, engineering, operations, and
finance.
Criteria for Exclusion
There were some who were excluded from participating in this study. Human
resources leaders were excluded from the study population. Also excluded from the
study was any analysis unit that did not meet the seven selection criteria listed in the
aforementioned section on participant selection.
Sources of Data
For this study, the sources of data came from a Fortune 500 company. The goal
of this study was to secure the time, attention, and data of 15 global leaders who
described their journey to develop effective intercultural skills. The format to arrive at
this data set was semi-structured interviews between the principal investigator and the
participants. It was assumed that global leaders would be at a career stage where they
would be willing to share their experiences, detailing strategies and practices in
intercultural skill development. Hence, these interviews provided the impetus for more
learning through the natural cadence of dialogue.
Qualitative research that espouses a phenomenological approach allows for
numerous viable avenues for proper participant selection. Purposive sampling is one
such approach and was determined to be the technique best suited to this study.
According to Horsburgh (2003), “initial sampling decisions should be purposive, in that
selection of participants is made on the basis of their ability to provide relevant data on
the area under investigation” (p. 311). In essence, purposive sampling starts with
several criteria among participants signaling who would be the most ideal data sources.
Horsburgh proposed that the analysis of the initial data may inform the researcher’s
successive direction of sampling. Thus, as the iterative purposive sampling process
unfolds, the researcher may need to demonstrate openness to slight course corrections.
Site Permission
An important part of a principal investigator’s role is to gain access to a research
site (Creswell, 2003). For this study, the principal investigator approached the Fortune
500 company’s human resources leadership, who referred him to the company’s legal
counsel and ultimately also to the public affairs leader for their viewpoints. Finally, three
internal functions—human resources, legal, and public affairs—provided written
approval (via email) to engage in this study.
Protection of Human Subjects
Researchers rely on human subjects to conduct research but can only do so
within strict confines to protect said subjects (Title 45, Part 46 of the U.S. Code of
Federal Regulations). Based in history and now required by legal mandates, human
subjects consideration serves as a frame for the value and purpose of research studies.
Therefore, certain procedures are required of all researchers to protect human subjects.
This study’s human subjects were global business leaders who were invited to
participate in an interview at a professional venue of their choosing. The research
methodology employed in this study required formal approval by the Pepperdine
University Institutional Review Board (IRB). The global business leaders who
participated in this study are protected by the IRB, which acts in the official
administrative capacity described in the federal regulation.
Upon review of Title 45, Part 46 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, this
study met the requirements for exemption since:
• Research involved the use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude,
achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or observation of
public behavior, unless:
o Information obtained is recorded in such a manner that human subjects can
be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects; and o Any disclosure
of the human subjects’ responses beyond the researcher could reasonably place the
subjects at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects’ financial
standing, employability, or reputation. The 15 global business leaders confirmed to
participate in this study were provided a modified informed consent form in advance of
the interview; they received the form by email. Sending the form this way allowed
participants to read and absorb the scope of the benefits and risks of participating in this
research. The consent form mentioned the key component of voluntary participation
with the option to not answer select questions or withdraw if discomfort was exhibited at
any point. Full anonymity was also offered with the explicit notice of this guarantee in
the document, including the means by which any reference to any identifiable
information (including company name, products, brands, strategies, projects, team
member names, and leaders’ name and title) would be omitted prior to formal
publishing. For example, pseudonyms for both the company and the study participants
were employed to ensure participants felt comfortable to speak freely and were relieved
of any anxiety that might accrue from personal identification. The researcher was
ethically bound to destroy all material for any participant not consenting to be
interviewed.
The risks and benefits were articulated to the participants in this research study.
This study was framed so that participation would increase the topical research in this
key area for the benefit of other researchers and global business leaders facing the
same challenges as described in the research questions. Global business leaders were
asked for their consent to record the interview and to have the content from the
conversations used for this study. An additional risk was embodied in disclosure of the
nature of the specific traits and skills they demonstrated as global leaders and key
experiences that helped in their development of intercultural competence. Further, prior
to the interview, a thorough review obviated any compromising conflict-of-interest
situations in which research participants might unduly influence the researcher or the
research.
Interviewees in this study received no remuneration for their participation; each
participant received a thank you note. Also, when participants expressed interest in the
final results of the study, the researcher made provision to share the results of the study
in written form. This additional gesture demonstrated goodwill and gratitude for the
participants’ time and contribution.
Data Collection Methods
The principal investigator made initial contact with study participants by email;
follow-up was performed via telephone call. The initial email included the informed
consent form for participants to review and sign. The informed consent form included
the following content:
• Introductory contextual information about this study;
• The purpose of the study;
• The study procedures;
• Potential risks and discomforts of the study;
• Potential benefits to participants and/or society;
• Payment/compensation for participation in the study;
• Potential conflicts of interest of the investigator;
• Anonymity assurances;
• Participation and withdrawal;
• Alternatives to full participation;
• Investigator’s contact information;
• Rights of research participant and IRB contact information; and
• Designated spaces for signatures of research participant and principal
investigator.
Upon receiving either verbal or written acceptance of the invitation to participate,
the principal investigator requested full participant contact information. With this contact
information in hand, the principal investigator scheduled in-person interviews lasting no
more than 60 minutes each for the months of February and March 2016. The preferred
physical location for the interviews was participants’ office space. Digital interviews
were performed via teleconference in the event that significant geographical distance
separated the principal investigator and the participant.
For each interview, the principal arrived 15 minutes ahead of time to account for
any executive assistant check-in protocols and to allow for any wait time. The principal
investigator dressed in professional business attire and came to each interview
equipped with the following items:
• A digital recorder and an iPhone recorder as a backup;
• The informed consent form to verify review and signature prior to beginning
the interview protocol;
• A backup notebook and writing instrument; and
• A professional calling card to present to participants
Interview Protocol
Certain key elements to any interview protocol ensure successful execution to
maximize the time investment of both researcher and interviewee. For these interviews,
initial pleasantries were exchanged with each participant with the goal of making the
global business leader feel comfortable with the researcher and interview process.
Next, the researcher reviewed the specific interview protocol details with the
interviewee. Grounding the interviewee in the protocol served a number of purposes.
First, it provided a contextual review of the interview topic, themes, and process, and
eased the business leader into a reflective mode. This researcher also explained that
the interview protocol was formulated by him and reviewed by a preliminary review
committee as well as the university’s governing dissertation committee.
Interview Techniques
With formalities and official paperwork out of the way, this researcher provided a
quick, high-level overview of the purpose and mechanics of a semi-structured interview.
At this point, the researcher queried the participant to obtain verbal consent to be audio
recorded. Throughout the interview, the researcher demonstrated nuanced
communication techniques to ensure that the interviewee reflected and recounted
his/her experiences in developing intercultural skills. For example, open-ended
questions were asked and adequate response time allowed, so interviewees could
comprehensively respond without any hint of leading. Phrases such as “tell me more”
or “would you please elaborate on that” were employed to draw out participants’
descriptive narratives of their experiences. As is the case in semi-structured interviews,
appropriate follow-up questions were phrased to expand upon novel experiences
recounted by the participants. Concluding at the one-hour mark, the interview ended
with this researcher expressing appreciation for the leader’s time and attention, and any
requests by the participants for an opportunity to follow up were discussed and
scheduled.
Instrument
Embedded in the protocol instrument were the research question-based
interview questions, which numbered 10 in total. Both the research questions and the
corresponding interview questions were crafted by this researcher and passed a
comprehensive review by his dissertation committee. The process for arriving at the
research questions and corresponding interview questions are described subsequently.
Validity of Instrument
Creswell (2003) found that validity is an important part of the research process to
establish the credibility of the findings. At this stage of the research process, the validity
of the interview protocol was addressed. In this case, with the express guidance of the
dissertation committee, validity was established in three ways; each step (described
subsequently) unfolded successively.
Step 1: Prima facie validity. Originating from an ancient Greek concept, the
Latin term prima facie is applied here in its literal meaning “on/at first appearance”
(Herlitz, 1994, p. 392). While usage of the term is rooted in philosophical and legal
contexts, prima facie has also been applied to academia. In modern times, for
example, prima facie is now defined as “upon an initial observation” (p. 393); in this
context, prima facie applies to the process construct of the aforementioned interview
protocol and detailed questions.
Leveraging the principle of prima facie validity and based on the review of the
literature, the principal investigator referenced the four research questions and began to
design the corresponding interview questions. Butin (2010) noted the criticality of a
well-constructed interview protocol to reduce interviewer bias and ensure that there is
ample thick data at the analysis stage. One recommended technique is to ensure that
open-ended questions are the preferred sentence construct (Butin, 2010). Leveraging
the pre-approved research questions, this researcher drafted the interview questions
and utilized a method to ensure accurate mapping between the two sets of questions.
These questions were then reviewed again to ensure they were as neutral as possible,
free of evocative or judgmental wording (Turner, 2010). Ultimately, the principal
investigator formulated 10 interview protocol questions that linked directly to the four
research questions (as presented in Table 1).
Table 1
Research and Interview Questions
Research Questions Corresponding Interview Questions
1. What challenges do 1. global
leaders face in developing
intercultural 2. skills?
What aspects of effective global leadership keep
you up at night?
Based on your experience, what is difficult about
becoming an effective global leader?
2. What common strategies 3.
and practices do global
leaders engage in to 4.
develop intercultural skills?
5.
What does effective global leadership mean to
you?
How would you describe your global leadership
style?
Share with me an example of when you
demonstrated outstanding global leadership?
6. Does your leadership style change based on
different situations and followership? How so?
7. What global leadership responsibilities provide the
best opportunity to develop intercultural skills?
3. How do global leaders 8.
measure their success in
developing their
intercultural skills?
How do you measure global leadership success?
4. What recommendations 9. do
global leaders have for
emerging leaders 10.
who wish to develop
intercultural skills?
What experience was the most helpful to develop
your global leadership?
What advice do you have for future global leaders?
Step 2: Peer review. Creswell (2003) articulated eight strategies to ensure
validity of the research and its findings. Three of these strategies have figured
prominently in this study already: clarifying bias; using rich, thick description; and
prolonged time in the field. A fourth strategy to ensure validity of any study—and this
one in particular—is to leverage a peer debrief team who, by reviewing interview
questions and collected data, can provide targeted feedback to the principal
investigator.
Two researchers reviewed these research questions and their corresponding
interview questions. The researchers were both doctoral students with business
experience concurrently enrolled in the Doctorate of Education in Organizational
Leadership program at Pepperdine University. The researchers are knowledgeable in
the similar research methodology within their own doctoral dissertations and have
completed quantitative and qualitative research methods and data analysis courses.
The panel was given a package composed of a summary statement of this research
paper, a copy of the research question and corresponding interview questions table
presented previously, and directives to follow to measure if the interview questions were
appropriately aligned with the research questions. The directives provided to the panel
were as follows:
1. Please review the summary statement attached to acquaint yourself with the
purpose and goals of this study.
2. Next, assess the corresponding interview questions.
3. If you conclude that the interview question is applicable to the corresponding,
mark “The question is applicable to the research question - Keep as stated.”
4. If you conclude that the interview question is not applicable to the
corresponding interview question mark, “This question is not applicable to the
research question - delete it.”
5. Finally, if you conclude that to be applicable to the research question, the
interview question must be amended, mark “The question should be
amended as suggested.” and in the available space provided recommend
your amendment.
6. An additional space was also provided to recommend additional interview
questions for each research question.
Suggestions for revisions primarily focused on the specificity of the proposed
interview questions (See Table 2 for the sample). These edits were suggested by the
preliminary review panel in an effort to have the interviewee better understand exactly
what the researcher was asking. As a result, this would allow the interviewee to provide
concise and relevant responses based upon the final questions.
Step 3: Expert review. A fifth strategy was used to ensure the validity of this
research. Creswell (2003) stated that an external auditor (or expert reviewers) can
provide additional perspective and feedback on a study. Following the aforementioned
peer review, the results were sent from the panel of peer reviewers to an expert
reviewer panel made up of his dissertation committee for an additional screening. After
a thorough review, the expert reviewer panel provided focused feedback on the
interview questions and their alignment with the research questions. Their feedback
was then incorporated into a refined and finalized version of the interview protocol
question set.
Table 2
Suggested Revisions to Proposed Interview Questions
Research Questions Suggested Revisions
1. What challenges do global •
leaders face in developing •
intercultural skills?
2. What common strategies and •
practices do global leaders engage in
to develop
intercultural skills? •
3. How do global leaders measure their
success in developing their
intercultural skills? •
4. What recommendations do • global
leaders have for emerging
leaders who wish to develop
intercultural skills? •
How would you define an effective global leader? 1
What is the importance of intercultural skills to you as
a global leader? 2 change wording
Tell me about the first time you realized that
intercultural skills could help you be a more effective
global leader? 2
Based on you experience, what are the most difficult
aspects to developing intercultural skills in your role?
1
How do you get your global teams to succeed? 2
How do you know when you are successfully
influencing and communicating your team? 3 What
techniques do you use to effectively influence
many diverse groups during the course of a day? 2
•
Knowing what you know now, what knowledge, skills
or experiences do you wish you had gained earlier in
your career to be a better global leader? 2
•What universal themes in intercultural skills around
people leadership (influence and communication) do
you think apply to all cultures? 2,4
•What about being a global leader keeps you up at
night? 1
•What aspects of intercultural skills best address your
global leadership challenges? 2
•What are things that you do to be effective in a new
culture or situation? 2 rewording
•Preface … effective global leadership involves
leading a dispersed team. What intercultural skills
help you best create a high performing team when
they are different linguistically, culturally and
separated by time and space? 2 reword
•What was the most defining intercultural
development experience you’ve had that made you
an effective global leader? 2
•What advice would you have around intercultural
skills for a new global leader to succeed that you can
share? 4
Statement of Personal Bias
A principal investigator processes his research through the lens of his/her own
experience. However, each principal investigator must identify any particular biases
that can either detract from or enhance the data as it is elicited and assessed. This
process is referred to as bracketing. Specifically, bracketing refers to “an investigator’s
identification of vested interests, personal experience, cultural factors, assumptions,
and hunches that could influence how he views the study’s data” (Fischer, 2009, p.
583). Fischer (2009) asserted that the aim of bracketing is not to eliminate one’s
perspectives, which cannot be done, but rather to examine them and then pivot as
needed. Bracketing is an ongoing process. The engagement that bracketing affords
occurs throughout the data gathering and review process, beginning with disclosure.
In this case, the principal investigator acknowledged that he:
• Has bicultural status, having been born of foreign parents;
• Had a bilingual childhood household;
• Has 20 years of experience developing global leaders for
predominantly
Fortune 500 companies;
• Is fluent or proficient in four European languages; and
• Had two successful expatriate experiences—one in Europe and
one in Africa. Clearly, this principal investigator’s background, knowledge, skills,
and experiences required bracketing. Moustakas (1994) suggested that during
an interview process, researchers refrain from taking predisposed positions and
from making advance determinations. In essence, the principal investigator’s
background and experiences allowed for richer dialogue, inquiry, and data
collection that would only serve to enhance the research data findings.
Data Analysis
Once the data have been gathered, qualitative research studies typically follow a
common roadmap for analysis. Creswell (2003) provided a roadmap that begins with
organizing and preparing the data for a thorough analysis. This preparation may entail
transcription of notes, data sorting, and preliminarily rearranging of the data. For the
second step, Creswell recommended a thorough reading of the data. From this initial
read an overarching tenor to the data may appear. Creswell then continued to the third
step: coding. Coding starts by organizing the data into major content areas, gathering
thoughts and assumptions throughout the process. A thorough coding starts with
selecting one data point—an interview, in this case—and getting to its essential
element. Once the data have been coded, Creswell noted (phase four) that generating
a description of the setting is first followed by the development of themes and
categories for deeper analysis. In step five, Creswell recommended using narrative to
convey the themes and descriptions in step four. He noted that the purpose of the last
step is to provide interpretations of the data collected and reviewed. This may or may
not be swayed by personal interpretation, but should instead take the form of key points
as a result of the study effort.
Creswell (2003) wrote, “The process of data analysis involves making sense out
of text and image data” (p. 190). This clear mandate guides the researcher in this
phase of the data collection and review. Rossman and Rallis (1998) stated that
numerous reviews of the data provide ongoing reflection. This is particularly true in
phenomenology. Moustakas (1994) purported that in phenomenological research the
use of statement analysis, creating meaning units, and generating essences
descriptions are necessary. This process is known as coding, “the process of
organizing the [interview] material into ‘chunks’ before bringing meaning to those
‘chunks’” (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 171). Importantly, this researcher intended to
code the data himself in order to fully contextualize the depth and breadth of the
content.
Inter-Rater Reliability and Validity
Step 1: Self-coding of data. Coding, which involves several steps, proved to be
of great value in this study. Leveraging his early professional years as an instructional
designer, the principal investigator employed color schemes and mind maps with
notecards. These tools culminated in the production of a table in which the data were
analyzed using main headings. Next, each main heading was built around keywords
that were used to arrive at the particular conceptual construct. Thomas (2006) noted
“the evaluator then identifies text segments that contain meaningful units and creates a
label for a new category to which the text segment is assigned” (p. 241). When these
preliminary tasks in the coding process are completed, the next step is to seek a review
by qualified individuals.
Step 2: Peer review of coded data. Once the preliminary coded content was
completed, a panel of two doctoral student peer reviewers assessed the initial coding
efforts. The role of the peer reviewers was to refine the coding and suggest
modifications to strengthen the initial coded content. At the conclusion of this step, the
team arrived at a consensus that yielded an improved product.
Step 3: Expert review of coded data. Following individual and peer review of
the coded data, an expert reviewer panel was called upon to provide feedback on the
interview protocol questions. As mentioned previously, the same dissertation committee
offered coaching and feedback at this point of the coded data review. From the coded
data, the principal investigator compiled themes distilled from keywords, which will be
presented in Chapter 4.
Summary
Global leaders operating in today’s corporate roles face many challenges. Given
the complexity involved in their roles, global leaders require assistance to be more
effective in meeting these challenges. The goal of this study is to identify the strategies
and practices germane to developing intercultural skills in global leaders. From a broad
perspective, the research elucidated the business case for global leaders to focus on
intercultural skills. Through dialogue with global leaders, this researcher sought stories
that describe key experiences that contribute to becoming effective in intercultural skills.
Ultimately, with the qualitative research data lending credence, this study makes a
meaningful contribution to the field of global leadership and intercultural skill
development.
Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings
As a result of external globalization factors and resultant internal performance
pressures, global business leaders are facing increasingly daunting challenges that are
pulling at today’s definition of effective leadership. Given the complexity global leaders
face, the principal hypothesis of this study is that developing intercultural skills serves
as the best strategy for global business leaders to successfully navigate the
collaboration, diversity, and performance demands inherent in their roles. Pusch (2009)
affirmed this hypothesis, asserting that for global companies to foster effective
leadership, development efforts must be taken to produce leaders with intercultural
skills. To gauge this, the global business leaders taking part in this study provided key
perspectives on how they have leveraged intercultural skills to achieve their business
goals for both professional and personal enrichment. Although the bulk of the findings
focus on strategies and practices global leaders employ to develop intercultural skills,
the study begins by grounding the results in the challenges global business leaders
face. After presenting the strategies and practices, there is a presentation of the
findings that focus on measurement success of leaders in global business roles. In
summary, and in acknowledgment of a key global generational shift currently occurring,
the researcher shares the findings of current global business leaders’ coaching and
advice to the next generation of global leaders to help them be effective.
Participants
The participants in this study were global company business leaders employed at
a Fortune 500 company in Los Angeles, California. Fully representing the diversity
requirements in the selection criteria, the interviewees numbered 15. There were 11
men and four women occupying different management levels, having different lengths
of service, representing different geographies and national origins, having different
education levels, and encompassing all business functions except human resources.
The rich diversity of the research participants allowed for ample data collection, thick
description, and in-depth analysis addressed subsequently in this study.
Data Collection
The data for this study were collected from the participants during the months of
February and March 2016. Table 3 presents the days on which each participant
interview was conducted. The collection took the form of semi-structured interviews
lasting up to one hour in length through both face-to-face or video teleconferencing
technology meetings. With the initial invitation, each participant received a copy of the
modified Informed Consent and, before the interview, each provided verbal affirmation
prior to data collection. As for the interview protocol, the researcher asked the same
question set of each participant, allowing for some free form dialogue and expansion
when participants became inspired by their reflection when answering particular
questions. Each of the participants noted the value of this study and demonstrated
eagerness to participate in the opportunity to share their global business leader
experience.
Table 3
Dates of the Participant Interviews
Participant Interview Date
P1 February 24, 2016
P2 February 26, 2016
P3 February 29, 2016
P4 March 3, 2016
P5 March 4, 2016
P6 March 8, 2016
P7 March 9, 2016
P8 March 11, 2016
P9 March 11, 2016
P10 March 9, 2016
P11 March 9, 2016
P12 March 10, 2016
P13 March 10, 2016
P14 March 9, 2016
P15 March 10, 2016
The following 10 interview questions that linked to the four research questions
were asked:
1. What aspects of effective global leadership keep you up at night?
2. Based on your experience, what is difficult about becoming an effective global
leader?
3. What does effective global leadership mean to you?
4. How would you describe your global leadership style?
5. Share with me an example of when you demonstrated outstanding global
leadership?
6. Does your leadership style change based on different situations and
followership? How so?
7. What global leadership responsibilities provide the best opportunity to
develop intercultural skills?
8. How do you measure global leadership success?
9. What experience was the most helpful to develop your global leadership?
10.What advice do you have for future global leaders?
At the conclusion of the interview questions, the participants were asked for any final
thoughts or statements. This invitation either led participants to summarize their
thoughts or to expound on a previous question. Any additional data were added to the
appropriate interview question.
With the data collection achieved as a result of the interviews, the content was
transcribed into a Microsoft Word document for each participant, removing all personally
identifiable information, which rendered the data anonymous. This action fulfilled the
agreement that was made with the participants. By way of follow up, the participants
were sent a Microsoft Word document for a content review and opportunity for him/her
to make edits, approve, and return the data. Ultimately, the participants either
communicated that the transcript reflected their opinions or suggested slight
modifications in the returned transcript.
Data Analysis
There are many characteristics of qualitative research. It is interpretive in nature,
with the researcher in the role of interpreter of the data (Creswell, 2003). As the
collected data passes through the lens of the interpreter, it is filtered through his/her
own particular world and life view. While the aforementioned biases have been
accounted for, each researcher has a unique perspective.
In totality, the principal investigator amassed 150 pages of collected data from
the participant interviews. For each participant interview, the responses were re-read —
approximately 15 pages per participant—two times. The read-throughs allowed for a
view of the general tenor and tonality of the data (Creswell, 2003). Undoubtedly, some
initial themes began to appear, yet required crystallization, the goal of the next phase of
data analysis—coding.
According to Saldana (2016), descriptive coding “assigns labels to data to
summarize in a word or short phrase—most often as a noun—the basic topic of a
qualitative data” (p. 292). For each participant response to the particular interview
question, certain essential concepts emerged naturally. These numbered anywhere
from a few to several concepts per interview question per participant.
Data Representation and Further Analysis
With all thematic concepts identified for the totality of the interview questions, a
sizeable spreadsheet was created to visually display the data concepts. The document
contained the four research questions, the subset of 10 interview questions, and the
concepts identified for each interview question. The document was then printed out in
color and large poster-size to allow for a global view of the data.
Referencing the poster, all the concepts were surveyed for each interview
question. With the help of several colored markers, each initial concept was assigned a
color. Subsequent concepts that appeared related were color coded consistently. At
times a few concepts were coded similarly, yet more often than not differing concepts
required different color-coding. Themes began to emerge naturally from the similarly
color-coded concepts. Other times, the researcher coded similar concepts without a
label appearing until all concepts had been color-coded. At this stage of data analysis,
Creswell (2003) noted that the researcher employs complex reasoning, borrowing from
inductive and deductive approaches. In this instance, this reasoning occurred naturally,
with inductive approaches being the more typical technique in the course of data
analysis. Toward the end of the data analysis process, when the data could be viewed
with several colors coding different concepts, the work of assigning themes became
easier and more comprehensive.
Validating the Data: Inter-Rater Reliability
According to Creswell (2003), validity is an important component of qualitative
research and lends credibility to any study. To validate the research findings in this
study, an approach called inter-rater reliability was used. Once the data were analyzed
thoroughly, the preliminary findings were presented to two colleagues at Pepperdine
University also in the dissertation phase of their doctoral study in Organizational
Leadership. Creswell underscored the importance of peer review stating that selecting
a person or two to ask questions about the study and its data helps to gain additional
insight and feedback from an audience that is not as close to the findings. Essentially,
an objective review provides important perspective in the data validity process, adding
heft to this—and any—qualitative study. In this case, the two doctoral colleagues were
asked to review the research questions, the interview questions, key concepts under
each interview question, and the thematic codes for each interview question. This
request involved not an insignificant amount of time on the part of the peer reviewers
yet was a critical step to validate the data analysis.
The two colleagues took approximately 1 week’s time to thoroughly review the
totality of the research questions, interview questions, and the coded themes and key
concepts supporting each theme. From the feedback, some thematic constructs were
refined by the placement of certain concepts among different themes. Their editing
suggestions provided helpful feedback that strengthened this study’s approach to data
analysis and presentation of the findings.
Research Question One
Global business leaders can spend their careers developing their intercultural
skills as a means to professional succeed in their roles. Before articulating how they
have developed these strategies, global leaders provided critical context in the form of
challenges they face with this endeavor. Research question one asked: What
challenges do global leaders face in developing intercultural skills? Subsumed under
this research question are two interview questions. The first one asked what aspects of
global leadership keep the business leaders up at night and the second asked what is
difficult about becoming an effective global leader.
Interview question 1. For interview question one, participants provided
manifold challenges that keep them up at night. These challenges also may be their
focus as leaders of resultant strategies discussed later. As a result of the analysis, the
data revealed the following themes for the first question reflecting what aspects of
effective global leadership keep business leaders up at night: (a) intercultural
communication and connectivity, (b) global leadership effectiveness, (c) managing
expectations/conflict, (c) intercultural navigation, and (e) team strength (See Figure 1).
Figure 1. Interview question 1: Coding results.
Theme one. According to Pusch (2009), intercultural communication involves
dexterity and fluency in the course of diverse contexts—a key skill for global business
leaders. As such, striving to be skilled in intercultural communication is the first theme
from the participant data. In the data, P5, P11, and P12 cited intercultural
communication issues as a direct challenge inhibiting their dexterity and fluency.
Further, P2 and P13 also cited a concern for managing perceptions with their diverse
interlocutors. In recognition of intercultural communication challenges within the Asian
context, P2 mentioned that communicating indirectly is a skill to recognize and master.
In the same vein, P11 asserted that missing nuances is another intercultural
communication challenge preventing understanding and true connection. Another
concern is getting people to open up in team or one-on-one meetings, according to P10
and his challenge with intercultural communication. Regarding intercultural connectivity,
12
10
8 8
6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Intercultural
Communication
and Connectivity
Global
Leadership
Effectiveness
Managing
Expectations
and Conflict
Intercultural
Navigation
Team Strength
Count
Themes
Interview Question 1 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
P5 and P11 cited navigating time zones as an additional challenge to surmount. P13
summarized this theme aptly, stating that:
It is knowing whether one is being fully understood or not. That is the biggest
issue. Perception is everything. If communication is perceived incorrectly, then
there are problems, and the perception is coming from the culture of the country
you are in.
For the aforementioned intercultural communication and connectivity theme,
there was a benefit from the colleague’s inter-rater reliability review. Whereas initially
there was a separation of the intercultural communication theme from an additional
theme named 24/7 connectivity, the colleague adroitly collapsed these two themes into
one. This conjoined theme made the data coding richer and clearer, thereby enhancing
the study’s findings.
Theme two. Global leadership effectiveness emerged as the second theme in
importance that concerned participants. Katz (1974) defined leader effectiveness in
terms of three main skill areas: conceptual, technical and human. In this study, the
global leadership effectiveness theme was composed of technical and human skills. In
the technical arena, P1, P6, and P14 noted that creating relevant products is a
benchmark for them to be deemed effective. Also technically, P6 cited planting enough
seeds to ensure future growth as a concern. In the human skills domain, P1 mentioned
that sourcing global talent with sound global thinking skills was a challenge for him.
Subsequently, once the talent is on board, P2 was sensitive to “leading without
overwhelming, not forcing, and guiding correctly” within the human domain of effective
global leadership (P2, personal communication, February 26, 2016).
Theme three. Managing expectations and conflict can be described as a
universal leadership challenge, one that bedevils these participants, thereby occupying
the third theme. Within the global context, participants mentioned that these struggles
are significantly amplified. P12 noted that “balancing global and local needs” at times
necessitated “conflict management between headquarters and local” venues (P12,
personal communication, March 10, 2016). Echoing this sentiment, P3 acknowledged
frequent global and local tension. P7 expressed frustration with uninformed and
impatient leadership that hindered his global leadership effectiveness. In essence, P12
thought, “The biggest challenge is how to balance the local priorities with the U.S.
priorities” (P12, personal communication, March 10, 2016).
Theme four. Tied for the third place theme with managing expectations and
conflict is intercultural navigation. Navigation implies that participants sought to make
sense of the intercultural domain in which they are operating and take intelligent and
culturally appropriate action. P8 and P11 thought understanding the culture was
important, with P14 similarly focused on learning the unfamiliar. Proactively, P4 focused
on navigating differing work ethics and achieving mutual openness. P10 summarized
aptly, “I am the bridge between the two [cultures]” (P10, personal communication, March
9, 2016).
Theme five. Participants also shared concerns about the health and dynamism
of their teams, resulting in the last theme for this interview question—team strength. P9
wondered whether she was “empowering my leaders” by “instilling enough confidence”
in them to succeed, given the time zones separating her from her leaders (P9, personal
communication, March 11, 2016). Similarly, P1 shared a concern about direct visibility
and connection to his leaders to fully understand their needs and challenges. With his
team leadership, P2 wondered if he was engendering sensitive and respectful
collaboration. As to determining team strength, P1 asked, “Do I understand them and
what is going on” (P1, personal communication, February 24, 2016)?
Interview question 1 summary. A comprehensive scan of the data responses
to interview question one reveals two main conclusions. The first conclusion is that
participants are challenged by the difficult dynamics of working interculturally:
communicating, connecting, navigating, and managing conflict require highly nuanced
skills. The second conclusion is about leadership challenges agnostic to location: being
effective as a global leader and developing team strength. Both conclusions provide
the contextual framework for the challenges participants face with global leadership.
Interview question 2. The second interview question completed the exploration
of research question one, which addressed the challenges global leaders face in
developing intercultural skills. Leveraging the lens of the participants’ experience, this
interview question delved into the difficulties of becoming an effective global leader.
While similar to interview question one, this rephrased question elicited different
responses. The data gathered for the second question yielded four themes that
complement the findings from interview question one. Interview question two revealed
the following themes: (a) intercultural understanding, (b) getting or being overseas,
(c) people leadership, and (d) intercultural communication challenges (See Figure 2).
Theme one. Intercultural understanding, the first theme, represented a challenge that
inhibited participants. More broadly, P3 and P9 noted that cultures are different and that
overcoming these differences were efforts required for intercultural understanding. For
example, P4 and P8 noted that understanding cultural paradoxes presented difficulties
to surmount. For P13, “Understanding mindsets of employees and consumers [on a
global scale was difficult for him] and that understanding the mindsets of people takes a
long time” (P13, personal communication, March 10, 2016).
Figure 2. Interview question 2: Coding results.
Theme two. Getting or being overseas was the second theme confounding
participants in their efforts to be effective in their global leadership roles. P1 offered that
being globally mobile and getting people to relocate can be difficult for some global
business leaders. Once overseas, P7 and P11 mentioned that living in the region and
living elsewhere presented additional obstacles. P5 noted that being overseas meant a
lot of travel that also came with the expectation of 24/7 availability to the team. P7
struggled with the odd hours stemming from operating in multiple time zones.
Inter-rater reliability served to strengthen the coding and presentation of this
study’s findings for this interview question as well. Similar to the coding for interview
14
987
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Intercultural
Understanding
Getting or Being
Overseas
People Leadership Intercultural
Communication
Challenges
Count
Themes
Interview Question 2 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
question one, an additional theme, 24/7 work schedule, was created with a few
concepts supporting this theme. The inter-rater colleague perceptibly noted that the
24/7 work schedule theme could be subsumed under the theme getting or being
overseas. This feedback added heft and clarity to the getting or being overseas theme.
Theme three. People leadership—a universal leadership challenge—emerged
as the third theme participants found that challenged their global leadership
effectiveness. P2 was keenly aware of the intercultural need for role-modeling
sufficiently and appropriately, balancing respect and leadership. For P15, focusing on
people meant building new relationships, and for P7 it meant working with global teams
effectively. P9 asserted, “I think that global means that you are working globally and
working with global teams” (P9, personal communication, March 11, 2016).
Theme four. Intercultural communication challenges rounded out the theme
regarding what participants found to be difficult about becoming a global leader. P11
and P12 focused on the communication difficulties of catching cultural nuances and
understanding communication challenges that, ultimately, allowed them to be perceived
as effective by interpreting messages correctly. P5 noted his need to overcommunicate
in his particular Asian work environment. P11 drew from her experiences stating, “If you
don’t know something culturally, you have got to understand how others are translating
what you are saying” (P11, personal communication, March 9, 2016).
Interview question 2 summary. Participant responses to the query of what is
difficult about being an effective leader spanned two conclusions. In this case, being
overseas creates challenges to intercultural understanding and communication. These
challenges complicate the second conclusion; effective people leadership is made more
difficult when overseas.
Research Question One Summary
Through the lens of two different interview questions, research question one
sought to ground the study in the challenges global leaders face in developing
intercultural skills. As a result of their global experiences, participants cited intercultural
communication and connectivity, understanding, and navigating as areas presenting
difficulties for them. Personal leadership effectiveness, managing conflict between
global and local stakeholders, and a team focus were additional challenges when
working to develop intercultural skills. P3 summarized, “The difficulty is finding where
the cultural differences are and how to overcome them” (P3, personal communication,
February 29, 2016).
Research Question Two
With the challenges that global leaders face when striving to develop intercultural
skills identified and prioritized previously, the study now turns to the findings of the
second research question to uncover the common strategies and practices in which
global leaders engage to develop intercultural skills. The majority focus of this study
sought to answer this research question through five interview questions. First,
participants posited what effective global leadership means to them. This question
provided foundational definitions to frame the strategies and practices for developing
intercultural skills. Next, participants were asked to describe their global leadership
style. Getting more specific, the third interview question asked for a targeted example
of how participants demonstrated outstanding global leadership. The penultimate
interview question to this research question asked participants whether their leadership
style shifts based on different situations and followers and, if so, how it shifts
specifically. Finally, participants reflected upon which global leadership responsibilities
provide the best opportunity to develop intercultural skills.
Interview question 3. Interview question 3 was a broad-based, open-ended
query by design. It sought to determine from participants what effective global
leadership means to them. The open-ended question provided a range of responses
based on the participants’ professional experiences. The data collected revealed five
themes: (a) team focus, (b) intercultural communication skills, (c) leadership
characteristics, (d) emotional intelligence, and (e) business growth (See Figure 3).
Figure 3. Interview question 3: Coding results.
Theme one. Team focus was the prevailing theme among all five themes
regarding determining global leadership effectiveness for participants. P4, P5, and P15
thought it critical to inspire team decisions, whereas P7 and P12 were focused on
inspiring teams. Both groups of leaders sought to deliver on what P5, P10, and P13
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11
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Team Focus Intercultural
Communication
Skills
Leadership
Characteristics
Emotional
Intelligence
Business
Growth
Count
Themes
Interview Question 3 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
mentioned was critical for them: to obtain team trust. P13 succinctly mentioned the
need “to incorporate a way of working that is consistent. Developing trust is paramount
to what anyone does,” particularly in the team context (P13, personal communication,
March 10, 2016).
Theme two. The second emergent theme was intercultural communication
skills. These may include such leadership skills as influencing, negotiating, and
coaching and feedback—in the intercultural context. Top-ranked in this theme for P4,
P9, and P10 was the need to listen to people. P4 and P11 also included the importance
of asking the right questions. These two communication skills helped P6 and P11 to
develop cultural understanding. Drawing from his expatriate assignment, P4 recounted
that one local group said, “You are not listening to us—please stop and listen to us.
That was the advice from our local counterparts to our American staff. You are going to
run into problems otherwise” (P4 personal communication, March 3, 2016).
Theme three. The third theme emanating from the data collected for this
interview question was leadership characteristics. In this case, characteristics are
synonymous with traits: what leaders are born with, or their essential makeup as
people. Regarding the importance of leadership characteristics, P6 described
“authentic curiosity, sense of adventure, and diversity” as key traits for effective
leadership (P6, personal communication, March 8, 2016). P10 suggested that effective
global leaders are humble and respectful. P6 asked, “What is the world in which I am
working and how do I immerse myself to be effective” (P6, personal communication,
March 8, 2016)? This sentiment personifies curiosity and adventure.
Theme four. Emotional intelligence (EI) made up the fourth theme for
participants defining effective global leadership. EI, which some note is more important
than IQ, focuses on understanding oneself and others to effectively monitor and
navigate intra- and inter-personal dynamics. P2 was particularly poignant on the topic,
stating, “Be honest with yourself, understand others first, and be relational” (P2,
personal communication, February 26, 2016). P8 and P12 noted that the outcome of
strong EI was building relationships effectively.
Theme five. Interestingly, business growth was the fifth and last statistically
significant theme that defined effective global leadership for the participants. In part,
business growth can be defined as increasing revenue, growing profit, and entering new
markets. At a fundamental level, P9 posited that business growth meant “finding new
consumers [and] appealing to different consumers” (P9, personal communication,
March 11, 2016). More broadly, P1 mentioned identifying global opportunities as a
significant activity. For P6,
The recipe for a successful global leader is a person who when you start to look
at the international business model you have to have a broader mindset. When
you get into an international market, the world is your oyster on how to best
penetrate the markets (P6, personal communication, March 8, 2016).
A sixth theme called learning commitment and agility was identified by the
participants as an aspect of effective global leadership. Again, inter-rater reliability
proved helpful in this case. After analysis, the inter-rater colleague intelligently assigned
several concepts under this theme to other thematic areas and in so doing eliminated
what was a statistically insignificant theme.
Interview question 3 summary. The majority of participants agreed that strong
people orientation in the form of team focus, intercultural skills, and emotional
intelligence were the most important aspects of effective global leadership. The use of
their own trait-based leadership characteristics was also cited as reasons for their
success. As for an outcome-based response, some leaders also pointed to business
growth as a factor that defined successful global leadership.
Interview question 4. This study focused on the strategies and practices in
which global leaders engage to develop intercultural skills. Hence, the majority of the
interview questions focused on this topic. The fourth interview question asked
participants to describe their global leadership style. Style in this case referred to the
tangible demonstration of their leadership in the global context. The data revealed four
major themes: (a) person and team oriented, (b) leadership style, (c) culturally sensitive,
and (d) performance management (See Figure 4).
Figure 4. Interview question 4: Coding results.
14 13
10 9
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Person and Team
Oriented
Leadership Style Culturally Sensitive Performance
Management
Count
Themes
Interview Question 4 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
Theme one. The participants in this study cited the theme of person and team
orientation as a hallmark of their global leadership style. Demonstrating this orientation,
P5, P9, and P11 exhibited constant human connectivity to people and teams. P3 and
P15 echoed the importance of this theme by focusing on team-oriented leadership.
Other leaders underscored their commitment to person and team orientation by being
inclusive, participatory, and collaborative. Interestingly, P5 and P9 leveraged
technology as a tool to stay connected to virtual, global teams by ensuring their online
video and chat tool features remained on throughout the day. P9 encapsulated this
theme well when she stated, “I strive for open communication and constant connectivity
both formal and informal” (P9, personal communication, March 11, 2016).
Theme two. Leadership style was the second major theme to the data gathered
from interview question 4. In this instance, P3 and P6 strove for an open style, whereas
P9 and P14 favored an informal approach. P5 tried to be friendly, whereas P3 posited
that openness would lead to trust and transparency in his style.
Theme three. Third, culturally sensitive was another theme emerging from the
data. P7 and P10 described their style as striving to learn the culture, upon which P1
and P7 further reflected that the best way to do so was to learn language basics. P4
and P13 suggested that looking at commonalities helped one demonstrate a culturally
sensitive leadership style. P11 summarized cogently, “The cultural divide is only as
great as you not being open to recognize it” (P11, personal communication, March 9,
2016).
Theme four. Performance management was the final theme to emerge from the
participant data. In this case, P2 and P4 mentioned setting clear expectations as being
important. Reinforcing this theme, P6 and P15 underscored the criticality of setting a
shared vision. Other leaders singularly cited mentoring, coaching, and developing
performance management as activities leaders can exhibit.
Interview question 4 summary. Participants revealed a clear follower focus
when asked about the specifics of their global leadership style. They were team
oriented, culturally sensitive, and performance management. Only leadership styles
and the appropriateness of particular styles emerged as leader-centric responses.
Overall, participants showed sensitivity to diverse global leadership styles.
Interview question 5. Interview question five continued the focus on global
leaders’ strategies and practices to develop intercultural skills. This question asked
participants for targeted examples of a time when they demonstrated outstanding global
leadership. Again, the question was deliberately open-ended. After some reflection,
participants’ responses yielded in three principal themes: (a) leadership capability, (b)
human capital management, and (c) technical acumen (See Figure 5).
7
6
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Leadership Capability Human Capital
Management
Technical Acumen
Count
Themes
Interview Question 5 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
Figure 5. Interview question 5: Coding results.
Theme one. The overarching theme from participants regarding where they
demonstrated the most pride from their outstanding global leadership involved
showcasing their own leadership capability. For P7 and P12, this meant aligning
complex stakeholders who had quite divergent needs and desires relative to large-scale
project implementation. P6 was the first in his division to implement key performance
indicators (KPIs). P11 thought her “cross-boundary ideating and innovation with diverse
teams” reflected outstanding global leadership in an intercultural environment” (P11,
personal communication, March 9, 2016). In summary, P7 noted,
When I got multiple global and local, public and private stakeholders to agree to
implement a very big project. There were numerous financial and environmental
benefits and I was the only one who understood. I had to convince all the parties
involved of the benefits. (P7, personal communication, March 9, 2016)
Theme two. Human capital management was the second theme emerging from
the data. Human capital management can refer to organizational processes that
source, identify, develop, and promote staff. On the talent acquisition side, P4 and P13
implemented a new strategic staffing model while overseas. In the area of talent
promotion, P10 received accolades for identifying and promoting local talent to
leadership roles. P3 also thought it was important to develop and coach the workforce.
Theme three. Lastly, technical acumen appeared as a theme, with a few global
leaders pleased with their global accomplishments in this domain. P1 successfully
implemented a multi-country information technology project. Similarly, P12 recalled his
new system implementation.
Interview question 5 summary. When they reflected on their outstanding
global leadership accomplishments, participants cited human-centric accomplishments
most often. The responses spanned hiring, identifying, and developing internal talent.
Demonstrating technical acumen was also cited, albeit by a low number of participants.
Interview question 6. Whereas interview question 4 asked what was
participants’ prevailing global leadership style, the researcher was interested in
additional detail here. Interview question 6 was a two-part question. It explored the
domain of global situational leadership, whether participants flexed their leadership style
(or not), and what circumstances caused the participants to flex their leadership style.
The responses to the first part of the yes or no question were (a) yes for 12 participants
and (b) no for 3 participants (See Figure 6).
Figure 6. Interview question 6a: Coding results.
The follow up question to interview question 6a sought further detail on the
reasons why participants flexed their leadership styles. There were a few major
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3
0
2
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8
10
12
14
Yes No
Count
Themes
Interview Question 6a - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
reasons for flexing. The data showed four major thematic drivers: (a) leadership
behavioral styles, (b) followership needs, (c) cultural dynamics and influence, and (d)
communication dynamics and tools (See Figure 7).
Figure 7. Interview question 6b: Coding results.
Theme one. Interestingly, leadership behavioral styles was the first theme that
appeared when participants were asked for specifics about the reason behind their
changing leadership. Of those leaders that said they did flex their style in interview
question 6a, P3, P6, P10, and P12 most often pivoted to an autocratic or directive
leadership style when the circumstances called for it. Other leaders demonstrated a
more followership approach with P4 mentioning situational leadership and P15
engaging with people.
Theme two. Followership needs was an additional theme emerging from the
data reflecting global situational leadership from the participants. P7 noted, “Goals and
coaching change from people to people” (P7, personal communication, March 9, 2016).
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9
6
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2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Leadership
Behavioral Styles
Followership Needs Cultural Dynamics
and Influence
Communication
Dynamics and Tools
Count
Themes
Interview Question 6b - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
P2 suggested that it was important to relate to follower needs.
Theme three. Cultural dynamics and influence was also a theme that emerged,
validating this important input that motivated participants to flex their global leadership
style. Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) found in their IBM study that an important cultural
dimension involved a culture’s individual or group orientation. Both P1 and P2
recognized this distinction and flexed their leadership behaviors based on whether they
found themselves working in an individual or group-oriented culture. P5 even artfully
claimed to be able to change accents when working in different countries.
Theme four. Lastly, communication dynamics and tools was a theme that
participants cited as an impetus to change their leadership style. P11 keenly flexed
when she “adjusted her style when employing virtual communication tools” (P11,
personal communication, March 9, 2016). In these instances, she became less direct
and more moderating in her communication approach.
Interview question 6 summary. Participants flexed their global leadership style
due to a number of mitigating circumstances. Primarily, participants leveraged a range
of styles to respond to their situational contexts. These contexts included followership
needs and the predominant cultural dynamic in which they were operating. The
particular communication dynamic and tool in many cases also caused participants to
flex.
Interview question 7. Obtaining additional description into global leaders’
strategies and practices to develop intercultural skills was the goal of the last interview
question subsumed under research question two. Interview question 7 was the last of
the five queries subsumed under research question two. For interview question 7,
participants were asked which global leadership responsibilities provided the best
opportunity to develop intercultural skills. The data revealed the following five principal
themes: (a) functional work, (b) global work, (c) continuous learning, (d) human capital
work, and (e) relationship building and networking (See Figure 8).
Figure 8. Interview question 7: Coding results.
Theme one. Participant responses in the data revealed that functional work
responsibilities could be the most helpful avenue to develop intercultural skills. Typically
project-based, functional work spans sales, marketing, finance, engineering and other
technical tasks. P1, P11, P12, and P15 all extolled project work from their own career
histories as having helped to develop intercultural skills. Specifically, P1 thought the
deadline-driven work inherent in projects provided further impetus for skill development.
P3, P10, and P12 valued immersive work experiences of varying length. P6 twice
mentioned recruiting duties, particularly involving other expatriates, as helpful to him in
his intercultural development.
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12
14
Functional Work Global Work Continuous
Learning
Human Capital
Work
Relationship
Building and
Networking
Count
Themes
Interview Question 7 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
Theme two. Whether working locally or through travel, global work emerged as
a theme to develop intercultural skills in participants’ own global leadership. P2, P4,
and P6 noted that cultural immersion is critical to developing intercultural skills.
Reinforcing this finding, P12 and P15 thought it essential to take on a global project,
whereas P12 and P13 echoed that global mobility and assignments are educational.
Theme three. The participant data revealed an interesting theme, continuous
learning, as a self-driven responsibility or motivating factor important when developing
intercultural skills. P8 posited that learning where one is helpful with P7 going further by
suggesting to “learn new things deeply [and] to leave comfort zones” (P7, personal
communication, March 9, 2016). P15 mentioned an inherent cultural curiosity and P8
cited partaking in cultural activities as rich development opportunities for intercultural
skills building.
Theme four. Human capital work emerged as an additional theme from the
responses to this interview question. Three leaders felt strongly about its importance.
From her perspective, P14 said, “Working inter-generationally [and] diverse team
interactions” can provide formidable intercultural skill development opportunities (P14,
personal communication, March 9, 2016). P4 thought, “Cross-cultural [team] leadership
[and] understanding local talent helped him and can help others develop their skills”
(P4, personal communication, March 3, 2016). P3 felt his coaching and mentoring
experiences would translate well to others who are looking to develop their intercultural
skills.
Theme five. Relationship building and networking was the last theme for this
interview question. P9 was passionate about this topic when she responded that
“getting to know people through developing cross-cultural relationships” were key levers
to her development (P9, personal communication, March 11, 2016). She also followed
careers and found this networking to be helpful. P3 also mentioned ongoing networking
as developmental in nature. P5 also found that immersing himself with people was a
key part of his relationship building and networking.
Interview question 7 summary. The tangible experiences participants had that
best embodied opportunities to develop intercultural skills focused on on-the-job duties
spanning global, functional, or human capital work. The participants’ own dedication to
continuous learning was also important. A commitment to relationship building and
networking also helped participants ramp up their intercultural skills.
Research Question Two Summary
Research question two focused on exploring the common strategies and
practices in which global leaders engage to develop intercultural skills. The participants
provided rich data as a result of answering five interview questions. A strategic review
was conducted of all the practices the participants cited. These spanned four main
areas:
1. Person and Team Orientation. In addition to team focus, this area included
predominant themes of human capital work and focusing on followers’ needs.
2. Global and Intercultural. Here, participants noted global work where
intercultural communication, sensitivity, and influence helped develop their
skills in the intercultural domain.
3. Personal Leadership Effectiveness. Leadership effectiveness spanned trait,
behavioral, and situational elements. For example, participants who
committed to continuous learning developed EI and relationship-building
abilities. Specific leadership situations allowed participants to select the most
appropriate leadership styles.
4. Business and Functional Focus. The final area focused on technical and
functional work that produced business growth. Collectively, participants
provided strategic and practical depth and breadth in how they develop
intercultural skills.
Research Question Three
Research question three asked: How do global leaders measure their success in
developing their intercultural skills? This research question was supported by a sole,
open-ended interview question, which asked how the participants measure their global
leadership success. To the person, the participants appreciated this interview question
the most since it gave them the opportunity to reflect on their own success as global
business leaders.
Interview question 8. Interview question eight aligned with prevailing themes as
articulated by participants on the topic of global leadership effectiveness. Their focus
validated the maxim “what gets measured gets done.” Scanning the data, the following
themes were identified reflecting measures of global leaders becoming competent in the
intercultural domain: (a) qualitative team metrics, (b) personal transformation, (c)
business metrics, (c) role and career expansion, and (e) quantitative team metrics (See
Figure 9).
Bird and Osland (2004) proposed an Effectiveness Cycle, “which describes what
effective global [leaders] do at the most basic level” (p. 59).
• Stage 1 involves the ability to “perceive, analyze and decode the situation,”
• Stage 2 is to “accurately identify effective managerial action,” and
• Stage 3 is to “possess the behavioral repertoire and flexibility to act
appropriately given the situation” (pp. 55-61)
Figure 9. Interview question 8: Coding results.
Theme one. The first theme, qualitative team metrics, was developed from
numerous concepts from the participants. P2, P8, and P11 noted that strong team
relationships were a hallmark to effective global leadership. Specifically, P2 stated “I
measure success when I get to the end of a project [and determine] what the
relationships are like” (P2, personal communication, February 26, 2016). As to further
conceptual evidence buttressing this theme, P3 and P9 noted that their success
measure included team satisfaction with them as leaders. Also, team satisfaction was a
concept mentioned by P11 and P13 who noted that they had built trust with the team,
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Qualitative
Team Metrics
Personal
Transformation
Business
Metrics
Role and Career
Expansion
Quantitative
Team Metrics
Count
Themes
Interview Question 8 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
and that another tangible outcome, according to P3 and P5, is that their team had high
morale. Lastly, team development was another concept important for the participants.
P14 was proud of developing more global thinkers and doers, and P15 cited career
enablement as his success measure.
Theme two. Personal transformation was the next theme participants recounted
as an important measure of their global leadership success. P1 offered that “being
global” (P1, personal communication, February 24, 2016) was its own success metric
for his global leadership, whereas P2 appreciated his success at cultural sense making
and empathy. P10 and P11 valued being a resource to others as their critical success
factor for global leadership. Spanning many concepts, P14 powerfully summarized
personal transformation when she stated,
I think success is measured by how much you were changed by your exposure
to another culture, by how much you were able to influence a new way of
thinking in those you came in contact with, and by your ability to share that
broader hybrid with your fellow colleagues wherever they are in the world (P14,
personal communication, March 9, 2016).
Theme three. Two themes were third for how the participants measured their
global leadership success in developing intercultural skills; the first was business
metrics and the second role and career expansion. Defining business metrics, P6
stated that achieving KPIs was the most important factor, whereas for P12 it involved
delivering good work that, it is assumed, achieved business results. Additional business
metrics meant that, for P7, there was solid data collection and process improvement.
P1 reflected, “making opportunities global” was a key business metric for him.
Continuing, he noted that “A successful leader is global—there is nothing these days
that can be called a non-global leader. These days, all opportunities are global because
of the expectations, context, and scalability requirements” (P1, personal
communication,
February 24, 2016).
Theme four. The additional third theme was role and career expansion. P8
asserted that to “keep your job” (P8, personal communication, March 11, 2016) and P13
mentioned to have “success in role” was one measure of global leader effectiveness
(P13, personal communication, March 10, 2016). Regarding career expansion, P1
affirmed that “getting more responsibilities [and being] assigned larger projects” (P1,
personal communication, February 24, 2016), respectively, demonstrated success. P5
made a comment that encapsulates a success metric important to the theme of role and
career expansion: “Ultimately, the company is confident in you” (P5, personal
communication, March 4, 2016).
Theme five. The fifth theme that served as a key measure of global leaders
developing intercultural skills was quantitative team metrics. For P3, he noted that, “low
team turnover rates served as a measure of global leadership effectiveness” (P3,
personal communication, February 29, 2016). P4 underscored this concept by
mentioning talent retention and promotion figures as important team metrics signaling
his effectiveness. As for an additional key metric, P3 also noted that team productivity
in the form of goal accomplishment denoted his successful leadership, and he
summarized his pride with the fact that, compared with the host country, where turnover
is on average 40% per year, “We have almost lost no one” (P3, personal
communication, February 29, 2016).
Interview question 8 summary. Three conclusions are drawn from the data
pertaining to interview question eight. Participants were other-focused when measuring
their success. For example, team success was deemed the preeminent hallmark of
participant success. As for the second conclusion, personal transformation and
development was a significant measure of success in the intercultural domain. The
third theme focused on business metrics: increasing revenue, exceeding customer
expectations, and expanding business development.
Research Question Three Summary
Research question three utilized a sole interview question that asked the
participants about how they measure global leadership success in developing
intercultural skills. Participants again focused on their teams and team members’
morale, motivation, output, and career development as tangible indicators of participant
success. Personal transformation was a refreshing measure of participant success in
developing intercultural skills. Lastly, business and talent KPIs proved to be solid
indicators that participants cited: profits but also retention and engagement levels. P11
summarized success neatly: “Are there strong relationships? Can you create a win-win
situation? The answer is basic—do you trust because there was integrity in the
process” (P11, personal communication, March 9, 2016)?
Research Question Four
Rounding out the study, research question four asked: What recommendations
do global leaders have for emerging leaders who wish to develop their intercultural
skills? This research question was supported by two interview questions. The first one
asked participants what experience was the most helpful to develop intercultural skills
and the second asked what advice participants have for future global leaders. The two
interview questions, numbers nine and ten, are future-focused and contain rich data for
the benefit of numerous audiences to be detailed in Chapter 5.
Interview question 9. Interview question nine sought experientially based
content. The responses were equally as reflective and purposeful as those to interview
question 8. As a result of the analysis, the data for the first question revealed the
following themes: (a) overseas and travel experiences, (b) personal motivation, (c)
family background, and (c) foreign language ability (See Figure 10).
Figure 10. Interview question 9: Coding results.
Theme one. The first theme, overseas and travel experiences, yielded manifold
experiences the participants highlighted that helped them develop their intercultural
skills. Primarily, P3, P4, P6, P8, P10, and P13 noted that their previous expatriate
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Overseas and Travel
Experiences
Personal Motivation Family Background Foreign Language
Ability
Count
Themes
Interview Question 9 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
assignments provided key insight and learning to develop their intercultural skills. Citing
experience prior to the business world, P3 cited his youth study abroad program as
early development in intercultural skills. P5 noted his early global career and global
travel as helpful experiences, echoed by P12 who worked with Southern Asia in a prior
professional experience.
Theme two. Personal motivation appeared as the second theme that allowed
participants the experience to develop intercultural skills. P2 and P7 cited that they
were open to learning. This commitment to development, according to P15, paved the
way for global leadership effectiveness. Other personal motivation strategies varied
and provided key learning: P11 thought being an expert was a strong indicator that she
has developed intercultural skills; P6 continually sought to immerse himself in the new,
P2 noted teaching as a way to develop experience, and P7 shared that making
mistakes provided him with experiential opportunities to learn and grow. Theme
three. Theme three, family background, planted the early seeds of experience for
participants to develop intercultural skills. P5 and P10 cited that their parents’ initiative
of putting them into linguistic immersion experiences helped develop their skills.
Complementing the language experience, P5 appreciated early cultural immersion
experiences, particularly bicultural ones. P6 noted that having a foreign-born parent
was a foundational development experience that inspired intercultural skill
improvement.
Theme four. Rounding out interview question 9 is the fourth theme: foreign
language ability. P6 and P10 noted that learning a foreign language facilitated their
developing intercultural skills, making them able to relate much more in depth with the
local host country nationals. One step farther, P3, fluent in two languages, cited his
becoming multilingual as facilitating the development of intercultural skills. P10
summarized,
With my second [expatriate] experience all the meetings were in a foreign
language. I could communicate and could understand what was being said. I
had a greater insight and learned how I could be more effective as a result of the
immersion. (P10, personal communication, March 9, 2016)
Interview question 9 summary. Two conclusions dominated the data gathered
from participants about the experiences that best helped them develop intercultural
skills. The first conclusion centered on being overseas: travelling, speaking foreign
languages, or benefitting from a bicultural family background. The second theme was
participants’ own personal motivation driving them to learn and master intercultural
skills.
Interview question 10. To complete the research related to research question
four, which sought recommendations from participants to emerging global leaders to
develop intercultural skills, a follow up interview question was asked. Specifically,
interview question 10 asked participants to provide their advice to future global leaders
aspiring to develop their intercultural skills. Many of these emerging leaders are the
Millennial Generation. By 2030, this generation is projected to make up 75% of the
global workforce (Meister, 2012). In essence, the development of the next generation of
global leaders is imminent. This makes the passing of global knowledge, skill sets, and
mindsets from one generation of global business leaders to the successive one equally
pressing.
Participants were generous in their advice to newer leaders. They also
appreciated the opportunity to provide coaching based on their experience. As a result,
four major themes emerged from the advice that participants gave to the next
generation of global business leaders to develop their intercultural skills: (a) skillset
development, (b) career management, (c) mindset development, and (c) personal
characteristics (See Figure 11).
Figure 11. Interview question 10: Coding results.
Theme one. Relating to the first theme, skills development, P3, P9, and P13
recommended that new global leaders listen and hear when working to develop
intercultural skills. In the same communication vein, P6 and P11 suggested that
providing context is critical, which P11 did by “explaining the why” whenever possible
(P11, personal communication, March 9, 2016). Additionally, P3 and P14 advised that
new global leaders build relationships in order to be effective. P2 thought it important to
“risk idealized approaches” to trying the new and novel (P2, personal communication,
15
11
8 8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Skillset
Development
Career Management Mindset
Development
Personal
Characteristics
Count
Themes
Interview Question 10 - Coding Results
(n = 15 - single responses per interviewee)
February 26, 2016). On the technical side, P15 saw full “project lifecycle experience” as
critical to success (P15, personal communication, March 10, 2016), with P13 asking
new global leaders to “learn basic operations” of the business to develop skills (P13,
personal communication, March 10, 2016).
Theme two. For the second theme, participants advised new global leaders to
focus on career management as an important strategy to develop intercultural skills.
Resoundingly, P1, P10, P12, and P15 suggested that new global leaders work
overseas, which P10 thought would be the best avenue to “advance an international
career,” in addition to suggesting that ongoing “global company affiliation” is also helpful
(P10, personal communication, March 9, 2016). If getting overseas more permanently
was difficult for new global leaders, P1, P13, and P14 advised they travel a lot to learn
and develop.
Theme three. Two themes emerged next concurrently: mindset development
and personal characteristics. Regarding developing the requisite mindset, P5 and P12
suggested understanding your environment was a critical success factor. P12 also
advised that “understanding different consumers” and “understanding day-to-day
interactions” would develop global business leaders’ intercultural skills (P12, personal
communication, March 10, 2016). P9 thought it critical to “assume positive intent” in
business dealings (P9, personal communication, March 11, 2016), with P14 suggesting
that time spent to “reflect on global experience” was worthwhile for new global business
leaders” (P14, personal communication, March 9, 2016). In summary, P6 advised new
global leaders to “translate mindset to effective actions” when developing intercultural
skills (P6, personal communication, March 8, 2016).
Theme four. Inevitably, personal characteristics appeared in this study, with
three main traits emerging as the most important. P1, P7, P11, and P13 advised that
new global leaders be open to the new and different. To achieve such openness, P8
and P14 suggested that new global leaders be inquisitive and, also along the journey,
P12 and P14 thought it important for them to be flexible.
Interview question 10 summary. Participants offered responses from which
two conclusions can be drawn. Experienced global leaders imparted to emerging global
leaders advice to develop mindsets, skillsets, and careers that are globally oriented.
Secondly, emerging leaders were exhorted to continue to promote personal
characteristics—e.g., openness—that are foundational to successfully developing
intercultural skills.
Research Question Four Summary
Two interview questions whose participant responses provided data to the fourth
research question: What recommendations do global leaders have for emerging leaders
who wish to develop intercultural skills? The first interview question focused on
participants’ own seminal development experiences, including overseas travel, family
background, and foreign language ability. Essentially, these were early life or early
career experiences that left an indelible impression on global leaders, driven also by
personal motivation. Tangible advice participants imparted to next generation global
leaders included developing their skills, actively managing their careers, and expanding
their mindsets, leveraging open, curious and expansive personal characteristics.
Summary
The goal of Chapter 4 was to collect rich data on global leaders’ strategies and
practices to develop intercultural skills. The study participants were global leaders from
a Fortune 500 company based in Southern California. To gather the data, an interview
protocol was created that was composed of 10 interview questions that enlivened the
study’s four research questions. The interview protocol was validated prior to the
semistructured interviews. After transcription of the data sets, the principal investigator
began coding comprehensively. As a result of an iterative and primarily inductive
coding process, concepts were identified that emerged into major themes for the
interview questions. Themes for all interview questions comprised of this research
question are summarized subsequently.
The focus of research question one asked global leaders to identify the
challenges they faced in developing intercultural skills. At the completion of the coding
process, five major themes were identified from the participant data. The first theme
broadly focused on managing intercultural effectiveness, which subdivided into
achieving intercultural understanding, focusing on connecting appropriately with diverse
people, overcoming communication challenges, and being successful at intercultural
navigation. Next, global leadership effectiveness was the second theme to emerge
regarding the challenges global leaders face developing intercultural skills. For these
participants, having the requisite advanced technical and human skills was seen as
paramount in importance. Thirdly, managing expectations and conflict appeared as a
theme challenging participants, most often specifically trying to bridge global and local
diverging expectations. The penultimate theme that arose was getting or being
overseas: trying to arrive at or be successful in the global laboratory in which to best
work to develop intercultural skills. Finally, people leadership through the lens of team
strength participant data was revealed to be a thematic challenge to develop
intercultural skills.
Reflecting the core of this study and within the context of the aforementioned
challenges, research question two focused on exploring the common strategies and
practices in which global leaders engage to develop intercultural skills. After a thorough
data review, four main thematic practices were identified. The first theme was an
unrelenting focus on person and team orientation. House et al.’s (2004) GLOBE study
cited team oriented leadership as one of six global culturally endorsed theories and
practices of leadership. The second theme was global and intercultural practices.
Here, participant efforts in intercultural communication, sensitivity, and influence honed
their skill sets. Thirdly, a theme of participants focusing on their personal leadership
effectiveness practice was viewed as important to them. This theme of personal
leadership efficacy included devoting practice to continuous learning, developing
intercultural and emotional intelligence, and building stronger relationships. The
penultimate theme to emerge as a core leadership strategy to develop intercultural skills
was situational leadership. Situational leaders exhibit a critical evaluative eye to
intercultural contextual cues and follower needs, select the right leadership style, and
then flex their styles as needed. The last leadership strategic practice for this research
question was a business and functional theme. Clearly, business leaders are measured
based on tangible financial results along with team and individual productivity.
Research question three asked participants to measure global leadership
success in developing intercultural skills. Five themes emerged as key measures. In
alignment with research question three results, participants again focused on their
teams and team members’ health to gauge leadership success. Interestingly, the depth
and breadth of personal transformation was a secondary theme that measured
participant success in developing intercultural skills. Rounding out the measurement
themes, the data showed that participants valued business metrics as a firm testament
to their effectiveness.
Research question four asked what recommendations global leaders have for
emerging leaders who wish to develop intercultural skills. Resoundingly, a theme of
global experiences arose from the data, with participants’ own overseas travel, family
background, and foreign language ability cited as inspirational and essential life
opportunities for them and hence for other aspiring leaders. Tangible practices
supporting the global experience theme included developing their skills, actively
managing their careers, and expanding their mindsets, leveraging open, curious, and
expansive personal characteristics.
The data were presented visually with color charts displaying the themes for
each interview question subsumed under the research questions. As noted earlier,
themes were either unique or overlapped among the research questions allowing for
more conceptual linkages. These linkages and implications are explored in detail in
Chapter 5.
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Global leadership is being redefined by the speed of external transformation with
which global business leaders must contend. As a result, transformation begets internal
complexity that risks impeding leaders’ professional effectiveness. Researchers are
beginning to recognize this challenge.
Harris, Moran, and Moran (2004) defined global leadership as being capable
of operating effectively in a global environment while being respectful of
cultural diversity. This is an individual who can manage accelerating change
and differences. The global leader is open and flexible in approaching others,
can cope with situations and people disparate from his or her background,
and is willing to reexamine and alter personal attitudes and perceptions. (p.
25)
A critical assumption validated by researched-based evidence purports that developing
intercultural skills provides the most fruitful opportunity for global leaders to be effective.
Upon review of the data, it was surmised that global leaders offered manifold
strategies and practices that determined their intercultural effectiveness. The data
revealed a focus on three key areas that determined global leader effectiveness.
Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) cite three areas in the Deardorff pyramid model of
intercultural competence comprised of foundational attitudinal, knowledge, and skills.
This trio drives the desired internal and external outcomes among business leaders
operating within the global context. This outcome-focused model well positions the data
findings in this study that identified business leaders’ strategies and practices to develop
intercultural skills.
The purpose of this study focused on identifying among a sample of global
leadership the strategies and practices used to develop their intercultural skills. Chapter
2 grounded the study in the research on globalization, leadership constructs, and the
definition of intercultural skills. Also, intercultural skills were researched extensively,
with supporting theories and a descriptive range of targeted behaviors occupying this
domain. Chapter 4 described the rich data from the findings from the semi-structured
interviews with 15 global leaders. This chapter begins with some broad-based themes
emanating from the data followed by comparing these findings to the literature review in
an attempt to explore similarities and gaps. Subsequently, key findings of the study are
offered. Rounding out this chapter are some implications the research may have on
specific audiences, some observations, and recommendations regarding possible
avenues for further research.
Research Questions
This study addressed four research questions:
1. What challenges do global leaders face in developing intercultural skills?
2. What common strategies and practices do global leaders engage in to
develop intercultural skills?
3. How do global leaders measure their success in developing their intercultural
skills?
4. What recommendations do global leaders have for emerging leaders who
wish to develop intercultural skills?
Summary of Findings
Common challenges global leaders face developing intercultural skills.
Global leaders recognize that becoming effective in their business roles requires a
commitment to acknowledge and address the challenges in developing intercultural
skills. The findings of this study validate that all 15 participants demonstrated this
commitment through their subsequent articulation of myriad challenges that were then
identified as the most salient. These challenges are listed subsequently.
• Overcoming intercultural complexities as evidenced by global business
leaders:
oStriving to achieve intercultural understanding, o Connecting
appropriately with culturally diverse people, o Working to overcome
intercultural communication challenges, and o Developing more
agility with intercultural (situational) navigation,
• Cultivating global leadership effectiveness with an emphasis on:
oAdvancing their ongoing technical and human skill development
abilities,
oManaging expectations and conflict between global and local
stakeholders, o Coping with the day-to-day stress of being or
travelling overseas, and o Advancing team strength.
Common strategies and practices global leaders engage in to develop
intercultural skills. The sine qua non of this study focused on strategies and practices
in which global leaders engaged to develop intercultural skills. Rich and thick
description was achieved with the depth. The findings from global business leaders
offered for this section of the study are presented subsequently:
• Ongoing primacy of team orientation
• Executing finely-tuned global, intercultural practices o Practicing nuanced
communication skills, o Demonstrating awareness and sensitivity, and o
Influencing appropriately with different audiences.
• Committing to personal leadership effectiveness o Reflecting and learning
continuously, o Developing EI skills within an intercultural context, and o
Building stronger relationships.
Common success measures of global leaders in developing intercultural
skills. In today’s busy world, an opportunity for reflection may be one of the first
occasions global leaders have to assess their success in developing intercultural skills.
This study provided them this opportunity. The findings for their success measures are
listed subsequently, interestingly coinciding with some challenges and many strategies
and practices for developing intercultural skills.
• Team health o Qualitative – team morale, satisfaction, productivity, and
cohesion o Quantitative – retention and promotion levels
• Personal transformation as evidenced by:
oHigher efficacy, o Better adaptability, o Mindset expansion, o
Skillset improvement, o Career satisfaction, and o Stronger global
relationships.
• Demonstrable business results
Common recommendations global leaders have for emerging leaders who
wish to develop intercultural skills. The Millennial Generation already occupies a not
insignificant percentage of global business leadership roles; this number will only
increase in the next decade to well over 50%. Global business leaders enjoyed the
opportunity to share recommendations and advice in the course of this study. Their
recommendations to emerging global leaders are as follows.
• Obtaining global assignments or travel early in one’s career
• Leveraging early life global travel, multi-cultural learning, and foreign
language abilities
• Committing to ongoing development of technical and leadership skills;
• Managing actively a globally-focused career
• Remaining positive attitudes that exemplify openness, curiosity and
expansiveness
Key Findings
As noted above, there was a wealth of data and summary findings generated
from this study. From this overall data, four key findings are offered. These findings are
listed subsequently.
Motivational attitudes. Whether describing themselves or coaching emerging
leaders, global business leaders who have developed advanced intercultural skills credit
adopting certain attitudes as foundational reasons for their effectiveness. Their
approaches to global contexts are based on openness to new values, concepts, people,
and practices. Similar to openness, global leaders demonstrated an inherent and
ongoing curiosity toward the new and different. Eliciting many benefits, curiosity is both
a proactive and infectious approach global business leaders employ in intercultural
contexts. Global business leaders also cited a strong bias toward leveraging emotional
intelligence to develop intercultural skills. Emotionally intelligent leaders exhibit a strong
sense of self and an other-focus that engenders mutual respect. As cited earlier,
Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) point to Deardorff’s pyramid model of intercultural
competence where the requisite attitudes of “respect (valuing other cultures, cultural
diversity); openness (to intercultural learning and to people from other cultures,
withholding judgment); and curiosity and discovery (tolerating ambiguity and
uncertainty)” (p. 13) all enable positive intercultural outcomes. Those global business
leaders’ with the aforementioned attitudes are better able to assess global perspectives
and understand other worldviews. Such other-focused, empathic practices on the part
of global business leaders to recognize other points of view (Broome, 1991) were key
motivational attitudes.
To be global, go global. Global business leaders believe they are effective in
their roles due to significantly positive intercultural experiences and prolonged
interactions in differing milieus. They have often benefitted from early familial or youth
activities that positively oriented them to the benefits of intercultural relationships,
knowledge, and learning. These activities included travel to other countries,
intercultural immersions, or learning a foreign language. Other leaders cited the
benefits of rigorous global travel as part of their earlier career trajectories. Whatever the
inspirational experience, the message is the same: to be global one must go global.
Pusch (2009) noted that becoming an interculturally skilled business leader requires
exposure to other cultures. Gregerson, Morrison, and Black (1998) suggested four
strategies for developing intercultural skills among leaders, two of which align with
global business leaders’ informed experience: significant overseas travel, allowing for
in-country immersions and overseas assignments that provide for even deeper
intercultural understanding and skill-building. The strategy global business leaders
employ of being on the ground in an intercultural environment provides opportunities to
build skills emanating from the aforementioned motivational attitudes. Admittedly, many
factors inhibit internal leaders’ global mobility. However, this study elevates the
importance of overseas work as a deeply formative strategy for global business leaders
to develop intercultural skills.
It’s all about the team. Global business leaders are those who understand that
a relentless focus on team productivity, morale and health is a core strategy to develop
intercultural skills. Their team-focused strategy not only accomplishes requisite goals
and tasks but also serves to enrich career development, ultimately increasing team
members’ rational and emotional engagement to the leader, to other team members,
and to the company. Further, competent global business leaders appreciate the
additional complexity of virtual, intercultural team leadership. Among other practices,
they creatively employ technological tools to stay connected to remote team members
both formally and informally. House et al. (2004) validated these global business
leaders in the GLOBE study findings, which cites team orientation as the second most
important global culturally endorsed implicit leadership dimension. Specific practices of
team orientation include “being communicative, informed, a coordinator, and team
integrator (team builder)” (p. 677).
Ongoing leadership skill enhancement. Effective global leaders know that
expanding technical and people skills in the intercultural domain is an imperative. As
cited in the literature review, Mendenhall et al. (2013) built upon this call to action,
noting that global business leadership work is transformative—creating new mental
models that bode well against rising levels of complexity. Global business leaders
mentioned that developing expanded mindsets and skill sets is an imperative that, for
example, helps them better manage expectations and conflict in the global arena.
Global business leaders cited deeper situational leadership awareness and style
dexterity with followers as prime examples of increasing their leadership effectiveness
when working in the intercultural context. As Hofstede (1993) noted, different cultures
espouse varying management theories that work within their contexts. Certainly, global
business leaders may traverse many cultures either physically or communicatively in
the course of a given workday. In order to be considered effective, the intercultural
leader is able to acknowledge these differences and use them appropriately with
different internal and external audiences (Fischer, 2009).
Reflections on Findings and Key Findings
In a retrospective, global review of the data from this research study, it can be
claimed that the findings answered the research questions as originally intended. The
most substantial findings focused on strategies and practices in which global business
leaders engage to develop intercultural skills. Rich, thick description of these strategies
and practices was achieved. In particular, there is some overlap between what
participants thought what made them successful in developing intercultural skills and
the advice they imparted to emerging global business leaders seeking to learn these
same skills. In a sense, experience is the best teacher, which validates that there would
be some commonality among these findings.
The findings of this study validate previous findings of notable intercultural
researchers. Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) cite the Deardorff model of intercultural
competence, which presents a unique constellation of attitudes, knowledge and skills
that drive global business leaders’ overall effectiveness. As noted previously, this study
validates the presence of identifiable and prioritized concepts and themes spanning
attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Deardorff went on to claim that “the degree of
intercultural competence depends on the acquired degree of underlying elements” (p.
68) such as attitudes, knowledge, and skills.
The findings herein also validate other researchers (Spitzberg & Changnon,
2009) who found that global leaders who blend cultural understanding with
communication competence ultimately drive toward higher relationship quality. The
participant themes in this study validated that they continuously worked to fuse these
two concepts into building strong relationships with intercultural teams, consumers, and
other locals. In any relationship-based business, this finding is a key, validating
outcome.
An additional key finding of this study that the research validated was the
relentless focus on the team as a barometer of a global business leader who is
interculturally skilled. The participants’ measure of success was primarily on the team.
House et al. (2004) asserted that, after charismatic leadership, a global leader focused
on building an effective team is a universal characteristic of intercultural competence in
global leaders.
Lastly, this study validated previous research that significant global exposure that
business leaders can obtain through experiential expatriate assignments or heavy
business travel provides the best avenue for intercultural skill development. The
participants mentioned that being or travelling overseas was paramount—in essence
the arena in which to learn and develop their intercultural skills. Opposite this finding
and adding much less value are the formal training programs on different cultural values
and norms that tend to focus on do’s and don’ts of different cultures.
The measurement findings of how participants determined intercultural skill
success as global business leaders provided interesting insights in this study that can
be described as extending previous research. Although participants in this study
focused primarily on team, relationship, and self-transformation as success measures,
they also mentioned achieving tangible business results in the form of profit, goal, and
project achievement as important measures. The research on intercultural skills
focuses more on intra and interpersonal success when global business leaders invest in
developing intercultural skills. Certainly, a high level of intercultural skill acumen
translates to many success measures, yet this researcher found the previous research
lacking in the mention of tangible business results of global business leaders with
strong intercultural skills. However, the fact that participants mentioned achieving these
quantifiable metrics can at least suggest a co-relational, if not causal, relationship to
their own heightened global leadership effectiveness and measurable business results.
Implications of the Study
This study sought to elucidate the current strategies and practices of global
leaders in developing intercultural skills. First, the researcher combines these
strategies and practices with targeted recommendations for intercultural skill
development with two key constituencies. The study also has broader implications for
these two constituencies and other audiences who may benefit. The implications for
these audiences and other impacts of this study are described subsequently.
Implications for developing emerging global leaders. A significant portion of
this study involved asking participants to articulate what experiences and practices
helped them successfully develop intercultural skills, thereby making them more
effective global leaders. Participants also imparted advice to help the next generation of
emerging global leaders develop intercultural skills. In both instances, experienced
leaders offered a clear roadmap for emerging leaders regarding how to be effective in
their future global roles. This roadmap, supported by elements of the literature in this
study and combined with the researcher’s own reflections, is articulated in
futureoriented implications detailed subsequently.
Skillset development and overseas experiences ranked the highest as key
advice to emerging leaders to develop intercultural skills. To clarify, skillset
development focused on increasing the intercultural knowledge and skills need to be
effective in global leadership roles. One method of developing intercultural knowledge
and skills is through formal learning occurring most often in the classroom. Assuming
that emerging global leaders need to start with expanding their knowledge base of
intercultural content, formal learning is most appropriate at this point. The contextual
reference for formal learning of different cultures begins with an ethnocentric approach
if the emerging leader is new to the intercultural content (Bennett, 1986). The
ethnocentric stage of learning leverages the lens of one’s own culture to make sense of
other cultures. Therefore, formal learning is a recommended early practice to increase
awareness and knowledge in developing intercultural skills for emerging leaders.
Overseas experiences provide the most fruitful opportunities for emerging global
leaders to apply their newfound intercultural knowledge to successful practices.
Heeding the advice of experienced global leaders, emerging global leaders need to be
in the global milieu to practice their intercultural skills. The living laboratory for
intercultural skill development that being in a different country provides is invaluable.
When applying their early intercultural knowledge, emerging global leaders can begin to
crack the code of the new culture through successful communication, interaction, and
navigation (Cliffe, 2015; Livermore, 2010). Without minimizing the personal sacrifices
emerging global leaders make to obtain an overseas work assignment, it is hoped that
in time, leaders will see the results of their efforts to develop intercultural skills while
working overseas. Such a realization can help emerging global leaders continue on a
clear path to develop even more intercultural skills for professional and personal growth.
Active global career management is an additional portion of advice that experienced
global leaders imparted to their emerging counterparts. Career management in and of
itself is rife with difficulty, notwithstanding the additional
complexity the global context brings to the equation. One proactive recommendation for
emerging global leaders is for them to target early professional experiences at firms
such as Fortune 500 companies. If emerging global leaders have early family and
collegiate travel experiences or foreign language skills, this acumen can be mapped to
global firms with market presence in those specific countries to facilitate being hired and
then deployed to an overseas assignment.
Once employed by global firms, emerging global leaders have numerous
strategies and practices they can use internally to guide their global career
management. In many global companies, internal talent databases are becoming
increasingly prevalent. These global databases are used to source talent for global
projects, overseas work, promotional purposes, and networking. It is recommended
that the emerging global leader working internally be cognizant of how his/her global
leadership skills are marketed internally via accessible talent tools. These talent tools
are helpful for active career management.
Emerging global leaders can also ensure that they have communicated their
active interest in placement on global project leadership or teamwork. Typically, the
current trend for placing global emerging leaders overseas is for shorter-term
assignments, within a 6-month duration. The careers of emerging global leaders are
propelled through a thoughtful combination of global project work, global team
leadership, technical acumen and intercultural skill development. As found in the
literature, global project leadership involves certain challenges; however, numerous
strategies can be used to achieve success when working in this capacity (Mintzberg,
1983; Moran & Youngdahl, 2008).
In summary, experienced global leaders exhorted emerging global leaders to
develop mindsets and leverage personal characteristics to develop intercultural skills.
Although the predictive elements for intercultural skill success include actively
diagnosing new situations, emerging global leaders can also spend time reflecting on
their intercultural skill development. For example, this reflection may come at the end of
a significant project deliverable, such as after a significant global stakeholder meeting or
after completing a major global project milestone. Reflection is key to development and
is referenced often in the intercultural literature, where global leadership work in itself is
transformational, ultimately creating new mental models (Mendenhall et al., 2013).
Emerging leaders should incorporate regular reflection into their global leadership
development practices.
Implications for developing experienced global leaders. Given this study’s
premise that the development of intercultural skills is a continual pursuit for global
business leaders, it remains important to consider what additional development
strategies and practices experienced global leaders would find beneficial. For the
generation of experienced global leaders that was the focus of this study, many of them
did not grow up with technology. Technology is a transformational globalizing force and
is incorporated into many corporate strategic goals as a key enabler to success. Unless
they are naturally gifted or have developed technology functional expertise, some global
leaders may struggle with technological acumen, a critical tool for global leaders’
strategic, team, and individual success.
One practice for experienced global leaders to employ is reverse mentoring.
Although typical mentoring relationships involve senior leaders imparting knowledge to
more junior leaders, reverse mentoring provides an avenue for a more equitable
partnership with the junior leader sharing knowledge upward to that senior leader. In
this case, technologically adept emerging global leaders may benefit from sharing their
the latest knowledge and skills in this domain, which can then make experienced global
leaders more comfortable with technology and its many iterative innovations. Also,
there are ancillary benefits to reverse mentoring. Internal tacit knowledge, relationship
building, and intergenerational understanding are all increased as an outcome of
successful reverse mentoring.
Additional implications for development. While this study was
comprehensive in nature, it did reveal a couple of surprises. As for the content that
global leaders shared regarding success measures for developing intercultural skills,
participants also mentioned the primacy of the team leadership. Their team outcomes
of high morale, successful career mobility, and retention were all discussed. However,
one team outcome not mentioned related by global business leaders to innovation,
which is a key output of a strong team. A higher level of team innovation manifested by,
for example, the quality of ideation should be a tangible output of any interculturally
skilled global business leader. Upon further reflection, it seems team innovation is
made all the more difficult for global business leaders at the helm of diverse,
crosscultural teams.
As to the second surprising element, the participants of this study did assert that
a key measure of early intercultural skill building success depended on focused
networking, mentoring, and relationship building in the new cultural milieu. Of interest is
the fact that none of the participants credited the career presence of a mentor who
