Women, Domestic Violence Service Providers, and
Knowledge of Technology-Related Abuse
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
Technology is a necessity in modern society. People use technology such as
cellular telephones, tablets, laptops, global positioning systems (GPS), the Internet, and
interactive software such as social media and e-mail for communication, work, school, or
entertainment. Technology also facilitates information management and storage, which
allows ease of access for everyone who needs that information. Technology is used to
communicate with friends, relatives, or coworkers around the world. Others use
technology for educational purposes such as completing grade school or completing
degree programs.
Although technological advancements have improved communication or access to
information for segments of the population, some people abuse or misuse technology to
the extent that it causes harm to others. Emerging technology can be manipulated and
used as a form of coercive control allowing perpetrators to monitor and intimidate
victims, researchers have found. Furthermore, technology facilitates cyberharassment,
cyber sexual harassment, and abuse of women without the perpetrator being in physical
proximity of the victim (Shimizu, 2013). Victims have little to no control over this form
of abuse and perpetrators exploit this avenue to continue abuse against victims.
Some of the adverse effects that abuse of technology has on women who are
victims of domestic violence include changes in sleep and eating, anxiety, safety
concerns, and feelings of helplessness (Winkelman, Early, Walker, Chu & YickFlanagan,
2015). In a study measuring the psychological impact of cyberharassment on women over
a 12-month period, more than 80% of participants reported feelings of discomfort with
the experience (Winkelman et al., 2015). Technology-facilitated abuse is often an
extension of physical violence in a relationship that can last as long as the perpetrator
wants it to last because the laws in many states do not adequately address the
phenomenon and provide women with the protection they need.
There is a need for domestic violence service providers to assist in making women
aware of the phenomenon and to raise awareness of the relevant laws that states currently
have in place. Domestic violence service providers and advocates should create
opportunities for open dialogue to disseminate information about technology-facilitated
intimate partner violence. The process of informing or educating women should be
standard for domestic violence service providers when interacting with victims of
domestic violence to assist with reducing the occurrence or reoccurrence of
technologyfacilitated abuse. Research shows that women continue to experience various
forms of technology-facilitated abuse at higher rates than men (Winkelman et al., 2015).
As such, domestic violence service providers should expect that victims of physical
intimate partner violence may also be victims of technology-facility violence and may
need assistance or guidance to stop that form of abuse.
Background
Domestic violence or intimate partner violence affects people of all races,
socioeconomic groups, religious affiliations, gender, and people with various levels of
education. Domestic violence involves the use of physical violence, sexual abuse,
emotional and psychological abuse, threats of violence, humiliation, and intimidation of
the victim to gain control (United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, 2011). This type of violence affects victims, children, friends, family
members, and coworkers (United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, 2011). In this digital age, domestic violence has advanced beyond physical
abuse to electronic aggression, which can occur during the relationship or after the
relationship ends. Some abusers also use technology against victims by withholding
technology to gain control (New Hampshire Coalition Against Domestic Violence and
Sexual Violence, n.d.). Furthermore, the use of technology to humiliate and attack
victims provides the abuser with the satisfaction of public attacks and retaliation to gain
compliance from the victim (Schnurr, Mahatmya & Basche, 2013). With the proliferation
of new technologies, abusers, therefore, have new ways to harm their victims.
Research shows that one in seven women experiences stalking in their lifetime,
and one in five children are exposed to domestic violence in the home (National Coalition
Against Domestic Violence, n.d.). Domestic violence programs nationwide reported that
94% of survivors experience harassment through text messages, 86% through social
media, and 78% through e-mail (National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2014).
Staff with the Safety Net Project at the National Network to End Domestic Violence
(NNEDV) conducted a survey in which they discovered that 97% of victims seeking
domestic violence services reported being monitored and threatened through technology
(National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2014). These percentages illustrate that
technology is a key facet of many victims’ experience of domestic violence.
Prosecuting electronic forms of domestic violence is difficult and often results in
unsuccessful prosecutions because many state statutes do not adequately protect women
(Cox, 2014). As Shimizu (2013) noted, courts, which sometimes grant civil orders of
protection that protect women from physical abuse, may not grant such orders of
protection for electronic aggression or cyberstalking because current state and federal
statutes provide limited or no provision for such infractions. Some states have enacted
laws to address the growing problems associated with cyberstalking and
cyberharassment, but it is difficult to create or enforce laws because there is no precise
definition of these phenomena (Hazelwood & Koon-Magnin, 2013). Furthermore, as
current researchers studying the association between continued domestic violence and
technology have noted, existing laws do not protect victims of intimate partner violence
from cyberstalking and electronic harassment because some of the communication is
protected by the First Amendment (Shimizu, 2013). According to Shimizu, more needs to
be done to protect victims of domestic violence.
The gap in the literature suggests the need for more public awareness of the
emerging problems attributed to technology-facilitated intimate partner violence and the
need to educate women about strategies for self-protection to prevent the emotional or
psychological effects of this form of abuse. This study may make domestic violence
service providers aware of the mounting problem that technology is creating for women
experiencing intimate partner violence and stress. Study findings may also highlight the
need for preventative services as advocates continue to petition lawmakers to change or
create applicable laws to combat the problem of technology-facilitated abuse.
Problem Statement
Most women who are victims of physical intimate partner violence are also
victims of some form of technology-facilitated violence (National Network to End
Domestic Violence, 2014). Yet, current laws do not protect these women because the
laws are ambiguous or irrelevant to specific domestic violence situations, which makes
prosecution difficult in many states (Cox, 2014). Some women are also predisposed to
technology-facilitated abuse because of their online practices and a lack of proper
education regarding identity protection and managing of digital footprints (Winkelman et
al., 2015). Moreover, some domestic violence service professionals are uncomfortable
assisting victims of technology-based intimate partner violence because they are
inexperienced technology users and require additional information or training about the
phenomenon to educate victims (Murray, Chow, Pow, Croxton, & Poteat, 2015). For
these reasons, women often continue to suffer the emotional and psychological effects of
the various forms of technology-facilitated violence by abusers.
Purpose
The purpose of this qualitative study was to assess the impact on women’s lack of
awareness of technology-facilitated abuse and to determine the role that domestic
violence service providers play in ensuring that women are educated about
technologyfacilitated abuse at the point of service. In the study, I also analyzed women’s
perceptions of the concept of personal protection when using various types of technology
prior to experiencing technology-facilitated abuse. The study may provide information
that organizations can use to improve women’s access to current information and to
address
the emerging challenges technology presents for many women.
Research Questions
The research questions for this qualitative study are listed below.
RQ1. What are the implications for victims of domestic violence if they are
not up-to-date on the growing danger of technology-facilitated abuse?
RQ2. What are the implications for victims of technology-facilitated violence
if they lack knowledge about the legal options available to stop
perpetrators from using this form of abuse?
RQ3. What information is provided to victims of domestic violence about
technology-facilitated violence during contact with domestic violence
service providers?
RQ4. To what extent does a woman’s level of education aid in decisions to
follow existing technology safety protocols?
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework that informed the study was the Duluth model of
power and control and the feminist perspective on domestic violence. Because domestic
violence extends beyond physical violence, perpetrators often use other tactics to gain
and maintain control of intimate partners. The Duluth model of power and control
describes several types of nonphysical abuse that victims experience, such as coercive
control, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, denial, the use of children, and
economic abuse (Burge et al., 2016). The Duluth model was created in the late 1980s by
the Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs (DAIP) in Minnesota to ensure that abusers
are held accountable and victims are safe (DAIP, 2017). Users of the model aim to
engage a community response when dealing with domestic violence, which includes
participation from all criminal and civil justice agencies (DAIP, 2017). In this study,
emphasis is placed on coercive control because many perpetrators use technology to gain
power and control over victims. Coercive control is defined as a pattern of manipulative
behavior by one or both intimate partners to limit the independence, self-image, and
decision-making authority of the other (Hamberger, Larsen, & Lehrner, 2017). Coercive
control affects all aspects of the victim’s activities of daily living such as interpersonal
relationships with friends, family, coworkers, and educational and work opportunities
(Hamberger et al., 2017). Perpetrators of intimate partner violence who have low
selfesteem or suffer from feelings of powerlessness tend to depend on intimate partners
for social connection and identity and are more likely to use coercive control tactics in
addition to physical abuse (Wager, 2015). It is foreseeable that if victims decide to leave
an abusive relationship, the perpetrator will likely continue using coercive control tactics
such as the use of technology due to feelings of powerlessness or loss of control.
The feminist perspective is concerned with empowering women by addressing the
many issues women face, may which include disabilities, race, gender domination,
powerlessness, social inequality, social devaluation, and domestic violence (Creswell,
2013). The feminist perspective postulates that coercive control results from the societal
structure of patriarchy, gender inequalities, and male dominance that shapes the mindset
of men at the individual and societal levels (Crossman & Hardesty, 2017). Therefore,
women are more often the victims of coercive controlling behavior from men seeking
power and control over them.
Nature of the Study
I conducted this study as a qualitative inquiry because it was necessary to
determine what women knew about technology-facilitated abuse and if the knowledge
they had was gained after contact with domestic violence service providers. This
information was necessary to determine the extent of these women’s experiences with
and without the prior knowledge. A qualitative inquiry provided more in-depth evidence
about the information that is provided to victims from different agencies, which enabled
me to assess the consistency with which that information is provided. The research was
completed as a case study of victims of domestic violence to analyze the procedure
domestic violence providers use to assess and manage the emerging issues of technology
in furthering intimate partner violence. In case studies, researchers aim to analyze
individuals, programs, or processes or compare organizations (Baxter & Jack, 2008). My
study illuminated the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of governments, nonprofit
organizations, and advocacy groups in disseminating information to the public and
preparing employees to manage the growing threat technology pose to women in abusive
relationships.
Definition of Terms
Cyber abuse: Abuse that is inclusive of all technology-based abuse such as
cyberbullying, cyberstalking, cyber sexual solicitation or harassment, and online
pornography (Winkelman et al., 2015).
Cyberharassment: Online predatory behavior such as stalking, threats, and
intimidation (Winkelman, 2015). The term is interchangeable with cyber abuse,
cyberstalking, and cyberharassment (Winkelman, 2015).
Cyberstalking: The recurring use of the Internet, e-mail, instant messages, or other
technology to aggravate, intimidate, or threaten individuals or groups (Winkelman, 2015).
Cyberbullying: Deliberate and repeated harm to a person through an electronic
medium (Winkelman, 2015).
Revenge pornography: The publication or distribution of nonconsensual images or
video of ex-girlfriends or ex-wives by their former in boyfriends or husbands as
vengeance for the dissolution of the relationship (Bloom, 2014).
Assumptions
The expectation was that most participants would have experienced
technologybased abuse at some point in the abusive relationship and contacted domestic
violence service providers two or more times to demonstrate that there is a pattern of
abuse. Preliminary research data suggested that victims of physical intimate partner
violence also experience electronic violence at high rates. The criteria for the study was
exposure to technology-facilitated violence and interaction with domestic violence
professionals on at least one other occasion before the current one. If the pool of potential
participants was low and participants did not meet the criteria for the study, the eligibility
criteria would have been relaxed. It was also expected that the victims would be willing
to participate in the study without compensation.
Scope and Delimitations
I sought responses from those women who had experienced technology-facilitated
violence during a current or former intimate relationship within the last five years. The
women selected had to demonstrate that they had contacted domestic violence service
providers seeking assistance within that period.
Limitations
A potential limitation of the study was the inability to generalize the results to a
larger population or other domestic violence organizations because there was a possibility
that some participants may not have had contact with more than one domestic violence
organization throughout the abusive relationship. This limitation was eliminated because
participants were prescreened before the interviewed to determine the number of agencies
or domestic violence professionals, they were in contact within the past five years.
Overcoming this limitation was dependent on the pool of participants available. I did not
seek any specific information about the abuse experienced that would have upset or
embarrass victims. Information collected pertained to their communication with various
professionals about technology facilitated violence.
Significance
The original contribution this study may make is illuminating the effectiveness of
the domestic violence services provided to victims regarding technology-facilitated
violence and personal safety during and after an abusive relationship. Additionally, the
study may help to promote more education for women about self-protection and provide
strategies to prevent them from becoming victims or stop victimization. Educating
women about the phenomenon is a necessary provision pending the implementation of
relevant laws in each state. The implications for social change are consistent legislation,
increased dissemination of existing and new information about technology-enabled abuse,
harassment, or stalking through governments, courts, law enforcement, and support
groups to ensure women feel empowered and safe.
Summary
The current literature about technology facilitated domestic violence illuminates
the growing problem that women face with technology and prolonged violence. It is hard
for women to escape technology facilitated abuse by a current or former intimate partner
without specific knowledge about how perpetrators can exploit various technological
mediums to threaten or intimidate them. Women may need the assistance from domestic
violence service providers to ensure their safety during and after the relationship in lieu of
the inadequate laws and poor prosecutorial success of cyberharassment and cyberstalking
cases. The goal of the study was to emphasize the need for provider supported education
of women seeking domestic violence services about technologyfacilitated violence and
self-protection.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
The literature review in this chapter highlights current issues surrounding the
misuse of technology by perpetrators, specifically those who perpetrate violence against
women. I critically analyzed and evaluated the existing literature about
technologyfacilitated intimate partner violence. In completing the review, I focused on
past literature and studies related to the impact of technology-facilitated violence on
women and their children, and the long-term adverse effects on those victimized. I
examined the legal constraints of freedom of speech and cyberharassment or cyber
aggression and the difficulties the justice system faces when prosecuting cyber violence
and specifically cyber violence directed at women who may also be victims of physical
abuse by the same perpetrator. In addition, I examined the laws created to protect women
from abuse or further victimization through technology. The goal of the review was to
highlight the need for education sponsored by domestic violence service providers,
community outreach programs, and advocates to help protect women from further
psychological or emotional abuse by their abusers as an interim to lawmakers changing
existing laws or creating new legislation to prevent or reduce the incidences of
technology-facilitated abuse.
Literature Search Strategy
I conducted the literature review using Walden University Library resources in
combination with Google Scholar to identify sources. Most relevant articles were selected
using Walden’s multidisciplinary databases, specifically Academic Search Complete, to
gather sources relevant to the subject across many disciplines. A few sources were
gathered using ProQuest Criminal Justice, which is one of the criminal justice databases
within the Walden Library. I used search terms such as online harassment,
cyberharassment, cyber aggression, cyberharassment and domestic violence, intimate
partner violence and electronic aggression, and domestic violence and technology
facilitated abuse.
Literature Review Related to Key Variables and/or Concepts
Overview of Technology Misuse
The benefits of technology are often overshadowed by deliberate misuse of
electronic devices by perpetrators who willfully violate the privacy, security, peace of
mind, and rights of women. Some of the frequent misuses of technology include online
impersonation, cyberharassment, cyberbullying, cyberstalking, and cyber sexual
harassment or abuse (Winkelman et al.). As discussed in the review, these types of
technology abuse directly affect the lives of those affected, specifically women who were
victims of physical violence by the same perpetrator.
Cyberharassment and cyberstalking. Cyberharassment and cyberstalking are
sometimes used interchangeably but may have different meanings in various jurisdictions
(Cox, 2014). Cyberbullying is also interchanged with cyberharassment and cyberstalking
on occasions (Winkelman et al., 2015). However, the specifics of each component are
different because a perpetrator needs to cyberstalk a victim and subsequently engage in
cyberharassment of that victim. Cox (2014) described cyberharassment as deliberate and
threatening electronic communication from a current or former intimate partner to a
victim solely to cause the victim distress. Cyberstalking is equivalent to real-world
stalking and associated with intimate relationships and former relationships (Dreßing,
Bailer, Anders, Wagner, & Gallas, 2014). A prior study by Spitzberg and Hoobler
showed that 30% of the 339 survey participants, who were college students, were victims
of cyberstalking and that 10% of the participants received insulting, harassing, or
threatening e-mails from a spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend (as cited in Winkelman et al.,
2015). Spitzberg and Hoobler also found that 10-15% of the college students reported
receiving multiple e-mails and instant messages from a significant other (as cited in
Winkelman et al., 2015). In addition, 54% of participants knew someone who
experienced cyberbullying through social media, instant messages, or cellular phones (as
cited in Winkelman et al., 2015). Winkelman et al. mentioned that the percentages varied
for each study because some studies were conducted using different terminology because
the terms are interchangeable or are poorly defined. The studies discussed in the articales
by Winkelman et al. did not refer to gender differences regarding cyberbullying or
cyberstalking experiences. Previous researchers have concluded that cyberharassment
often involves intimate partners and that perpetrators engage in the following activities:
•monitoring the victim’s emails;
•sending the victim harassing, threatening or insulting e-mails;
•sending the unwanted e-mails, spam e-mail, and e-mail viruses and
manipulating the victim’s personal data;
•conducting Internet searches to obtain personal information about the victim
to further the electronic harassment;
•sending false e-mail messages to others or making purchases using the
victim’s e-mail identity;
•frequent texts or instant messages from the perpetrator; and
•stalking victims in chat rooms and posting bizarre messages on blogs,
websites, and other personal social networking sites (Winkelman et al., 2015)
The Internet is another source that perpetrators could use to abuse women and
avoid consequences in some cases. The Internet plays a key role in cyberstalking and
cyberharassment because the abuser expends little to no money perpetrating the crime
and does not need to be in the same physical location as the victim to monitor the
activities of the victim (Shimizu, 2013). Perpetrators of cyberstalking can use the Internet
to encourage others to harass and intimidate the victim while maintaining some
anonymity (Shimizu, 2013). Perpetrators use other Internet-based technology like people
finding websites such as Pipl, Spokeo, and People Finder to find personally identifiable
information about victims (Cox, 2014). Pipl is a free website that allegedly uses the deep
web to obtain information about people that a perpetrator can use to gather pertinent
information about a victim or to locate the victim (Cox, 2014). Perpetrators who use
Spokeo, and People Finder are required to pay for personally identifiable information
such as the victim’s Social Security number and place of residence (Cox, 2014). The
Internet is a source that is often exploited to the detriment of the victims.
Some perpetrators use global positioning systems (GPS) to monitor the location of
victims. GPS technology is incorporated into most mobile technological devices such as
cellular telephones, tablets, and watches (Cox, 2014). Those intending to indulge in
cyberstalking can download and install applications onto a victim’s smartphone without
that person’s knowledge, which report the exact the location of the victim (Cox, 2014). A
popular GPS software used by many employers for tracking activities is ePhoneTracker.
When ePhoneTracker’s software is installed on a person’s smartphone, the software can
track the person’s precise location and monitor text messages, contacts, e-mails, and
websites visited (Cox, 2014). Victims would not know that this software was installed on
their cellphones and are therefore vulnerable to physical attacks by the perpetrator.
Winkelman et al. (2015) stated that women are more likely to experience
cyberstalking than real world stalking because of the lack of boundaries in the cyber
world and the ability of the abuser to change their identity or remain anonymous. A study
of social network users and the relationship between perpetrator and victim revealed that
69.4% of cyberstalking perpetrators were male, 28.1% were female, and 2.5% had
unknown gender (Dreßing et al., 2014). Conversely, cybercrimes such as harassment and
stalking are denoted as crimes against women because more women than men are
reported to experience cyberharassment or cyberstalking (Winkelman et al., 2015). Twice
as many adolescent girls than boys were affected by cyber abuse or solicitation
(Winkelman et al., 2015). Dreßing et al. (2014) reported that some victims experienced
cyberstalking that transitioned to real world or offline stalking, while other experienced
both forms of stalking simultaneously. In the same study, the authors also discovered that
25.8% of respondents experienced only cyberstalking, while 42% reported experiencing
both forms of stalking concurrently (Dreßing et al., 2014). Other researchers have
reported similar findings regarding the transition from cyberstalking to offline stalking or
vice versa. Winkelman et al. (2015) indicated that 16.1% of victims reported being offline
after being experiencing cyberstalking. The article suggested that the victims might have
known the perpetrators in some instances but did not specify whether there was a prior
intimate relationship.
Cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is another term that can be interchanged with
cyberharassment and cyberstalking, but by definition the terms are not closely linked. The
definition of cyberbullying stems from the academic classification of bullying among
children. Bullying usually entails repeated verbal and physical, and a power differential
where one person has the advantage (Klonick, 2016). Cyberbullying is concerned with
online verbal aggression, threats, blackmail, and rumors (Klonick, 2016). The
phenomenon of cyberbullying involves one or more people willfully sending distressing
information about another through electronic means to inflict emotional and
psychological harm (Crosslin & Crosslin, 2013). Cyberbullying was first associated with
children or adolescents in an academic setting, but when cyberbullying involves adults,
the phenomenon is called cyberharassment because of similar threats, blackmail, and
verbal aggression (Klonick, 2016). Cyberbullying is exhibited in several forms such as
harassment, cyberstalking, denigration, happy slapping, exclusion, outing and trickery,
impersonation, and indirect threats (Langos, 2015). Langos listed cyberstalking as a
subsidiary of cyberbullying, which demonstrates the lack of concrete or accepted
definition of the various components of cyber abuse. Langos (2015) describes harassment
as repeated messages from the perpetrator to the victim and describes cyberstalking as an
outcome of more severe harassment leading the victim to experience significant offline
fear. Denigration involves disseminating derogatory information or images of the victim
by the perpetrator (Langos, 2015). The expression of happy slapping encompasses the act
of publishing videos that depicts a physical assault of the victim to embarrass the victim
(Langos, 2015). Langos (2015) further described exclusion as preventing the victim from
entering desired online spaces. Outing and Trickery are concerned with coercing the
victim into divulging information and subsequently using that information against the
victim (Langos, 2015). The perpetrator may also impersonate the victim in online settings
to send unpleasant messages to others as though the victim sent the messages (Langos,
2015). Langos (2015) defines indirect threats as online communication that implies a
veiled threat to the safety of the victim.
Technology-facilitated sexual violence or harassment. Under the umbrella of
domestic or intimate partner violence, perpetrators can either verbally degrade women or
disseminate nude or sexually explicit images of former intimate partners through
technology. This tactic of seeking revenge against a former intimate partner by publishing
sexually explicit pictures of the victim is classified as revenge pornography, which falls
into the category of domestic violence, rape and sexual harassment (Bloom, 2014).
Technology facilitated sexual violence or cyber sexual harassment often target women
and girls, and websites that publish the revenge pornography are controlled by males
(Franks, 2012 & Bloom, 2014). Prior research revealed that some former intimate
partners use sexual images to humiliate former partners, but some domestic violence
perpetrators use explicit images to intimidate and control current and former partners
(Henry & Powell, 2015). Existing laws do not address the issues women face with sexual
violence or harassment on the Internet (Franks, 2012). The author stated that current
discrimination law only takes action against violators who harass women in schools or
the work environment. Similarly, the current discrimination laws associate the harm
caused by sexual harassment to those protected environments, but no provision is made
for sexual violence or harassment via the Internet or social networking sites (Frank,
2012). Victims remain at risk of continued electronic violence by their perpetrators.
Education and cybercrime. Even though the statistics illuminate the problem
that cybercrimes pose, cyberharassment and cyberstalking remains misunderstood by
many and is often ignored in scholarly settings even though it is a pervasive problem that
affects many youth and adults. Criminal justice introductory textbooks do not mention
stalking or cyberstalking, which is a current problem for many college students (Huffman
& Overton, 2013). Huffman and Overton (2013) stated that introductory criminal justice
college textbooks provide an overview of the important areas of study within the field but
stalking and cyberstalking are noticeably absent. Similarly, little information about
cyberstalking or abuse is printed in scholarly journals (Winkelman et al., 2015). Students
may be misled about the current state of affairs regarding the subject matter.
Experiences of Women with Technology-Facilitated Violence
Several researchers and authors shared the experiences of women who were
victims of various forms of technology facilitated abuse. Cox (2014) described a case of a
woman from California who began receiving unexpected visitors from strange men who
stated they were responding to a personal advertisement on Craigslist and communicated
with her through email regarding fulfilling her fantasy of being raped. The woman in this
case, did not post an advertisement on the Craigslist and did not communicate by email
with any of the men. This case is an example of online impersonation and cyberstalking
that subsequently led to California’s first conviction for cyberstalking (Cox, 2014).
In another case, a female victim of domestic violence attempted to leave her abuser by
seeking partner organization at a domestic violence partner organization and received a
text message from her abuser questioning her reason for being at the partner organization
(Cox, 2014). The woman relayed this information to the domestic violence provider, who
later escorted her to the courthouse to obtain an order of protection (Cox, 2014). While at
the courthouse, the woman received another text message from her abuser, again
questioning her location (Cox, 2014). It was subsequently determined that the woman’s
abuser installed an application to track her location on her smartphone without her
knowledge (Cox, 2014). This is another example of cyberstalking, where a woman could
be exposed to further danger due to ignorance of the technology misuse and the extreme
behaviors of some abusers who want to monitor and control them. This is another
example of a former partner threatening and distributing unauthorized images of his ex-
girlfriend as revenge for alleged infidelity after their breakup. Many refer to this
phenomenon as revenge pornography. Bloom (2014) describes the experiences of a
woman named Annmarie who experienced cyber sexual abuse by her former partner
named Joey. Joey was in possession of eighty eight nude pictures of Annmarie and
threatened to auction the pictures on eBay, in addition to sending links to the pictures to
all of her friends, family, and coworkers, and followed up on the promise (Bloom, 2014).
Family, coworkers, and other acquaintances informed the victim of the links they
received from the auction on eBay and contacted the police (Bloom, 2014). The author
stated that the police informed the victim that there was nothing they could do about her
situation. Annmarie lived in fear and panic for a year. She then googled her name and
found her name and address to link to a pornography site without her consent (Bloom,
2014). The victim again went to the police and received no assistance, and the victim
became afraid to be seen in public for fear of becoming a victim of stalking (Bloom,
2014). A few days later, Annmarie unsuccessfully attempted to commit suicide because
of her ongoing ordeal. She then decided to fight the problem of revenge pornography by
becoming an advocate (Bloom, 2014). Existing research showed that 20% of participants
shared intimate pictures with companions and one in ten were threatened with the online
publication of those pictures after a breakup, and 60% of those who threatened, carried
out the threat (Bloom, 2014).
Impact of Technology-Facilitated Abuse on Women
Studies show a nexus between cybercrime against women and emotional and
psychological harm. For instance, the study conducted by Dreßing et al. (2014) reported
that 80.5% of women were victims of cyberstalking perpetrated largely by males. The
same study reported that 2.5% of cyberstalking victims did not suffer any adverse effects
from the victimization (Dreßing et al., 2014). More than 50% of the respondents
acknowledged feelings of aggression, anger or helpless, while two-thirds of the
respondents reported feelings of distrust (Dreßing et al., 2014). More than 80% of
respondents in this study reported feeling uneasy about the experience (Dreßing et al.,
2014). In another study conducted by Winkelman et al. (2015), the authors reported a
similar psychological impact on victims who experienced cyberharassment or
cyberstalking. Table 1 depicts the effects of cyberharassment on victims in the 12 months
preceding Winkelman’s study.
Table 1
Psychological Symptoms Experienced in the Past 12 Months Due to Cyberharassment
Symptoms n %
Changes in sleeping or eating
patterns
56 20.7
Nightmares
46 17.0
Hypervigilance
50 18.5
Anxiety
95 34.9
Feelings of helplessness
58 21.3
Fear for safety
67 24.6
Feelings of shock and
disbelief
103 38.1
Note. Preprinted from “Exploring Cyberharassment Among Women who Use Social
Media,” by S. B. Winkelman, J. O. Early, A. D. Walker, L. Chu, & A. Yick-Flanagan,
2015, Universal Journal of Public Health, 3, p. 197.
Cyberharassment has also led to suicides, loss of employment, decreased interest
in social activities and decreased interest in educational and online activities (Franks,
2012). Cyberbullying also has a psychosomatic or psychosocial impact on victims.
Langos (2015) perceives the impact of cyberbullying in the context of philosopher Joel
Feinberg’s conception of harm. Langos (2015) stated that Feinberg analyzed harm as
defeating interests as in violating the interest of a person. Langos’ (2015) perception of
harm as it relates to cyberbullying includes anxiety, stress, panic, resentment,
embarrassment, and some long-term psychiatric injury. The author, like other authors,
noted that the phenomenon was new, and much research was not done to document the
harm that cyberbullying cause victims. Crosslin (2014) stated that cyberbullying created
trust issues for victims and wrote that many victims avoid new relationships.
Similarly, cyber sexual violence or cyber sexual harassment has similar effects on
victims. Public disclosure of elicit images of women in online settings can lead to career
issues because of the damage to the woman’s reputation (Bloom, 2014). The author stated
that the damage to the woman’s reputation could also lead to the woman changing her
name to avoid future harassment. Bloom (2014) also mentioned that 47% of revenge
pornography victims contemplate suicide and are likely to become victims of stalking by
some of the men who view the unauthorized pictures. Women who are victims of online
sexual harassment or violence become sexual objects, which promote gender stereotypes
that women are not worthy (Bloom, 2014 & Franks, 2012). Consequently, women lose
their privacy, anonymity, and ability to present themselves in a favorable light to others
(Franks, 2012). Women also lose other liberties such as their interaction with society and
trust in future relationships (Bloom, 2014).
Potential Impact on Children
Parents’ role in educating children about technology abuse. One of the
trickledown effects of technology-based violence is the impact on children in the
relationship. Educating women about technology facilitated abuse are beneficial to the
safety of children or adolescents who are also technology users. The reason this is
important in the context of domestic violence is the dissolution of a relationship or
marriage because of violence. Very often, after a violent relationship ends, women are the
primary custodians of the children from that relationship and are responsible for their
wellbeing when using technology. Women should understand how they are at risk of
technology-based violence, so they can also understand how their children are also at
risk. Researchers refer to the role of parents in reducing the risks to children when using
the Internet as parental mediation (Appel, Stiglbauer, Batinic & Holtz, 2014). Parental
mediation is concerned with active mediation, which includes talking youth about the
Internet, and restrictive mediation, which places stipulations on teen Internet use (Appel
et al., 2014). Schools do play an active role in educating children about the potential
dangers of technology, but it is the primary role of the parents to monitor their children’s
use of technology and be familiar with the potential dangers that exist. Parents who are
not technologically savvy may need additional assistance or resources to highlight all the
dangers that exist.
Technology-facilitated youth violence. Children and adolescents are subject to the
same forms of technology-based violence as adults. Some adolescents engage in
cyberharassment, cyberbullying and cyber sexual harassment or cyber sexual abuse, and
cyber dating abuse. The adverse effects on youth victims are the same or in some
instances more traumatic because adolescents are more sensitive to humiliation and any
form of bullying. Recent studies reveal that technology has led to increased incidences of
adolescent electronic youth violence. A recent study of the prevalence of harassment in
high school and universities concluded that 33.6% of high school students and 8.6% of
college students experienced cyberharassment (Beran, Rinaldi, Bickham & Rich, 2012).
Another study conducted of 10-15 years old by UNICEF in Croatia, found that the
prevalence of cyberbullying was increasing (Bilic, 2013). The Croatian study revealed
that 38.7% of the children were exposed to cyberbullying on social networks, 33.9%
received unpleasant text messages, and 15% of the children experienced cyberbullying in
forums and blogs (Bilic, 2013). Children and adolescents are also susceptible to another
form of cyber abuse, which is cyber grooming. Cyber grooming involves the solicitation
of minors to through the Internet to engage in cyber sexual abuse or to arrange physical
meetings to engage in sexual abuse (Wachs, Jiskrova, Vazsonyi, Wolf & Junger, 2016).
The authors stated that some children might be more vulnerable to cyber grooming if they
are victims of other cyber abuse such as cyberbullying (Wachs et al., 2016).
Children and adolescents also experienced cyber dating abuse that disproportionately
affects females more than males (Zweig, Dank, Yahner & Lachman, 2013). A study of
ten schools in three northeastern states revealed that more females than males
experienced nonsexual cyber dating violence (Zweig et al., 2013). Furthermore, victims
of cyber dating abuse were seven times more likely to become victims of cyber sexual
coercion (Zweig et al., 2013). Parents have a vital role in protecting their children from
the same dangers that they experience in abusive interpersonal relationships. Therefore,
educating women before or after they become victims of intimate partner cyber violence
can circumvent the same faith for children, as either victims or offenders.
Technology-Facilitated Violence and the Criminal Justice System
Laws protecting women. The criminal justice system has the burden of preventing
and prosecuting incidences of cybercrime based on existing laws. One of the burdens of
the criminal justice system is protecting citizens from cybercrime when technology is
always changing, which can make any existing laws obsolete when attempting to
prosecute certain types of cybercrime. Cyberstalking and cyberharassment can be
prosecuted under federal statutes such as the Interstate Communications Act and the
Federal Interstate Stalking and Prevention Act (Cox, 2014). The Interstate
Communications Act seeks to prosecute perpetrators who directly communicate a threat
to kidnap or injure victims (Cox, 2014). Direct threats to the victim do not constrain the
Federal Interstate Stalking Punishment and Prevention Act. The statute is concerned with
stopping perpetrators who intend to harm, kill, threaten, intimidate, surveil, or distress a
victim through the use of technology (Cox, 2014). Another federal statute that should
deter perpetrators is the Telephone Harassment Act, which was amended in 2006 to
include language that prohibited the use of electronic communication harass, intimidate,
or abuse others (Cox, 2014). The authors noted that some states had not created specific
laws for cyberstalking and cyberharassment, and of the states that do, the legal
requirements are different. Instead of creating new laws, some states had attached
cyberstalking to existing stalking laws (Shimizu, 2013 & Cox, 2014). Therefore, the
cyberstalking laws in many states do not address every aspect of the cyberstalking and
cyberharassment, particularly in the context of domestic violence.
Difficulties prosecuting cases. Though some states have cyberstalking and
harassment laws in place, it is sometimes difficult for prosecutors to obtain convictions
for domestic violence cases. Prosecuting cyber violence against women is complicated by
the First Amendment rights of the perpetrator and the courts determining about what type
of cyberspeech is criminal and violates the rights of the victim. Some speech in public
forums is protected, but speech not protected by the First Amendment includes speech
that is obscene, defamatory, fraudulent, and provocative, presents a real threat, and
speech that indicates criminal conduct (Shimizu, 2013). Courts evaluate cyberstalking
based on the true or credible threats to the welfare of the victim (Shimizu, 2013 & Cox,
2014). Victims of domestic violence who claimed online speech threatened them have the
burden of proving intent by the perpetrator (Shimizu, 2013). Cox (2014) that Internet acts
a barrier between the victim and the perpetrator, which allows the perpetrator to claim he
never intended to cause distress to the victim or state he has no direct connection to the
victim because he may not be in proximity to the victim. Further, prosecutorial issues
arise when victims attempt to report anonymous cyber victimization by a known
perpetrator based on the online rhetoric but still have to prove the identity of the stalker to
ensure a successful prosecution (Shimizu, 2013). This is not always a successful avenue
for victims because it does not guarantee the prosecution of the perpetrator.
Tenth Amendment constraints also hinder prosecuting cyberstalkers and cyber
harassers. Shimizu (2013) stated that the Tenth Amendment’s Commerce Clause views
the Internet and the content on the Internet as interstate commerce. Courts have frowned
upon one state criminalizing Internet content that can potentially affect all the Internet
and users outside the jurisdiction of the state attempting to pass cyberstalking legislation
(Shimizu, 2013). Therefore, when states attempt to regulate cyberstalking, the laws
created are limited in language to the specific state and the conduct of the stalker, rather
than the content of the online material (Shimizu, 2013). Prosecuting cyberstalking
presents many challenges and prosecutors have to plan how they would approach
charging and prosecuting perpetrators who use the Internet to continue abusing women.
Similarly, when attempting prosecution of illegal publication of nude images or
videos, poses similar challenges. Historically, sexual crimes committed by intimate
partners on a spouse or girlfriend were not given the same attention as a sexual assault
committed by a stranger (Bloom, 2014). Accusers and prosecutors in some states have the
burden of proving the harm caused to the victim was intentionally created by the
perpetrator, which sometimes mean the victim is forced to testify in court and face
crossexamination (Bloom, 2014). New Jersey was the first state to enact a law that deters
distribution of unauthorized images without requiring the victim to prove the adverse
intentions of the perpetrator (Bloom, 2014).
Technology-Facilitated Violence and Domestic Violence Service Providers
Technology-facilitated violence against women presents new challenges for all domestic
violence service providers. Domestic violence providers include emergency partner
organization and crisis intervention providers, program facilitators and other support
staff, advocates, law enforcement, the courts, medical and mental health professionals,
program evaluators, researchers, and public policymakers (Murray et al., 2015).Given
that very few studies in the area of cyber violence exist to demonstrate the impact on
women, organizations may not feel the need to discuss the phenomenon with clients or
further, to make public service announcements to educate the public. Cyber violence or
abuse against women by current or former intimate partners is a growing problem in
society that can leave women feeling defenseless. Before providers can educate women
about cyber violence, providers should first be comfortable with technology and then
knowledgeable about the many ways that domestic violence victims are abused through
technology.
In a recent study, Murray et al. (2015) assessed the overall technology readiness
and perception of technology by various domestic violence service providers. The study
revealed that employees have moderate levels of discomfort and insecurity with
technology but are optimistic that technology is valuable in the workplace. The findings
from the study also revealed that providers wanted more research-based information to
assist victims. Further, participants of the study provided varying responses regarding
their comfort level in assisting victims with technology safety issues (Murray et al.,
2015). Some of the critical findings of the study conducted in 2015 revealed that studies
on domestic violence, including studies relating to technology-facilitated violence is not
disseminated to providers in a timely manner. There are enough evidenced-based studies
available to educate providers, so they can in turn, educate victims and the public.
Additionally, domestic violence administrators may not be incorporating the findings of
current studies into day to day operations to improve service to victims because
employees lacked evidenced based research and expressed some level of discomfort
discussing technology safety with victims. If employees are not entirely comfortable and
secure with using technology for operational purposes, they would not feel secure
assisting and educating victims about technology safety issues.
Technology Users and Personal Responsibility
Many people use technology daily for various reasons, particularly for social
networking. Social networking is very popular with many people of all ages and gender.
In the context of technology-facilitated violence against women, some experts believe
that women contribute to their online victimization in some cases with their online
activities. A recent study of risky Internet behavior by women indicated that 96.5% of
women never participated in an online safety class, but their online behavior was not
overly risky (Winkelman et al., 2015). However, the study did reveal that 94.7% of
women posted many pictures of themselves, 25.4% posted provocative pictures
(Winkelman et al., 2015). Other findings from the study disclosed that 98.4% of the
participants had profiles that were visible to all Internet users and 68.1% posted their
daily or weekly plans on the Internet (Winkelman et al., 2015). The authors stated that
one of the limitations of the study was that the sample did not represent the population of
women because the participants were all from women’s organizations with strong
feminist views. The study identified the ways that women may be targeted for
cyberstalking, harassment, or sexual harassment. Posting information about one’s
whereabouts on the Internet can expose the victim to physical by an abuser. Table 2
summarizes the results of the study.
Table 2
Internet Risky Behaviors Engaged in During the Past 12 Months
Type of Internet risky behavior n %
Posted your first and last name on publicly
accessible Internet profiles such as discussion
forums, message boards, blogs, and/or chat rooms
163 54.4
Posted your contact information (i.e. cell phone,
home phone, email address, city and state) on the
Internet
173 57.9
Posted a regular photo of yourself on the Internet 282 94.7
Posted what is considered a provocative or sexy
picture of yourself on the Internet
76
25.4
Created what might be considered a provocative
name to email address
13 4.3
Make your profile visible to all Internet users 95 98.4
Created a gender specific email address
111
37.1
Invited someone you don’t not know to your social
networking site
84 28.2
Accepted someone not known to you to Your social
networking site
168 56.4
Entered a sex chatroom
23 7.8
Agreed to meet someone face-to-face from the
Internet after minimal to a few Internet exchanges
40 13.4
Downloaded pornographic images from
pornographic websites
56 18.9
Talked with someone you do not know in a
chatroom about sensitive topic matters (i.e., sex,
relationships, etc.…)
74 25.7
Returned an email from someone you do not know 96 33.5
Posted your plans on the Internet (i.e., what you will 195 68.1
be doing that day or week etc.)
Used a webcam to talk to someone you do not know 24 8.3
on the Internet
Accepted file transfers or opened links from 37 12.8 someone you do not
know or trust
Note. Preprinted from “Exploring cyberharassment among women who use social media”
by Winkelman, S.B., Early, J.O., Walker, A.D., Chu, L. & Yick-Flanagan, A. (2015).
Universal Journal of Public Health, 3, p. 198.
Summary
The review of the current literature highlights the problems that women encounter
when attempting to manage their lives while experiencing technology facilitated abuse.
Research shows that the Internet in combination with several devices and the malicious
intentions of perpetrators seeking to control and denigrate current or former intimate
partners, cause women to experience various forms of psychological trauma. The
literature review reveals that abusers engage in cyberharassment, cyberstalking or cyber
sexual harassment to threaten, intimidate or otherwise control victims without being in
proximity. Both genders experience cyber abuse, but male current or former partners
predominantly victimize women through this medium. Cyber abuse affects women
emotionally, psychologically and affects women’s ability to trust those around them.
Children are also victims or aggressors in cyber abuse or harassment and need direction
from well-informed parents to teach them about safe and ethical technology use. Youth
violence is also an emerging societal problem that responsible adults should monitor.
Youth are affected by cyber dating violence and solicitation from strangers seeking to
exploit them.
The review of the literature exposes the inconsistencies in state and federal statues
inadequately protecting women and successfully prosecuting perpetrators. In some states,
prosecutors are expected to prove the intent of the abuser in causing emotional or
psychological harm to the victim. Interpretations of the vague laws by the courts leave
women in a vulnerable state and needing to protect themselves from further harm or seek
assistance from domestic violence service providers. In some cases, providers may lack
the skill set to educate women satisfactorily about technology and violence.
Chapter 3: Research Methods
Introduction
In Chapter 3, I discuss the methods and procedures used to conduct and complete
the study. The research method I selected ensured that the results of the study are valid
and that they represented a sample of the population. The research methods aligned with
the purpose of the study and the research questions for consistency. The problem
identified was technology-facilitated abuse as an extension of physical violence in
intimate partner relationships. The purpose of the study was to determine the implications
of this type of abuse on victims of domestic violence and the role that domestic violence
providers have in educating women to prevent future abuse through this medium. The
research questions were open-ended and focused on assessing the impact on victims of
domestic violence if they lack the knowledge necessary to protect themselves. In devising
the research questions, I also sought to extract information about the role of domestic
violence providers should have in educating women at the point of service. The answers
to the research questions provide insight about whether domestic violence providers need
to improve or increase services offered. In using the research design and methodology
described in this chapter, I was able to obtain access to participants who experienced
technology-facilitated violence and gain in-depth information about participants’
experiences of the study phenomenon.
Purpose
The purpose of this qualitative study was to assess the impact on women if they
are unaware of technology-facilitated abuse and to determine the role that domestic
violence providers have in ensuring that women are educated about technology-facilitated
abuse at the point of service. In the study, I also analyzed participants’ perceptions of the
concept of personal protection when using various types of technology prior to
experiencing technology-facilitated experience. The study may provide information that
organizations can use to improve women’s access to current information and to address
the emerging challenges technology presents for many women who are victims of
technology-facilitated violence.
Research Design and Rationale
Research Questions
The research questions for this qualitative study were the following:
RQ1. What are the implications for victims of domestic violence if domestic
violence service providers are not up-to-date on the growing danger of
technology-facilitated abuse?
RQ2. What are the implications for victims of technology-facilitated violence if
they lack knowledge about the legal options available to stop perpetrators
from using this form of abuse?
RQ3. What information is provided to victims of domestic violence about
technology-facilitated violence during contact with domestic violence
service providers?
RQ4. To what extent does a woman’s level of education aid in decisions to follow
existing technology safety protocols?
I conducted the study as a qualitative inquiry because it was necessary to
determine what, if anything, women who participated in the study knew about
technology-facilitated abuse, and where they obtained such knowledge. A qualitative
inquiry provided more in-depth evidence about the information that was provided to
victims from different sources to assess the consistency of information providers
disseminate to victims of domestic violence. Researchers performing qualitative studies
rely on the collection and analysis of texts and pictures combined with an appropriate
strategy of inquiry (Creswell, 2013, p. 173). A qualitative inquiry allowed for comparison
of information that victims received throughout their ordeal from different providers as
well as the ways that technology was used as a weapon against them.
The research strategy of inquiry was a case study, use of which allowed me to
analyze the process organizations use (if a process exists) to educate women about the
emerging issues of technology in furthering intimate partner violence. Researchers
conducting case studies aim to analyze individuals, programs, processes, or compare
organizations (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Creswell (2013) stated that case studies allow
researchers to gather detailed information about people and activities related to the
subject matter. In this instance, the study illuminated the effectiveness of governments,
nonprofit organizations, and advocacy groups in disseminating information to the public
and preparing employees to manage the growing threat technology poses to women in
abusive relationships. I selected this design because it allowed for the collection of
specific information from different women who experienced technology-facilitated abuse
by a current or former intimate partner.
Role of the Researcher
The researcher grew up in a society in Guyana, South America, where domestic
violence is often overlooked as an accepted practice. Witnesses of such violence in
Guyana often observe physical domestic disputes from a distance without interfering or
calling law enforcement. Even when women are physically assaulted, observers rarely
intervene. In adult life, the researcher was also involved in a physically and emotionally
abusive relationship that ended in divorce. The researcher realizes that there may be a
perception of implicit bias based on my personal experiences, but those experiences did
not create a bias against men. Male victims of technology-facilitated violence were
unavailable for this study at prospective study sites. Further, the literature review revealed
that women are more likely than men to become victims of technologyfacilitated violence
as an extension of domestic violence (Winkelman et al., 2015). Researcher bias was
nonexistent because the problem identified in this study involved female victims and
domestic violence service organizations as a means of reducing future victimization
through education.
Furthermore, I had no preexisting relationship with the participants of the study.
Participants were randomly selected based on their suitability for the study. I obtained
oral and subsequently written approval to conduct the study at the site.
Methodology
Participant Selection
The sample size for the study was a minimum of 9 but no more than 30 female
participants. The final number of participants depended on reaching a point of saturation
after conducting several interviews. I used a purposeful random sampling technique. This
sampling technique was selected because it increases the credibility of the study and does
not require large samples (Creswell, 2013). I anticipated that the study would take about
one or two weeks to complete after selecting respondents who met the criteria of the
study. Potential participants were recruited from a partner organization. Once recruited,
available offices or conference rooms were available for use during the interviews to
ensure the privacy of participants were protected. The location was selected because
women at the partner organization had been victims of physical violence and were now in
a safe place because they wanted to stop the violence and other controlling behavior.
The other information required for victims to meet the criteria for the study was
exposure to technology-facilitated violence and their interaction with domestic violence
professionals on at least one other occasion before the current one. If the desired
participants were not recruited during the first 3 days of recruitment, the eligibility
criteria may have been revised to include participants who contacted a domestic violence
provider for the first time. If participants did not meet the criteria, it would have been
necessary to spend longer than the expected two weeks collecting data or add
compensation to make participation more attractive. Compensation was not preferred
because of the concern that the victims may participate because of the compensation and
may provide misleading information to receive compensation.
Instrumentation
I was the key instrument in the research. I collected data through (a)
semistructured, face-to-face interviews with victims at a domestic violence partner
organization and (b) observation of the victims during the interviews as a secondary
method of data collection. Face-to-face interviews were conducted to gather detail
information about individual experiences and ask follow-up questions as needed.
Procedures for Participation and Data Collection
Data collection methods included observation and semi structured interviews
utilizing open ended questions to collect detailed information about personal knowledge
participants had of the phenomenon before becoming victims. Observing the demeanor
and body language of respondents was a secondary means of data collection to determine
the surprise factor that some women may experience realizing that technology facilitated
harassment or stalking is an extension of domestic violence. The interview questions
consisted of questions related to basic facts about the respondents, such as education,
opinions, and knowledge questions (O’Sullivan, Rassel & Berner, 2008, p. 215). All
interview questions were asked in the context of examining the knowledge base of
participants regarding technology, domestic violence, and the role of domestic violence
service providers.
The study used a purposeful random sampling technique to select women who had
experienced electronic violence perpetrated by an intimate partner, or a combination of
women who had experienced both physical violence and technology facilitated violence.
Purposeful random sampling was selected because it was a more credible qualitative
sampling technique (Patton, 2015). Sound judgment was necessary when choosing
participants to ensure the study was representative of the population
(O’Sullivan et al., 2008).
Data Analysis Plan
Analysis of data included transcribing written answers of interviews for upload
into the computer software program NVivo for thematic analysis and comparison. NVivo
was also be used to manage, store, and retrieve data. Some of the features of NVivo
include graphical displays of codes and categories, and organization of unstructured data
from open-ended interviews (QSR International, n.d.). For this study, and based on the
research questions, codes were used to categorized data such as level of education, type
of technology used against women, responses of each domestic violence agency response
to women if any, and proactive approaches by agencies to prevent further abuse.
Issues of Trustworthiness
Qualitative validity is concerned with ensuring the accuracy of results by putting
in place strategies to legitimize the conclusions drawn (Creswell, 2013, p. 190). Ensuring
internal validity of this study was essential, and all the steps taken during the study were
documented, and information transcribed to NVivo was be rechecked to ensure
participant responses were accurately captured. Themes developed from data collected
were contrasted with discrepant information to ensure the credibility of the study.
Creswell (2013) describes the use of negative or discrepant information to counter themes
developed in a study as a means of providing an alternate perspective of the findings for
adding realism and validity. Rich, thick description was used to describe themes and to
ensure external validity or transferability of the findings in this study. Creswell (2013)
states that rich, thick description provides readers with a realistic perspective of the
results and adds to the validity of the study. For this study, various explanations of the
themes and conclusions were presented to avoid the perception of researcher bias during
the interpretation of the results. Confirming the research and the conclusion drawn
entailed a process of reflection and comparison of personal beliefs and the interpretation
of the findings. The presentation of contrasting explanations for the findings and rich,
thick descriptions confirmed that the interpretation of the results was not solely based on
the perception, personal experiences or personal belief system of the researcher.
Ethical Procedures
During the study, care and consideration of the rights of the participants was the
primary concern. Participants were treated with courtesy and respect about their time,
opinions and right to privacy. During the recruitment process, participants had the option
of being interviewed in a private location to ensure their privacy. The consent form was
thoroughly explained to participants including the option of refusing to participate or
early withdrawal from the study. Participants were thanked for their time and
consideration, and the focus shifted to other willing participants. The data collected from
willing participants were scanned and stored on a cloud drive, and physical copies will be
stored in a locked safe for five years. The names of participants would not be shared with
third parties and were not be used during the analysis and interpretation of the research.
Summary
Chapter 3 focuses on aligning the research methods of this study with the purpose
of the study and the research questions. The research was conducted as a qualitative
inquiry to gather in-depth information about the knowledge women have about the
technology-facilitated violence and the response of domestic violence organizations in
educating and reducing further abuse to women. The strategy of inquiry was a case study
because case studies examine processes or activities within organizations about the effect
on victims of technology-facilitated violence as an extension of traditional domestic
violence. This chapter also discusses the steps taken to protect the human subjects during
the study. Chapter 4 examines the results of the study.
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
In Chapter 4, I discuss the results of the study in relation to the study purpose.
This chapter also includes information on the data collection and analysis procedures.
The results of the study after the data were coded and themes were developed follow. The
themes that emerged answered the research questions and provided insight about what
women endure and the role that domestic violence service providers can play in educating
and protecting women from this form of abuse.
Purpose
The purpose of this qualitative study was to assess the impact on women if they
are unaware of technology-facilitated abuse and to determine the role that domestic
violence providers have in ensuring that women are educated about technology-facilitated
abuse at the point of service. I also analyzed participants’ perceptions of the concept of
personal protection when using various types of technology prior to experiencing
technology-facilitated experience. The study may provide information that organizations
can use to improve women’s access to current information and to address the emerging
challenges technology presents for many women.
Research Design and Rationale
Research Questions
The research questions for this qualitative study were the following:
RQ1. What are the implications for victims of domestic violence if they are not up-to-
date on the growing danger of technology-facilitated abuse?
RQ2. What are the implications for victims of technology-facilitated violence if
they lack knowledge about the legal options available to stop perpetrators
from using this form of abuse?
RQ3. What information is provided to victims of domestic violence about
technology-facilitated violence during contact with domestic violence
service providers?
RQ4. To what extent does a woman’s level of education aid in decisions to
follow existing technology safety protocols?
Setting
The study took place at a partner organization in Texas. Appendix A shows the
letter that was sent the partner organization requesting the use of the facility to conduct
the study. The name and specific location of the partner organization will remain
confidential based on the agreement with the partner organization’s director. The facility
provides emergency shelter to adult women and their children who are victims of intimate
partner violence. Women and their children may stay at the partner organization for up to
six months. At the partner organization, women and children are fed three meals daily
with snacks between meals. There is onsite childcare and provision of basic medical care.
The women receive assistance with accessing resources such as affordable housing,
employment, and legal services. The partner organization provided the women with
counseling services to help them recover psychologically and emotionally from the
trauma of physical violence.
The women’s partner organization did not house many victims at the time of the
study. Many of the women at the partner organization were there for an extended period.
Some stated that they were at the partner organization for almost six months. Others were
there for three or four months, and a few were there for about three weeks. The women
who were new to the partner organization and had not met with a counselor were
automatically excluded from the study based on the criteria. Some women opted out of
the voluntary participation because they were not interested, while others wanted some
form of compensation. The partner organization offered the women what was known as
“partner organization bucks” that can be used to purchase necessities at the partner
organization. The women earn this form of compensation by cleaning up around the
partner organization or assisting others. I did not offer compensation for participation in
the study. Thus, the women who participated in the study were not recommended for
“partner organization bucks” because they consented to voluntary uncompensated
participation.
The women who participated in the study were surprisingly eager to share their
experiences because many of them had not shared their experiences much in the past. The
women shared more information than was asked. Some women shared their experiences
even though they did not want to be a part of the study, but just wanted to talk about the
physical and psychological abuse they suffered. Some women stated that they felt
empowered now that they were in the partner organization and had no plans to return to
their abusers. Others acknowledged that they were relieved to speak freely now that they
were away from their abusers. Some of the women were surprised to learn that they were
not the only ones who experienced physical, emotional, or electronic violence. They
comforted and shared their experiences with one another at the partner organization.
Some women experienced severe physical and psychological abuse, while others
experienced less severe abuse, but felt marginalized and controlled by their abusers.
Demographics
The women at the partner organization represented the predominant ethnic groups
in Southeast, Texas. Most of the women were African American, Caucasian, or Hispanic.
There was one woman who was of Asian descent. Many of the women were native
Texans, but some moved from neighboring states such as Louisiana or Mississippi. The
ages of the women at the center during the time of the study ranged from 20 to 70 years
old. The women who met the criteria and subsequently participated in the study
represented the dominant ethnic groups for this region. There were three African
American women, three Caucasian women, and three Hispanic women. The only woman
of Asian descent did not volunteer to be a part of the study.
Data Collection
The director of the partner organization approved the use of the facility and access
to the victims to conduct this study. After the Institutional Review Board approved the
study, the director of the partner organization agreed to post flyers around the partner
organization along with a copy of the flyer advertising the upcoming study. The flyer
provided a brief description of the study, the study start date, and my Walden university
e-mail address. The director volunteered to have her staff post the flyers around the
women's partner organization a week before the study began. The staff at the partner
organization allowed me full access to the women in the facility as needed. The staff also
provided access to one of the offices to ensure that the women were allowed privacy as
needed.
The total number of participants for the study was nine, which was the minimum
number of participants needed. One reason for this minimum sample size was that there
were few women at the center at the time of the study. Another reason was that some
women worked while others had other errands which included taking care of their
children; because of time constraints, these prospective participants opted against or were
unable to participate in the study.
I approached the women in the common areas such as the dining room, the living
room, outdoors, or in the hallways where some women were socializing or lounging
alone. After a brief introduction, and an explanation of the study, I asked each woman if
she was interested in participating in the study. The women who volunteered were
advised of the process of consenting to the study and given a day or two to think about
their decision before consenting. The participants were advised that I planned on making
several trips to the center and they were not obligated to consent immediately. Five of the
nine women decided that they wanted to go ahead and complete the study the day they
were approached because they had the time. Three of the women were interviewed 3 days
later, and one woman was interviewed a week after she volunteered.
The data collection took 2 weeks because I had to return to the facility multiple
times to recruit new participants as they become available or as individual schedules
allowed. Some women worked or had the responsibility of multiple children, and the
family's needs were accommodated. Sometimes that meant conducting the interview on
another day or at another time. At the end of the data collection, 11 women were
screened, but only nine women met the criteria to participate in the study and completed
the study. The first woman who did not meet the criteria was over the required age limit
because the age range was 18 to 60 years old, and she was 70 years old. The second
woman was not directly affected by technology-facilitated violence because her abuser
called her mother for reasons other than to abuse or harass either woman.
During the interviewing process, the women were offered a private office to
discuss the questions. Only one woman accepted that offer of privacy. The other eight
women decided on interviewing in the living room or dining area of the Women's Center.
Those public areas were usually empty. People walking close to those areas could not
overhear the conversations because there was plexiglass surrounding the areas.
The voluntary participants were prescreened at the time that they chose to be
interviewed. Appendix B detailed the prescreening criteria and interview questions used
in the study. If they met the criteria for the study, the consent form was reviewed with
them in detail, and they were asked to sign and date the form. After which the interview
began. Each interview took about 30 minutes. As participants were interviewed, the
information they provided was written on the questionnaires that were pre-coded in
random order to protect their privacy during analysis. The consent form and prescreening
form were also assigned the same code as the questionnaires at the time of the interview
to be identified later if needed and for storage. The alphanumeric codes were written on
the front page of the consent forms.
Data Analysis
The questions and the responses written on the questionnaires were transcribed
into word documents and imported into NVivo 12 for analysis under a subfolder labeled
interviews. Each word document was labeled with the alphanumeric codes in place of
names as they were on the questionnaires. The data was automatically coded in NVivo
for recurring themes and the sentiment of the respondents. The themes that emerged
include the use of cell phones to harass the victims. Most victims reported receiving
threatening phone calls or text messages. Some victims stated that family members were
called to determine their whereabouts. At least one victim reported being tracked by her
abuser using her cell phone. Other victims reported that the abuser would use other
people’s phones to call and harass them or the abuser would change his number multiple
times when he became aware the victim blocked his number. Another recurring theme
was harassment. Victims were harassed with phones calls, text messages and through
social media. Victims reported experiencing cyberstalking and cyberharassment through
social media outlets such as Facebook. Facebook was a common medium used by many
abusers to gain information about the current status of victims. Domestic violence service
providers such as law enforcement and partner organizations were another recurring
theme because many victims had contacted those providers and some failed to report
incidences of technology-facilitated violence because the assumption was that it was not
important enough to report or they were not asked about it when interviewed by those
providers. At least two victims reported that they were able to obtain restraining orders
when they reported the incidents along with the physical violence that occurred in the
relationship. Some victims who reported technology-facilitated violence to domestic
violence service providers were not given any guidance to prevent future occurrences.
Most of the victims stated that providers did not solicit this information from them. At
least three victims reported that they were asked about or given advice regarding
electronic violence at community partner organizations.
Those victims who did receive information were given basic information such as
changing their passwords or blocking the abuser. There was no specific guidance to seek
prosecution of the abuser. One victim was told to keep a record of each time the abuser
contacted her electronically. A few victims who knew about the relationship between
intimate partner violence and electronic violence received that information from sources
other than the domestic providers. One victim learned about electronic violence in a
college English class when another student wrote a paper about it. One victim was skilled
in conducting research to learn how her abuser was able to use her electronic device to
cyberstalk her and track her precise location. She was able to notify the cell phone
provider to alert her if anyone attempted to deceptively acquire her cell phone
identification numbers or log into her cell phone provider account. This victim also set up
her email accounts to receive notification if someone attempted to log into her accounts.
NVivo captured the overall sentiment of the victims through their responses. Most
of the victims expressed moderately negative to very negative sentiments regarding their
experiences with technology facility abuse. These sentiments related to technology
facilitated abuse are in addition to the physical abuse they suffered because all of the
women interviewed were all victims of physical violence by their abusers. The sentiments
expressed included feeling afraid, jittery, threatened, cautious when communicating with
the abuser, and difficulty focusing at work. Some reported suffering posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). NVivo captured some moderately positive sentiments such as victims
feeling safer in the partner organization, and others receiving information about electronic
abuse from family or friends.
There were no significant results obtained for the interview question related to
experiencing technology facilitated abuse outside of the state of Texas. Two victims lived
in two different states and did experience electronic violence but did not report it to any
providers. One woman did not think it was important enough to report and the other
woman relied on the abuser for financial stability and did not make an outcry to anyone
regarding physical or electronic abuse. NVivo did not highlight the women’s level of
education even though the women’s educational level ranged from two years of high
school to a master’s degree.
Evidence of Trustworthiness
As stated in Chapter 3, Creswell (2013) describes the use of negative or discrepant
information to counter themes developed in a study as a means of providing an alternative
perspective of the findings for adding realism and validity to the study. NVivo did not
code education as a theme, and this may have been because the answers to that question
were documented with one or two-word answers and NVivo codes data in sentences or
paragraphs when coding for themes. An alternative explanation may be that a woman’s
level of education may not factor into her ability to protect herself from becoming a
victim of electronic violence anymore that education prevents a woman from becoming a
victim of physical violence. Another explanation could be the inconsistency in the levels
of education. Two of the women did not complete high school, one woman obtained a
General Education Development (GED), two women have some college education, two
women have associate degrees, one woman has a bachelor’s degree, and one woman has
a master’s degree. Since ensuring internal validity of this study was important, NVivo
was rechecked to ensure participant responses were accurately captured. The data was
coded several times and coded by sentences and then by paragraphs to verify that themes
that emerged were consistent. Themes developed from data collected were contrasted
with discrepant information to ensure the credibility of the study. Rich, thick description
provide readers with a realistic perspective of the results and adds to the validity of the
study (Creswell, 2013). Rich, thick description was used to describe the themes and to
ensure external validity or transferability of the findings in the study.
Results
The themes that emerged from the study answered the research questions. The
first question asks, what are the implications for women if domestic violence service
providers or specialists are not informed on the growing danger of technology facilitated
abuse? One of the themes that emerged was the high degree of negative sentiments
expressed by the victims associated with technology facilitated violence. Almost all of
the women who participated in the study felt a range of emotions and had their activities
of daily living disrupted after they decided to leave their abusers. Many of the women
continue to feel insecure and intimidated. Most of the women were abused for many
years and had contact with many domestic violence service providers through the years,
but most providers provided basic information for self-protection. In some cases, if more
information was provided victims it may minimized the level of continued abuse they
experience.
The second research question was what are the implications for victims of
technology-facilitated violence if they lack knowledge about the legal options available?
The research showed that women continued to experience technology-facilitated violence
if they are not advised of their legal options among other options. Many of the women
were unsure about how to stop the abusers if blocking them proved ineffective. A few of
the women were told to keep logs of each time the abuser contacts them electronically as
proof of the continued abuse to obtain a restraining order. If women are unaware of those
legal options and are not advised by providers, they would continue to experience the
emotional and psychological effects of being cyberstalked, cyberharrassed or called
relentlessly by the abuser. Some of the women endured this form of abuse in addition to
physical abuse. Most of the women reported that they were not given specific information
about existing state or federals laws that may be applicable in helping them pursue the
matter legally and potentially seek prosecution of their abuser. It could have been that
they were not provided with this information because providers may just be focused on
giving them immediate assistance or providers may not be aware of the current laws and
new options that may be available to victims.
The third research question asked, what information are provided to victims about
the phenomenon during contact with domestic violence service providers? The study
revealed that a few women were given basic information to protect themselves such as
blocking the abuser’s telephone number or obtaining protective orders. However, this was
not consistent among providers. Some women are still unaware of their rights and the link
between technology facilitated abuse and domestic violence even after they sought
partner organization from their abusers. Some of the women continued to fear that their
abusers would continue to use technology against them.
The fourth research question asked, to what extent does a woman’s level of
education aid in decisions to follow technology safety protocols? The level of education
for participants ranged from two years of high school to a master’s degree. Some of the
women learned to protect themselves after experiencing technology facilitated abuse by
blocking the abuser from calling or contacting them on social media. One of the women
at the partner organization had conducted enough research on her own to protect herself
from being tracked by her abuser electronically. She took the initiative to assist some of
the other women at the partner organization by showing them how to turn off the cell
phone global positioning systems and this woman has some college education. Other
women continue to be verbally abused telephonically or through social media. A few of
the women with college degrees were not aware that technology-facilitated violence by
an intimate partner was also a form of domestic violence. The study revealed that a
woman’s level of education does not determine that they would follow proper technology
safety protocols. Women have to obtain specific knowledge about technology facilitated
abuse through independent research or sources who are knowledgeable on the subject.
Summary
The study revealed that women continue to experience moderate to high
sentiments when dealing with abusers who physically abuse them and use technology to
continue emotionally and psychologically abusing them. The range of emotions are the
same as physical abuse or may be amplified because they were also physically abused by
the perpetrator. Domestic violence service providers are not consistently initiating
discussions about technology facilitated abuse with victims about their experiences to
better assists them. The study revealed that some women might not mention they are
experiencing this form of abuse during contact with domestic violence service providers
because they often do not know or see this form of abuse as an issue that needs
addressing. The women’s level of education does not dictate that they possess the
knowledge to protect themselves from the many ways that abusers can use technology
against them.
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
In Chapter 5, I discuss the interpretation of the findings, the limitations of the
study, and its implications for social change, in addition to offering recommendations for
domestic violence service providers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to assess
the impact on women when domestic violence professionals or advocates do not or
cannot provide current information about technology-related abuse to promote safety
when providing service to victims. The study may provide information that organizations
can use to improve women’s access to current information and empowerment by
restructuring organizational training to address the emerging challenges technology
presents for many women.
The results of the study revealed that participants continue to experience moderate
to high sentiments when dealing with abusers who use technology to abuse them
emotionally and psychologically during the relationship or after the relationship ends.
The research showed that domestic violence service providers are not consistently
initiating discussions or soliciting information about technology-facilitated abuse women
may have experienced and continue to experience. Some women may not divulge this
information if they are not asked about it because some believe it may not be significant
enough to report. The study also revealed that a women’s level of education does not
determine whether she possesses the knowledge to protect herself from the ways abusers
may use technology against them.
Interpretation of Findings
The findings of the study as they relate to the emotional and psychological
response of women when they are abused through technology are the same compared to
when they are physically abused. According to researchers, women feel threatened,
scared, and helpless in stopping the abuser in some instances. Cox (2014) described
technology-facilitated harassment as deliberate and threatening electronic communication
from a current or former intimate partner to a victim to cause deliberate distress. The
findings extend the existing knowledge in the discipline that technology-facilitated abuse
distresses victims in many ways. The findings also extend the existing research, which
shows that 97% of victims seeking domestic violence services are also monitored and
threatened through technology (National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2014).
Women who are victims of physical violence are likely to have enhanced fears if a
perpetrator continues to attack them electronically.
When providers interact with victims of intimate partner violence, they should
consistently ask about technology-facilitated abuse because some victims do not divulge
that they are victims of this form of violence. Under the Duluth model of power and
control (DAIP, 2017), technology-facilitated abuse is a coercive form of control that
abusers use to continue intimidating and harassing victims. This form of coercive control
prolongs the emotionally and psychological suffering of women after they leave the
relationship. When domestic providers intervene to help women, they need to help in
each area that victims are affected. One of the goals of intervention in domestic violence
is helping women to regain power and control, which is lost or significantly diminished
during the period when women experience abuse and are controlled by their abusers. The
feminist perspective is concerned with gender and its relationship to power inequality
(Crossman & Hardesty, 2017). Failing to address all aspects or forms of abuse leaves
women vulnerable to future abuse and feelings of powerlessness.
The study revealed that many participants received inconsistent assistance from
domestic violence service providers. Some women in the study voluntarily disclosed that
they were being abused electronically to domestic violence service providers and
received advice. Other women disclosed the same information and received no guidance
about proceeding methods of self-protection. A few women stated that they were never
asked if they are also being abused electronically in addition to their physical abuse.
These findings illustrate that there is inconsistency in how providers intervene when
women are abused through technology. The literature review revealed that domestic
violence professionals are uncomfortable assisting victims of technology-facilitated
intimate partner violence because they are inexperienced technology users themselves
and reportedly require additional information about the phenomenon to educate victims
(Murray et al., 2015). One of the technology savvy participants took the initiative to
research how to protect herself after her abuser installed software on her cell phone to
track her whereabouts. In cases where abusers are skilled technology users and can target
their victims in ways that may be difficult to detect and deter, the victim may need more
expert assistance and advice, however. To empower women, providers should prepare
themselves to handle all areas of domestic violence, including the violence associated
with emerging technology. Technology-facilitated abuse has the potential to keep victims
under the control of their abusers because they can control women from a distance and
sometimes anonymously.
I concluded that a woman’s level of education is not a factor in determining
whether she follows technology safety protocols. Some women who participated in the
study possessed knowledge and skills in the particular area while others did not. The
study revealed that some women knew certain basic methods of self-protection when
using technology; others knew much more because they may be more technologically
inclined than others. There was no indication from the results of the study that the women
who are more educated are more likely to adhere to safety protocols when using
technology.
Limitations of the Study
A potential limitation of the study is the inability to generalize the results to a
larger population of participants if victims had no prior contact with domestic violence
providers. Because most of the participants were in long-term relationships where they
admitted to having contact with other domestic violence service providers before seeking
partner organization during the prescreening stage, the limitation was eliminated. Most of
the participants were in intimate relationships for more than 5 years, though a few of the
participants were in the relationships for less than 2 years. All of the women had more
than one encounter with domestic violence service providers while in the relationships to
meet the criteria for the study. No other limitations were identified that would affect the
outcome of the study or the ability to generalize the results of the study.
Recommendations
Based on the results of the study, there appears to be inconsistency in how
domestic violence service providers intervene when women who are victims of physical
violence are also victims of technology-facilitated violence. The responses from the
participants led to the conclusion that domestic violence service providers need to be
unified in their approach to assisting and educating women who are victims of technology
facilitated violence. Because existing literature shows that many providers are not
comfortable enough with technology to assist victims (Murray et al.), providers can team
with entities external to their organizations who can provide women with the expertise
needed to help themselves when the laws are ambiguous or nonexistent. Further,
domestic violence service providers should be in contact with sources who can also
educate them about current trends in technology and the new ways that abusers use
technology against victims. There are available resources for women and providers alike,
but domestic violence service providers need to connect with those who have current
information, so they can help empower women.
Implications
The implications for social change are consistent legislation, increased
dissemination of existing and new knowledge about technology facilitated abuse,
harassment, or stalking through governments, courts, law enforcement, and support
groups to ensure women feel empowered and safe. Social change with regards to
technology facilitated abuse is most beneficial to victims because it may reduce the
occurrences of this form of abuse and prevent abusers from exploiting that medium to
maintain control. Equipping women with the knowledge and in some cases, technical
skills to protect themselves may reduce the powerlessness that some women may feel.
Civil and criminal organizations may use the knowledge gained from the study to find a
unified approach to consistently deal with physical intimate partner violence and
technology facilitated abuse.
Conclusion
I assessed the impact on women when domestic violence service professionals or
advocates do not or cannot provide current information about technology related abuse to
promote safety when providing service to victims. The study concludes that women are
not only affected by physical abuse but face the same emotional and psychological effects
when abusers use technology as a coercive control tactic. The study highlights the need
for all domestic providers to develop consistent methods of handling
technologyfacilitated violenceat the point of service. The study confirms that most
victims who seek services for intimate partner violence are also victims of technology
facilitated violence. There were inconsistencies in how domestic providers deal with
victims of technology abuse. If domestic violence service providers hope to help women,
all areas of abuse should be addressed to prevent women from experiencing the emotional
and psychological effects of domestic abuse. It is not beneficial to women if they are
separated from the abuser and have an order of protection in place, but the abuser is
threatening or harassing them through social media, phones, or tracking them via an
electronic device. Domestic violence service providers should ensure that there is
consistency in soliciting information about technology facilitated abuse because some
women do not mention it unless they are asked.
The feminist perspective, which is concerned with empowering women by
addressing the issues women face that include disabilities, race, gender domination,
powerlessness, social inequality, social devaluation, and domestic violence (Creswell,
2013). The feminist perspective in relation to technology facilitated intimate partner
violence looks at the loss of power that women experience through this ordeal.
Technology facilitated abuse is another means that men can take power away from
women and in many cases not face any consequences. Technology facilitated abuse is
another means that women experience powerlessness and are devalued within the family
structure or the home environment. Technology facilitated abuse is another means that
women are exploited by an intimate partner who seeks to retain control even after the
relationship ends. This sense of powerlessness can affect women’s perspective in other
settings such as the workplace and the dissolution of rights that women have earned after
years of suffrage.
The study concluded that women with different educational backgrounds are
affected in the same ways by technology facilitated abuse. Regardless of the educational
background of the victim, the emotional and psychological effects technology facilitated
abuse are the same. The role of domestic violence service providers is to ensure that
women are not feeling devalued and powerless and are educated about the ways they can
stop abusers from continuously pursuing them electronically after physically abusing
them. Domestic violence service providers should be using existing and new resources to
assist them in helping women stop this growing threat. Providing women with knowledge
about the technology facilitated abuse helps them to regain the power and control that
was taken by the abuser.
