Assessing the Impact of Domestic Violence Upon the
Lives of African American Women
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
Domestic partner violence is a significant problem that has devastating
consequences for African American women’s public health and well-being. This problem
needs immediate attention because research devoted to understanding domestic
violence’s consequences is limited and contains significant gaps and weaknesses.
Likewise, there is limited empirical research done on the topic. Why do African
Americans experience domestic partner violence than their white counterparts? Some of
the barriers preventing African American women from reporting domestic violence are
expected and were used to answer the research questions.
Albert Bandura’s learning theory informed this study. The phenomenological
research method was used to explore the lived experiences of African American women.
Creswell (2013) suggested this research method because it provides a detailed and
complete description of human experiences. This phenomenological inquiry assessed the
impact of education on the incidence of domestic violence against African American
women. This research method was uniquely positioned to support this study because as
Creswell (1998), Tuffour (2017), and Neubauer (2019) observed, the phenomenological
approach provides a rich and complete description of human experiences and helps
researchers to understand the meaning of people’s lived experience. The
phenomenological framework helped me learn from the experiences of African American
women and how they made sense of their world. In-depth open and closed ended survey
questions were used to collect data from 20 African American women participants
relative to the topic of domestic violence. Purposeful sampling was used to select the
participants.
Despite many studies on the topic and programs to combat violence, domestic
violence against women has grown dramatically over the years. As a result of this,
research on domestic violence in leading scholarly journals and national reports has
grown substantially over the past few decades (Alhabidj et al., 2009; Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2009; Catalano et al., 2009; Iyengar & Sabik, 2009; Tjade & Thoennes, 1999).
These studies confirm, among other findings, that domestic violence against women is a
serious public health problem as recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Center and
Prevention (CDC), the American Medical Association (AMA), and major health care
providers. The study noted that nearly four of every 1,000 women in the United States are
victims of domestic violence every year. While domestic violence against women overall
is on the rise, research indicates that African American women disproportionately
experience this phenomenon than their white counterparts.
The Sharma and Borah (2020) study noted that, while countries are battling this
pandemic, they are also experiencing the effect COVID-19 has on families, relationships,
and societies in exceptional ways, leading to an economic crisis. The study noted that it is
being felt at an alarmingly increasing rate, such as Brazil’s domestic violence rate on the
rise of 40-50%, Spain and Cyprus by 20–30%, 25% in the UK, Portland undergoing a
22% increase in arrests related to domestic violence, Jefferson County Alabama with a
27% increase in domestic violence calls during March 2020 compared to March 2019,
and New York City experiencing a 10% increase in domestic violence calls during March
2020 compared to March 2019.
Background
Domestic violence is a worldwide phenomenon that has no boundaries. It takes
place everywhere. It happens in countries, regions, rural, suburban areas, and cities and
cuts across age, race, socio-economic status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, culture, and
religion worldwide (Chhikara et al., 2013; Sarieddine, 2018). In its pioneer publication,
The World Health Organization (WHO) cited domestic violence as a significant public
health problem and a violation of women’s human rights. The World Health Organization
(WHO, 2020), violence against women is highly prevalent. Globally, one in three women
has experienced physical and or sexual violence by an intimate partner. Domestic abuse
cases have been increasing since the COVID-19 outbreak, and an estimated 137 women
are victims by their intimate partner or a family member daily. The Lien & Lorentzen
(2019) article notes that when there is violence in the relationship, it is because both
husband and wife have contributed to it through argumentation, humiliation,
manipulation, and blackmail.
The publication notes that about one in three (35%) women worldwide have
experienced physical and sexual intimate partner violence in their lifetime. Worldwide,
one third (30%) of women who have been in a relationship report that they have
experienced some form of physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner in
their lifetime. Globally, as many as 38% of women murders are by an intimate male
partner. Finally, the WHO also observed that women are more likely to experience
intimate partner violence if they have low education or exposure to violence during
their earlier childhood.
This phenomenological inquiry assessed the impact of education on domestic
violence incidence against African American women. This research method supported
this study because Creswell (1998), Tuffour (2017), and Neubauer et al. (2019) observed
that the phenomenological approach provides a detailed and complete description of
human experiences and illuminates the meaning of people’s lived experience. The
phenomenological framework helped me learn from African American women’s
experiences and how they made sense of their world.
The survey questions were in-depth open and closed ended questions that were
designed to collect the data from 20 African American women participants relative to
domestic violence. Purposeful sampling was used to guide to select the participants.
Despite many studies on the subject and programs to combat violence, domestic violence
against women has grown dramatically over the years. As a result of this, research on
domestic violence in leading scholarly academic journals and national reports has grown
substantially over the past few decades (Alhabidj et al., 2009; Bureau of Justice Statistics,
2009; Catalano et al., 2009; Iyengar & Sabik, 2009; Tjade & Thoennes, 1999). These
studies confirm, among other findings, that domestic violence against women is a severe
public health problem as recognized by the CDC, the AMA, and significant health care
providers. The study noted that nearly four of every 1,000 women in the United States are
domestic violence victims every year, while domestic violence against women, overall, is
on the rise.
Problem Statement
Domestic violence is a major problem of concern among African American
women. African American women experienced domestic violence at significantly higher
rates than Whites. As observed by the Women of Color Network (2006), African
American women experience intimate partner violence at a rate of 35% higher than that
of White American women. The study also estimated that 29.1% of African American
women are victimized by intimate partner violence during their lifetime compared to 10%
of White American women (Women of Color Network, p.2). Likewise, a 2017 report by
the National Center for Victims of Crime maintained that 53.8% of victims of intimate
partner violent aggression were Black compared to 10% of their White counterparts
(Al’Uqdah et al., 2016). Yet despite these findings, a review of the current literature
suggests that there is limited research on domestic violence as it relates to African
American women. This has been attributed to multiple factors such as racism, distrust of
law enforcement and the criminal justice system, and cultural and religious beliefs
(Al’Uqdah et al., 2016.) This phenomenological qualitative study assessed the impact of
education of African American women on the incidence of domestic violence and why it
is prevalent in the African American community. Moreover, this study filled in a gap by
interviewing African American women ages 18 to 45, with specific focus on their level of
education and their likelihood of being a victim of domestic violence, to gain insight into
their experiences as it relates to domestic violence. The meaning of education as used in
this study is about the causes and impact to the victims. Despite their vital role in
identifying signs of abuse and getting information to referral pathways, research indicates
the victims of abuse often lack the education needed to help get them out of the abuse.
The article examines how the professional learning and professional confidence of
teachers can be developed, and how recent policy and practice developments in the
United Kingdom have the potential to influence work in this area. The study also
includes recommendations for future research and educational policies to reduce
domestic violence against women.
As stated by the Women of Color Network (WOCN) (2018), Black survivors are
disproportionately more likely to be criminalized by the legal system, in spite of their
high rates of domestic violence. The WOCN noted that, according to the National
Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS), 9.5% of Black women
had been stalked and 41.2% had been physically abused by a partner during their lifetime.
This same study reported that, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey
(NCVS), during the year 2003-2012 at the rate of 4.7 per 1,000, Black/African/African
Americans had the highest rates of intimate partner violence compared to Whites (3.9 per
1,000) and Hispanics (2.3 per 1,000).
Purpose of the Study
Although African American women are at a higher risk of experiencing domestic
violence than their White counterparts, there is dearth of information on their experiences
with this topic. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative research was to
ascertain the incidence of domestic violence among African American women between
the ages of 18 to 45. Another purpose was to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural
and social context in which domestic violence occur among African American women.
Research Questions
Research Question 1: Why do African American women stay in domestic/intimate
partner abusive relationships?
Research Question 2: What are the consequences of domestic/intimate partner
violence on the health and wellbeing of African American women?
Research Question 3: What are some of the barriers preventing African American
women from seeking professional help with respect to domestic/intimate partner
violence?
Nature of the Study
My research design was guided by the phenomenological qualitative method. In
the phenomenological qualitative research method, the researcher is interested in people’s
beliefs, experiences, and meanings from the participants’ point of view. Open and
closedended semi-structured survey questions that were used to gather the necessary data.
Purposeful sampling was used to select the participants. Creswell (2007)
explained that the purposeful sampling strategy involves the researcher selecting the
participants purposively since they understand the phenomenon. This method is useful,
because as Creswell (1988) argued, open-ended semi structured phenomenological
research is suited to understanding the “lived” experiences of participants in their natural
setting, while Seidman (1988) observed that qualitative phenomenological research helps
us to understand participants point of view and allow their voices to be heard. Qualitative
phenomenological research helps researchers understand the meanings individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
I selected the qualitative phenomenological semi structured open and closed
ended survey question method because I wanted to immerse myself in the everyday lives
of African American women to better understand their lived experiences of domestic
violence.
Data in this study were collected from African American women, ages 18-45
(Table 1, 2, 3). For this study, the NVivo software was used to analyze data. The
qualitative data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. This method is a method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes). The data were coded in relation to
the research questions. Significant statements, major themes, words, key phrases, and
sentences that emerged from the survey questions were extracted.
Definitions
The operational definitions for this study were culled from the following sources:
(Mayo Clinic, American Psychological Association, 2019; The Missouri Coalition
against Domestic Violence and Sexual Violence, 2012; World Health Organization,
2013).
Batterer is a person who uses coercive and abusive tactics and behavior to
establish and maintain control over another person with the batter is in intimate, dating or
family relationship.
Coercion is when one person forces or attempts to force another person to think or
act in a different way. Examples include but are not limited to threatening to report the
victim to child and family sources or police, forcing a victim to drop charges against the
batterer, and forcing a victim to participate in or commit illegal activities.
Domestic violence is the willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual
assault, and other types of abusive behavior perpetrated by an intimate partner against
another.
Economic abuse is when the abuser makes or tries to make the victim financially
reliant. Economic abusers often seek to maintain total control over financial resources,
withhold the victim’s access to funds, or prohibit the victim from going to school or
work.
Education is the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially
at a school or university.
Emotional abuse involves invalidating or deflating the victim’s sense of self-
worth and/or self-esteem.
Intimate partner violence is defined as violence between two people who are
intimate.
Physical violence is violence that injures or causes physical harm to another
person. Some examples of physical violence include hitting, biting, slapping, battering,
pushing, cutting, and burning.
Psychological violence involves the abuser invoking fear through intimidation,
threatening to physically hurt themselves, the victim, children, the victim’s family, or
friends.
Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, or other act
directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion (Flasch et al., 2015).
Stalking involves spying on, watching, or harassing the victim, showing up at the
victim’s home or work, sending gifts, collecting information, making phone calls, leaving
written messages, or appearing at a person’s home or workplace.
Verbal abuse is when a batterer uses words to establish and maintain power and
control over a victim. Some examples include the use of language to manipulate, control,
ridicule, insult, humiliate, vilify, and show disrespect for others.
Assumptions
There are many assumptions critical to the meaningfulness of this study. I
assumed that the participants in the study would answer the survey questions accurately
and honestly and that they had sufficient knowledge to provide information necessary to
answer the research questions. I assumed that the inclusion criteria of the sample were
appropriate and therefore assumed that the participants all experienced the same or
similar phenomenon of the study. Since the topic of the research deals with domestic
violence, and it impacts African American women disproportionately, they had a sincere
interest in participating in the research. Likewise, I assumed that the theoretical
framework would demonstrate an understanding or the theories and concepts that are
relevant to the topic of the research and that it would have a relation to the broader field
of knowledge. The key philosophical assumption of qualitative research, as observed by
Merriam (1977), is the view that reality is constructed by individuals interacting with
their social worlds. Moreover, I assumed that the methodology was appropriate to the
problem being addressed and the purpose of the study and that the survey questions
accurately reflected the phenomenon and allowed me to elicit rich textual data to address
the research questions. It was assumed that the interview instrument was reliable and
gave the same measurement each time when measuring the same construct. Once the
analysis was completed, I assumed that the results of the study were generalizable beyond
the sample being studied. Finally, it was assumed that the results of the study were
meaningful and relevant to the stakeholders.
Scope and Delimitations
This study focuses on the impact of education on the likelihood of being a victim
of domestic violence among the African American women. The research setting was in
Fulton County, Georgia. This region was chosen for the study due to the high population
of African Americans in the area. The study was limited to African American women
who have gone through high school and those who have had a college education living in
this section of Georgia.
Limitations
Domestic violence affects women of all races and sociological background
globally. However, this study was limited to African American women residing in a
specific geographic area in Atlanta. Therefore, the findings of this study were not
generalizable to all women in the United States. Another limitation was the financial
aspect. Conducting interviews is an expensive proposition. As a result, the study was
limited to African American women ages 18 to 45 living in four zip codes areas in
Atlanta.
Significance
The goal of this phenomenological inquiry was to assess the impact of domestic
violence amongst the African American women. This study had profound significance on
many levels. Healthcare providers, social service workers, African American
organizations, and sociologists will find this work useful as they study domestic violence
among African American women. As Trochim et al. (2016) acknowledged, giving voices
to their plight will “Contribute significantly to the process of policy making, policy
implementation and policy evaluation” (p. 59). On another level, implications for social
change for this study included the potential to enhance opportunities for African
American women to acknowledge the different signs of domestic violence. Moreover,
this study gave a voice to a group of victims that are underrepresented in the current
discourse. The study filled a gap in the existing literature by assessing the impact of
domestic violence amongst African American women. Other women, healthcare
providers, and educators can use the findings of the study to bring about awareness to
women suffering from this type of abuse. The study contributed to the criminal justice
world by helping to provide knowledge for students and instructors. Finally, this study
has added to the growing body of literature on the topic of domestic violence as it relates
to African American women.
Summary
Chapter 1 described the study in which respondents offered their perspectives
regarding the impact of education on domestic violence in African American women.
The findings of the study may bring major changes to how African American women are
treated. In addition, the information presented in this chapter will show the increasing
lack of opportunities for African American women to access quality education and other
important services. A description of the problem statement, purpose of the study, nature
of the study, and scope and limitations was provided. Also included in Chapter 1 was a
discussion of significance contributions of the study to the African American women and
the Black communities.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
The purpose of the literature review is to examine the research that contributes to
this study. The chapter presents a summary of previous research on the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence against African American women. It
introduces the main framework for the case study consisting of the primary focus of the
research described in the previous chapter. In Chapter 1, the history and overview of the
research topic was provided. For this study, education is related to the causes and impact
it has to or related to the victims. I also identified the significance and the purpose of the
study and the research problem. The research methodology used was briefly discussed.
The limitations and assumptions were also included in Chapter 1. The primary purpose of
the literature review was to summarize the existing knowledge about the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence against African American women. The
literature helped in scoping out important data collection requirements for the main
research to be carried out (Marshall et al., 2015). Researchers are required to familiarize
themselves with existing studies before collecting data for their studies (Marshall et al.,
2015). However, familiarizing yourself with research before the actual study contradicts
the grounded theory presented by Charmaz and Belgrave (2012).
The literature review allowed me to avoid collecting vast primary data. Second,
the review ensured that I focused on the topic under study throughout the research.
Finally, the literature review offered an opportunity for critical analysis of the collected
data during the data analysis stages. Science databases were the most significant sources
used in this chapter. Important publications were located from different academic
domains such as business studies, information systems, psychology, organization
science, science and technology, information science, strategic management, and
sociology. Most of the publications used are peer review literature, journals, and non-
peer review articles.
Literature Search Strategy
Based on existing studies on domestic violence among the African American
women, the theoretical framework that was used for this study was social cognitive
theory and social learning theory. The two theories have been based on psychoanalysis
and behaviorism. The key components for these theories include observation, retention,
motor reproduction, attention, learning, and motivation (Chen et al., 2015). Basing on the
theories, individuals acquire new and desired behaviors through learning which help them
in self-regulation, physical and mental maturation, personal behavior control, and
selfefficacy.
Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observation and modeling of
behaviors, attitudes, and emotions to improve how individuals treat their loved ones
(Devi et al., 2015). The theory explains how behavioral, environmental, and cognitive
factors interact to influence individuals’ behaviors (Devi et al., 2015). Chen et al. (2015)
argued that people can improve their behaviors by observing how other people carry out
themselves and approach important ideas. The assumption of social learning theory is that
cognition plays a huge role in behavioral learning. Devi et al. (2015) article stated that the
theory has been recognized for over 30 years for its ability of interpreting human
behaviors and beliefs in terms of cognition. Self-perception, as argued by Devi et al., can
leave a person depressed. The depression risk factors are based on a person and their
surrounding environmental and social factors. If these factors are not controlled, they can
result in negative cognitions and poor functional behaviors (Chen et al., 2015). In this
study, the Chen study focused on domestic violence among African American women
and whether education increases or reduces the violence. The dysfunctional beliefs
among the African American community such as feelings of inadequacy, lack of
education opportunities and low-wage employment can result in domestic violence (Chen
et al., 2015; Devi et al., 2015). This study used social learning theory as a framework to
determine the thought patterns and feelings of individuals in African American
community (Akers & Jennings, 2019).
My research design was guided by the phenomenological qualitative method. In
the phenomenological qualitative research method, the researcher was interested in
people’s belief’s experiences and meanings from the participants’ point of view.
Openended and closed-ended, semi-structured interview questions were used to gather
the necessary data. The survey questions guided the research design by answering the
research questions. Purposeful sampling was used to select the participants. Creswell
(2007) explained that the purposeful sampling strategy involves the researcher selecting
the participants purposively since they understand the phenomenon. This method was
useful because, as Creswell (1988) argued, open-ended semi structured
phenomenological research is suited to understanding the “lived” experiences of
participants in their natural setting, while Seidman (2016) observed that qualitative
phenomenological research helps us to understand participants point of view and allowed
their voices to be heard. Qualitative phenomenological research allows one to understand
the meanings individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
I selected the qualitative phenomenological open and closed-ended semi
structured survey question method because I wanted to immerse myself in the everyday
lives of African American women to better understand while domestic violence is so
prevalent in their communities. Finally, the phenomenological qualitative method helped
me answer the research question: What is the impact of education on the incidence of
domestic violence for African American women?
Data in this study was collected from 20 African American women, ages 18-45.
Open and closed ended semi structured survey questions were used to collect the data.
After the phenomenological interview, information was organized for analysis.
Significant statements, major themes, words, key phrases, and sentences that emerged
from preview studies were included in the questions. Major themes were developed from
coding the data and imported into NVivo for analysis.
Literature Review
Domestic Violence in the African American Community
Domestic violence can be defined as psychological, emotional, economic, sexual,
and physical abuse (Al’Uqdah et al., 2016; Bhandari, 2020). An individual may commit
such acts to feel superior or to control their partners. Al’Uqdah et al. (2016) stated that
domestic violence affects every person regardless of their religion, race, sexual
orientation, or social class. African American women are not the only ones that are
experiencing this problem. In many societies, a women's sexuality is linked to family
honor (Patra, Prakash, Patra, Khanna, 2018). Traditional norms in these societies allow
the killing of women deemed to have brought dishonor to the family. Furthermore,
sexual violence against women occurs to defile the enemy's honor (Patra, et al, 2018).
Domestic Violence affects women of every background and age, but it is
prominent amongst African American Women. In his research, Bhandari (2020) asserted
that both women and men experience domestic violence. However, over 85% of the
reported domestic violence occurs against women (Bhandari, 2020). The National Black
Women’s Health Project stipulated that one of the leading factors that affect the general
health status of African American women is domestic violence (Schalk, 2020). However,
due to methodological limitations and too much dependence on poor socioeconomic
communities’ data, the true extent of domestic violence in African American
communities is not known (Schalk, 2020). Franklin (2000) discovered the similarities
between violence against Black women in post-civil war era and during slavery. In both
eras, Franklin argued that women were viewed as men’s helpers and not allowed to have
high status within the society. As Bent-Goodley (2001) noted, the best way to eradicate
domestic violence in African American communities is by addressing classism and
sexism.
In current society, media images, videos, and movies glorify violence. The
National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) is against all forms of violence,
especially those against women of color either within the United States or abroad
(BentGoodley, 2001). The survival of the African American women is threatened by
continuous increase in domestic violence cases. Bent-Goodley (2001) stated that
domestic violence is no longer a private issue but a public one, which the government has
to develop strict measures to combat. It is everyone’s responsibility to address domestic
violence, not only through words but also actions. NABSW used three ethical principles
in making their stance regarding domestic violence in African American communities
(Bhandari, 2020). The first principle is respect, whereby each person needs respect
regardless of their status, gender, or class. Individuals show respect by holding each
other’s hand and having patience when things are not going right in their relationships
(Bent-Goodley, 2001; Bhandari, 2020). The second principle is collective work and
responsibility. Bhandari (2020) stipulated that that every person has a role to play in
eradicating violence within the society. Through collective responsibility, society can
come up with better mechanisms of fostering stable and healthy relationships (Bhandari,
2020). Finally, through inherent goodness, Bhandari asserted that every individual in the
society has the capacity to change. Bent-Goodley argued that if society helps those that
are abused, they can recognize their actions and change.
Hampton et al. (2003) found that African American women fail to report cases of
domestic violence to police in fear of police brutality against them or their partners. The
fear of the police limited the possibility of assaulted women reporting violence during the
period when the cases were escalating. Hampton et al. (2003) also asserted that the
policies implemented by the government to guide mandatory arrests discriminate against
both African American women and men. Police are more likely to arrest African
American women after reporting violence cases as compared to White women. African
American women also fail to report domestic violence cases because they feel it will
betray their race or create negative stereotypes within the community (Bent-Goodley,
2001). Dealing with the difficulties of protecting their husbands, Black women turned to
their families and close friends for help before seeking help from the police
(BentGoodley, 2001; Wyatt et al., 2000). African American women have a high risk of
being separated with their children due to domestic violence. Over 70% of African
American youths in prison attempted to protect their mothers from domestic violence
(Wyatt et al., 2001). Domestic violence affects many families, regardless of gender and
race. Despite domestic violence becoming a serious problem as early as 1980s, there is no
empirical research that adequately addresses the issue and how it affects the African
American community (Hampton et al., 2003). However, the Institute on Domestic
Violence in the African American Community (IDVAAC) provided important
information that helped in understanding the issue of domestic violence especially in
African Americans. IDVAAC has developed recommendations on how policy makers,
community members and professionals can respond to domestic violence (Hampton et al.,
2003). IDVAAC identified education as a key factor in reducing domestic violence
against African American women. Through education, Hampton et al. (2003) stated that
individuals understand the importance of equal rights regardless of their gender or social
class. More funding is required so that researchers can conduct more culturally competent
studies regarding domestic violence among people of color. Such research, according to
Hampton et al., is essential in providing prevention efforts, intervention programs for
abusers and protection for children who witness domestic violence. Faith based
interventions need to be undertaken and avoid focusing only on community-based
programs. Culturally competent research also addresses issues such as same sex
relationship, fatherhood and violent in youth’s relationship (Hampton et al., 2003).
Domestic violence and abuse affect everyone; the Callagham, Alexander,
Sixsmith, and Chiara article speak of children's exposure and responses to this violence.
The report argues that, in situations where violence and abuse occur between adult
intimate partners, the impact on the children is drastic, and children are always victims of
abusive control (Callaghan, Alexander, Sixsmith, & Chiara Fellin, (2018). Domestic
violence is a global problem, and even though it affects primarily African American
women in the US, it also affects children. Over 2 million children in England are affected
by domestic violence (Children's Commissioner, 2018).
Intimate Partner Violence
Cook and Nash (2017) defined Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) as intentional
victimization and forced control of person that the perpetrator shared an intimate or
romantic relationship. The authors stated that IPV was a form of domestic violence that
had recorded many cases within the African American community. It occurs between
individuals who are in a close personal or sexual relationship (Smith et al., 2017). In their
study, Cook and Nash (2017) identified different forms through which people experience
IPV. They included physical abuse, social isolation, sexual harassment, economic control
and coercion. Although the rate of IPV was high against African American women, Cook
and Nash (2017) explained that it is not discriminatory and affected every person
regardless of their culture, ethnicity, race, social class, and gender. Across the US, at least
27% of women, both of color and whites, experienced different forms of violence such as
physical abuse, sexual assault, and stalking (Smith et al., 2017). The impacts of violence
on women includes concern for their security and safety, stress, trauma, lack of safe
housing, sexually transmitted disease, fear, unwanted pregnancies, reduced economic
stability and general poor health (Cook & Nash, 2017).
African American Attitudes Toward Domestic Violence and DV Assistance
Existing data shows that despite gradual decrease in the domestic violence cases,
black women across the US still experience high rates of intimate partner violence as
compared to women of other ethnicities (U.S. Department of Justice, 2001). The data by
U.S. Department of Justice (2001), mentioned only American Indian women experienced
higher rates of intimate partner violence as compared to African American women.
Surveys across the US showed the need for data regarding attitudes towards DV services
treatment needs perceptions and evaluation of DV programs within the African American
community. Professionals have voiced their concerns about lack of studies on why black
women lack opportunities to access victim services (National Violence against Women
Prevention Research Center, 2001). Few research exists on the needs of African
American women who experience domestic violence. The studies indicated that black
women do not make use of the available domestic violence services (Thomas, 2018;
Gillum, 2019).
Gillum also noted that women, regardless of their ethnicity, looked for different
types of help such as financial, shelter, counseling and materials from their families and
friends. Gillum asserted that African American women were more likely to call police for
help as compared to white women. However, Thomas (2018) argued that African
American women only seek for help from the authority only when the domestic violence
is seriously threatening their lives. As compared to whites and other races, African
American women reported cases are very severe (Thomas, 2000).
Domestic violence services have benefited African American women more than
white women (Gillum, 2019). The black women who go through advocacy services are
more satisfied and live a more comfortable life afterwards (Gillum, 2019). The advocacy
services involved assist through education programs to understand the importance of
reporting domestic violence cases in time. Gillum (2019) found that after going through
the services, the African American women expressed their needs of continuing with
advocacy services. In the research done by O’Neal and Beckman (2017), African
American women found it difficult to walk out of violent relationships due to
discrimination, social inequality and economic hardship. Majority of African American
women lived below the poverty line. It was difficult for them to own a car, and they were
the only providers for their families (O’Neal & Beckman, 2017). In the shelter stay
programs, African American women did not list financial issues, material goods and
health issues as primary need. Social and financial issues affect African American women
more than the whites (O’Neal & Beckman, 2017).
The Salacious, Urhan, Pirinccioglu & Aydin (2017), study argued which involved
27 focus groups consisting of African Americans. The focus groups were different in size,
ranging from three to 12 members. The individuals who took part in the research were
volunteers. Recruitment for the study was done through the national newspaper and
posted notices. Participants were rewarded with $20 each to cater for their participation
expenses. A total of 66 African American males and 134 women took part in the
discussions. The researcher used brief questionnaires which were handed to respondents
prior to their participation. The age of the participants for the Salacious et al., (2017)),
ranged from 18 to 74 years. The participants reported an average of 14 years of education
and income ranged from zero to $150,000. An African American woman with high
experience in psychology led the focus groups. She was assisted by graduate student in
guiding and counseling (Salacious et al., 2017). The research aimed at understanding the
extent of domestic violence among the African American women and how it affected
their mental wellbeing (Salacious et al., 2017). Therefore, it was not necessary for
participants to have past experiences with domestic violence. Four different factors were
examined during the research. These factors included the perception of respondents
towards domestic violence in the African American community, barriers that cause them
from seeking help, perception towards the necessary services and knowledge of exiting
services across the country (Salcioglu et al., 2017).
The key finding of the study according to Salacious et al. (2017), was that African
American women who visit DV services after reported domestic violence live
comfortable lives. Women who are more educated report any forms of violence
immediately to the police for help. They understood the negative impacts that domestic
violence can have in their lives such as depression. Salacious et al. (2017) also found that
African American women have a very strong pride hence deny any form of violence or
vulnerability. African American women are brought up in environments where they take
care of themselves. Therefore, they self-blame and feel embarrassed when they fail to
take control or endure situations such as domestic violence. As stated by O’Neal and
Beckman (2017), women of color were responsible for ensuring that families are
together, and they were required to keep children close to their fathers. Therefore, they
feared that reporting domestic violence to authorities will separate children from their
fathers. African American women face loyalty pressure from their families not to disclose
any of their family disagreements (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). The Salacious et al.
(2017) article notes, there was a need for a good education for African American women
on domestic violence. The women needed to be enlightened on the signs and behaviors
that accompany domestic violence. The government should target media and other
influential institutions in the African American community to rollout any educational
programs (Salacious et al., 2017). This is because women of color rely on their friends,
media and families for advice pertaining domestic violence (O’Neal & Beckman (2017).
African American women, due to pride, are more likely to seek for help from these
sources before reporting the case to police. Professionals need to identify the most
appropriate ways through which they can motivate African American women to use
public institutions to address their domestic violence (O’Neal & Beckman (2017).
Education and Domestic Violence
Education empowers people economically and socially hence it is regarded as a
protective tool in preventing any forms of violence (Rapp, Zoch, Khan, Pollmann &
Krämer, 2012). It has been noted that individuals with low education levels are sometime
likely to experience violence as compared to those with high education levels (Rapp et al.,
2012). Individuals with low education levels are limited to jobs that have low wages.
Due to discrimination and racism in the US, African American women do not have access
to quality education hence, they fall in this class of low incomes (Rapp et al., 2012). This
has forced black women on their partners who in return abuse them. The women found it
difficult to report the cases to police or leave the abusive relationships since they did not
have adequate financial resources to support themselves and their children (Rapp et al.,
2012).
Education and income are socioeconomic factors contributing to domestic
violence. Holiday et al. (2020) and Cheng and Lo (2019) note that the other factors that
make individuals not report domestic violence to law enforcement, including fear or
mistrust of law enforcement, fear of getting the offender involved in the criminal justice
system; the belief that law enforcement will or could not help; and belief the offense was
a personal issue or too trivial to report. The mistrust of the police has caused domestic
violence victims to underreport domestic violence in racial and ethnic minority groups,
specifically in-migrant communities (Amuedo-Dorantes & Arenas-Arroyo, 2019).
However, it is important to note that domestic violence can occur across all
academic levels. “In the simplest of terms, those individuals with less than a college
education are at a higher risk of being victims of domestic violence than those with a
college degree” (Jackson, 2007). Individuals with low education levels are limited to jobs
that have low wages. Due to discrimination and racism in the US, African American
women do not have access to quality education hence, they fall in this class of low
incomes (Rapp et al., 2012). This has forced black women to stay with their abusive
partners. The women found it difficult to report the cases to police or leave the abusive
relationships since they did not have adequate financial resources to support themselves
and their children (Rapp et al., 2012).
The current education system helps in the prevalence of domestic violence the
Rapp et al., (2012) studies focused on impacts of outsourcing disciplinary cases from
schools to police. The studies showed that introduction of zero tolerance regulations and
handling of school disciplinary cases by the police greatly harmed the wellbeing of
individuals and communities (Jackson, 2007). In the past, students who committed small
mistakes in schools were punished at school level but now they must face criminal
prosecution at juvenile corrections systems (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). By prosecuting
students at this age, the system does not trim them away from criminal and violent
behaviors. This educational system mostly affects individuals from African American
community (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). Women from this community are largely
affected due to their reduced chances of accessing better education (O’Neal & Beckman
(2017). Rapp et al. (2012) argued that low education levels increased domestic violence.
Poor communication skills and education are also linked to domestic violence since
perpetrators resorted to violence since they are unable to speak clearly about their
frustrations and anger (Stephenson, Koenig, Acharya & Roy, 2008). Individuals learn
communication skills through education. Educating the victims on the causes and the
impact of domestic violence will have a positive outcome. With low education level, a
person develops poor communication skills (Stephenson et al., 2008). Rapp et al. (2012)
asserted that African American women who experienced domestic violence do not
achieve high education levels as they are blocked by their abusers who feel that they
might become independent. Their abusers felt psychologically threatened and hence
sabotaged the women’s chances of furthering their education (Rapp et al., 2012)—adult
education incredibly controlled domestic abuse in the African American community
(O'Neal & Beckman (2017). African American women with high education levels raised
their self-esteem and access to high-paying jobs (O'Neal & Beckman (2017). Stephenson
et al. (200) added that high-wage women commanded respect and could avoid abusive
relationships.
Individuals who had received an evidence-based education, which is the kind of
education with valuable, needed resources, reported reduced cases of violence
(Stephenson et al., 2008). Stephenson et al. (2008) note that students who go through
healthy relationships and multisession education for a particular period recorded positive
relationship changes. Professionals designed the sessions to address cultural norms and
individual attitudes (Stephenson et al., 2008). Empowering people to confront their
attitudes and cultural beliefs helped reduce domestic violence (Howard et al., 2010).
Learning institutions must include healthy relationship education in their school
curriculum to help the African American community reduce domestic violence incidents.
Howard et al. (2010) highlighted that intersections are essential in bringing different
groups together, such as education professionals, service providers, and support system
staff. This is an opportunity to learn more regarding the appropriate response and
prevention of domestic violence.
Education as a Vehicle to End Violence Against Women
In the lives of many African American women, the adverse effects of lack of
education can be seen. Less educated women are unable to take care of themselves due to
a lack of job opportunities (Reed, Raj, Miller & Silverman, 2010). Reed et al. (2010)
discovered that uneducated women had health issues, such as mental distress, which
affected their decision-making. Their children were more likely to be exposed to illiteracy
and malnutrition. Educated women, according to Reed, could help them manage their
families and personal relationships.
Violence Against Black Women
Educational sabotage according to West (2014) has been used in blocking African
American women from accessing education. Tactics that have used in education sabotage
include disruption of financial support, discouraging women from education
achievements and physical violence (West, 2014). These strategies deployed in the
African American community have become serious barriers to successful completion of
education by African American women. West (2014) established that without education,
women of color were left to depend economically on their intimate partners. Reducing
women’s chances of education was a strategy used by African American men to further
their power and control over women (Stephenson et al., 2008). According to the culture
of this community, it has been perceived as abuse when a woman pushes for further
education (Stephenson et al., 2008). The participants of West’s study were asked to
identify how education sabotage impacted their lives. African American women who
took part in the study stated different impacts including increased domestic violence,
mental and emotional health problems and reduced academic achievements (West, 2014).
However, the women also argued that their desires to overcome the barriers were
increased. Across the US and the world, education sabotage has been listed among the
different forms of domestic violence that black women have always received.
As indicated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008),
educational sabotage was responsible for at least 16% of all reported homicide cases
across the US. At least one in 10 African American women has been domestically abused
in their lifetime. West (2014) asserted that pursuing higher education has helped African
American women break out of isolation and reduced their economic over dependence on
their partners. In an earlier study, Reed et al. (2010) stipulated that by understanding and
designing preventive measures of educational sabotage among the black women, learning
institutions and the community at large has an opportunity to curb domestic violence
among African American women hence contributing to their safety and well-being.
Many organizations in the US have denied African American women high job and
women leadership positions due to poor education. Reed et al. (2010) asserted that lack of
employment opportunities has been going on for a long time in the country which has left
black women with little or no income. For women to have economic independence, they
need to have money to save, spend and invest, and also the courage to walk out of
abusive and violent marriages (Reed et al., 2010). Many African American women lived
in poverty, due to low education unlike White females (Stephenson et al., 2008). In
African American community, culture, families have always preferred to educate boys
over girls. The gender inequality in education is the main reasons why women have had
low educational achievements hence resulting in increased cases of domestic violence
and sexual harassment (Stephenson et al., 2008; Reed et al., 2010).
Domestic violence has been recognized worldwide as a form of violence that
affects a person's life in every way, physically, mentally, emotionally, and
psychologically. It violates fundamental human rights—the most common spousal
violence found to be emotional, followed by physical violence Deshpande (2019).
African American Community and Domestic Violence
For the past two decades, domestic violence has had different meanings. It has
been referred to as intimate violence, child and elder abuse or sibling violence (Anderson,
2010). Intimate partner violence involved violence between individuals who had a formal
relationship or marriage (Anderson, 20). In the United States, according to Tjaden and
Thoennes (2000), the number of domestic violence cases was high among the African
Americans as compared to whites. One of the first sources of data on domestic violence in
African American community was the study conducted by Straus and his colleagues
(Straus & Gelles, 1986; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). Straus et al. (1980) found that
African American men had high chances of domestically violating their wives as
compared to the whites. In African American families, at least 113 men for every 1000
interviewed had assaulted their wives in different ways while in whites’ families the
number stood as 30 for every 1000 individuals interviewed (Straus et al., 1980). The
second national family violence study was undertaken five years later. Straus and Gelles
(1986) reported a similar disparity between the two races, African American families and
white families. In the second survey, Straus and Gelles found that 207 out of 1000
African American families had experienced husband and wife violence as compared to
115 out of 1000 white families. Recent research by Rennison and Welchans (2000),
approved the findings of Straus and Gelles as it showed that African American women
experienced domestic violence 35% higher than the white women.
According to national data, domestic violence increased in African American
community, and it is likely to grow into domestic homicide (Straus &Gelles, 1986). A
survey carried out by Rennison and Welchans (2000) showed that African American
women were just likely to kill their partners as husbands were to kill them. Domestic
homicide cases in courts indicated that 47% of the victims were men while 53% were
women (Rennison &Welchans, 2000). As compared to whites, 38% of domestic
homicide victims were women while 62% were men. At least one in six African
American women had been assaulted in the past five years (Fund, 2019). Fund asserted
that 60% of the women who sought intensive care unit services in hospitals were African
American women whose boyfriends or husbands had assaulted then. Rennison and
Welchans (2000) highlighted that the high number of domestic violence against black
women did not occur in a social vacuum. The acts occurred within specific social and
situational contexts. Straus and Gelles wanted domestic violence against African
American women to be explained in three dimensions; situational, cultural, and
structural.
In a structural context, Straus and Gelles (1986) argued that African American
women experienced different social conditions and structural arrangements that hindered
them from accessing specific opportunities in life, such as education. The main structural
factor that made African American men violent to their partners was exposure to gender
and racial oppression (Straus et al., 1980). Institutional arrangements had victimized these
men for a long time, barring them from having the same economic, political, and
educational achievements as white men (Rapp et al., 2012; Straus & Gelles, 1986).
The high unemployment rates and low incomes among men have adversely
affected their women and children (Bhandari, 2020). According to Rapp et al. (2012), the
high unemployment rate was attributed to low education levels; hence, they could not
access well-paying jobs. This economic underachievement among black men has, for a
long time, been a source of frustration and anger. Bhandari (2020) noted that since the
slavery era, black men have always experienced frustrations and anger, which they direct
toward their wives and partners.
Nathan Hare, a psychologist in 1964, introduced the concept of frustrated
masculinity syndrome, which aimed at discovering how frustrated African American men
reacted to prejudice (Laubscher, 2005). As Laubscher (2005) indicated, society has
associated manhood with employment, independence, and the capacity to provide for
their families. Therefore, lack of employment and independence among the African
American men has left them frustrated thus resulting in increased number of domestic
violence cases (Laubscher, 2005). The Fox, Hale, and Gadd (2014) in the United
Kingdom, education can be used to prevent domestic violence in families. Development
of domestic violence educational programs in schools changes the attitudes of students
towards domestic abuse (Fox et al., 2014).
Fox et al., argued that their research boosted the calls of the UK government for
learning institutions to include relationship education in their school curriculum. The
project examined 2395 students from different countries including France, England, and
Spain. Following the study, Fox et al. provided a toolkit which was 180 paged for
teachers and tutors to tackle the subject of domestic violence.
Fox et al. (2014) stated that the study was effective in helping individuals deal
with domestic violence especially against children and women. Across Europe in
countries such as Germany, Spain, Malta, UK and Sweden, women were more likely to
face domestic violence as compared to men (Bhandari, 2020). Fox et al. (2014) also
highlighted that women who were less educated had high chances of experiencing
domestic violence as their partners did not respect them. This study also notes that
majority of male students who took part in the research believed that it was acceptable for
men to hit their partners. However, based on the previous European Union funded
studies; these attitudes can be changed through high level education (Gracia & Herrero,
2006). As per the questionnaires distributed by Fox et al. (2014) in the three countries, the
participants showed improved attitudes after undergoing the educational programs.
Spain and England recorded high changes in students’ attitudes (Fox et al., 2014).
Therefore, Fox et al. (2014) argued that domestic violence against women and
children can be addressed through inclusion of relationship education in high school
curriculum. Rather than overlooking relationship education, training teenagers about their
personal relationships helped them into understand their partners hence reducing violence
cases (Gracia &Herrero, 2006).
Gracia and Herrero (2006) stated that authorities needed to collect different views
regarding domestic violence from different parts of the world so that they could come up
with very accurate and effective lessons for the students. It is essential for evidence-based
materials to be availed to learners so that they can understand the severe damages that are
caused by domestic violence (Gracia &Herrero, 2006; Fox et al., 2014).
Women of Color Achieving Higher Education
At the beginning of the 21st century, the US had more than 175,000 professors
both in private and public research and learning institutions (Evans, 2007). However,
72% of these professors were white men, 17% white women, 8% men of color and only
2% women of color (Evans, 2007). The question that Evans (2007) tried to answer with
his study was why African American women still have low access to education regardless
of many years of discussion about education access and diversity across the US. African
American women have been marginalized with the education system of the US. Slavery
was more rampant in South America than any other region. During this colonial period,
only African Americans in New England and Midwest had the opportunity to obtain a
college degree (Evans, 2007). Bhandari (2020), states that this trend was inherited for
years, and African American women continued to suffer.
However, there are some programs as indicated by Evans (2007) which have
offered entry points for African American women to further their education. These
programs have copied the federal TRIO structure and include upward bound, talent
search and McNair scholars which give underrepresented populations an opportunity to
join higher education (Laubscher, 2005). There have also been other intervention
programs that Evans (2007) termed as “successful”. They include preparing future
faculty from Howard University and southern regional educational board’s doctoral
scholars’ program.
Evans (2007) argued that university management needed to consult with
organizations dealing with races to ensure they do not discriminate against African
American women during students’ intake. Black students, both men and women, were
permanently blocked from accessing high-quality schools preserved for whites (Salcioglu
et al., 2017). Though access has been improved in recent years, the numbers are not big
enough to raise the status of African American community (Evans, 2007). Salcioglu et al.
(2017), African American men needed more access to higher level education which will
help them in reducing domestic abuse against women and children. Evans (2007) asserted
that if the US wanted to create a system of higher education that is efficient, they have to
make it inclusive.
The learning institutions were required to ensure that they create a diverse
learning environment with equal representation of each race (Rennison &Welchans,
2000). Employing more African American scholars would help in changing the current
culture which tend to support and favor more whites than people of color (Evans, 2007).
Research done by Rennison and Welchans (2000) showed that faculty of African
Americans within a university operated well in a communal culture as compared to
mainstream academia’s models of personal achievement. As most higher learning
institutions shifted from teaching-learning to business-oriented model, it became difficult
for African Americans to access quality education due to low incomes (Rennison
&Welchans, 2000).
The O’Neal and Beckman (2017) study noted that racism in America today is not
as high as compared to the colonial years. Therefore, it is only people’s ignorance of not
wanting to help African Americans to achieve high education levels. The way African
American women are being left behind in all development sectors, it is mainly the
government’s failure to act (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). The general assistance according
to O’Neal and Beckman (2017) is by working closely with faculty of color to make basic
things such as education and employment easy to access. O’Neal & Beckman (2017)
asserted that working closely with this faculty will help people to understand the daily
struggles such as domestic violence that African American women go through in their
lives.
Association Between Spousal Education Achievement and Domestic Violence
Domestic violence against women is a serious violation of human rights and a key
global health issue that affects the sexual, physical and mental being of women (Abuya,
Onsomu, Moore & Piper, 2012). In their study Abuya et al. (2012) found that violence
against women can be connected to their poor health status. The authors also found that
women had high chances of being abused by their partners than any other perpetrator.
Domestic violence occurs in different countries and can occur in any family regardless of
their social status, religion, or culture. The education gap that exists between spouses
resulted in domestic abuse (Abuya et al., 2012). In African American community, a
husband who has a higher education level is less violent towards their partners (Abuya et
al., 2012). Laubscher (2005), states in Bangladesh, husbands who had education level of
beyond tenth grade were also less violent to their families. Abuya et al. (2012) found that
women who were 4 times below their partner’s education level were more likely to
experience domestic abuse. In general, Abuya et al. (2012) associated high education
level among the men with low rates of intimate partner violence. Therefore, a less
educated husband is a risk factor for domestic violence. Findings from the Abuya et al.
(2012), study notes that improving education was an important intervention in reducing
domestic violence against African American women.
How Can Education Lead to Positive Impact in Community
Domestic abuse is an epidemic that happens everywhere regardless of race,
gender, class, and religion (Tower, 2003), However, the rates of domestic violence in
African American women according to the study done by Tower (2003) is very alarming.
For many years, researchers have learnt more about domestic violence and the factors
that increase people’s chances of experiencing it (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). Identifying
the risk factors is very helpful in designing measures to prevent domestic violence
especially in the African American community (Tower, 2003). One risk factor that Tower
(2003) associated with domestic abuse is gender. African American women were more
likely to be victims of domestic violence as compared to men. However, the researcher
argued that men are not ruled out of domestic violence but only showed that women had
high chances. The study also listed educational gaps between spouses in African
American community as another risk factor. Discrepancies in education, professional
occupation, social class, and income played a huge role in domestic violence (Campbell
et al., 2002). Education is one of the biggest risk factors of domestic violence in African
American community (Campbell et al., 2002). Tower (2003) suggested that education as
a risk factor included discrepancies in education level, lack or poor education for the
offender and lack of education for the victim. However, despite being the cause of
domestic violence, Tower argued that education could also be used as a protective factor
for African American women.
Lack of education in African American community is a driving factor for
domestic abuse within families (Stinson & Robinson, 2006). African American women
with low education experienced more domestic violence as per the findings of Tower
(2003). Women who were below college level in terms of education had high chances of
being domestically abused as compared to those who held a college degree. The study
also indicated that men who had low education levels as compared to their partners were
more likely to be violent and abusive in the relationship. Tower (2003) indicated that
most offenders in African American community were males due to low education levels
of their partners. However, Tower (2003) explained that men with low education levels
felt threatened with women’s success hence relieved their frustrations and anger through
violence. Communication skills of an individual improve as a person increases their
education level (O’Neal & Beckman (2017). Therefore, African American men with low
education level resorted to violence due to their inability to communicate properly with
their partners (Babu & Kar, 2010).
Lack of education is a key factor in domestic violence (Babu & Kar, 2010). The
difference in education levels of the two partners can exist on various levels (Tower,
2003). Most existing studies did not specify the extent of the gap that can cause violence.
The studies only stated that as long as the gap exists, there was an abuse (O’Neal &
Beckman (2017). The education gap can involve one partner having a college degree
while the other having less than a high school education (O’Neal & Beckman (2017).
In most American communities, the education level of a person reflects their
ability and status in the society. Therefore, a person may view the academic status of their
partners as a future threat (Babu & Kar, 2010; Tower, 2003). The Tower (2003) found
that abusers always felt threatened with educational discrepancies hence resorted to
physical and psychological violence to control their relationships.
In African American community, women were blocked from pursuing higher
education achievements as men felt that their superiority was being threatened (Babu
&Kar, 2010). Despite education being a risk factor in domestic violence, Tower (2003)
argued that it can be used as a preventive measure. The level of education that an
individual achieves determines the amount of income, social status and most importantly
how they behave and approach important issues in life (Babu & Kar, 2010). In African
American community, women have been subjected to low paying jobs and unemployment
due to their low education levels. This has increased their dependence on other people
since they are unable to adequately provide for themselves and their children (Fox et al.,
2012,2014). The lack of education and high paying source of income has given African
America men an upper hand in domestic violence. Fox et al. (2014) stated that majority of
the women who were oppressed domestically chose to stay in the abusive relationships
due to fear of being ridiculed by the society. They also feared that without a steady
income, they would not survive on their own (Babu & Kar, 2010; Fox et al., 2014).
Domestic violence victims have always been isolated from their families and close friends
so that their dependence on the abusers could be increased (Babu & Kar, 2010). For
African American women, education levels were low hence they could not secure a
formal employment. This further explained why they could not leave abusive
relationships (Fox et al., 2014). Stinson and Robinson (2006) listed domestic violence as
one of the barriers that barred African American women from accessing employment and
education.
Stinson and Robinson (2006) also stipulated that individual learnt new things
through education. College education provided people with not only career knowledge
but also general knowledge on what was acceptable in society and what was not (Babu &
Kar, 2010). The status of a person in society was determined by their income level,
education level and professional status (Tower, 2003). Going through a college education,
a person was presented with an opportunity to meet and interact with new individuals
hence learn different perspectives on life (Tower, 2003). In their study, Gracia, and
Herrero (2006) stated that education gave people the ability to rationalize their day-to-day
activities thus allowing them to make better decisions. Individuals with high education
level had the ability to communicate effectively (Gracia &Herrero, 2006). Tower (2003)
argued that good communication was a protective factor against domestic violence.
Education and Power Differences Between Partners
The Bonnes (2016) argues, that education is power. Therefore, the higher the
education level that one achieves, the more powerful they become. Education differences
and power imbalance between partners in a relationship are the risk factors for domestic
violence (Bonnes, 2016). Power imbalance includes one partner making more money or
being in a higher social class than the other.
In some communities such as African American, violence against less powerful
individuals have been normalized (Stinson & Robinson, 2006). Choi and Ting (2008)
examined how power imbalance could result in a domestic violence in South Africa.
They identified four different explanations of how power imbalance resulted in violence
between partners: submission, dependence, transgression and compensation. Choi and
Ting (2008) argued that when a woman was economically dependent on their husbands,
they would experience more violence in the relationship.
Choi and Ting (2008) determined power differences using income, education,
occupation and making of decisions within the relationship. The dependence hypothesis
stated that when men in the African American community brought more resources into
the relationship, had high education level, earned high salaries, and made decisions on
their own, they were likely to abuse their partners. The men feel that their wives are
nothing without them and therefore must be submissive and are not allowed to question
any decisions made (Choi & Ting, 2008). Some studies in African countries such as
Kenya and Egypt indicated that women with poor education and low salaries reported
high number of domestic abuse cases (Fox et al., 2014). Women feared leaving abusive
relationships as they had fewer resources to take care of themselves (Fox et al., 2014).
Choi and Ting (2008) suggested that if education level of a woman was increased, they
will acquire high paying jobs and thus increase the economic independence. This would
reduce the rate of abuse directed to vulnerable women, especially in African American
community (Choi & Ting, 2008).
Education makes a difference, and the Takahashi and Lee (2018) article surveyed
the Hmong college, using students to examine their experience, awareness, and
appropriate response to domestic violence. This study reported that 32.8% of the Hmong
college women had some violence from their romantic partners, and two third of Hmong
college men and women were aware of violence in their community. The
recommendation from the study is for the results to formulate research-based cultural
competence education for providers in the criminal justice system and facilitate
discussions on youth perceptions.
As domestic violence becomes a global problem, researchers continue to study
ways to curb this issue. A study conducted by Schrag and Edmond (2018) states the result
of a study done among community students and Community College students are more
likely to be women, people of color, working, parenting, and parenting, and
firstgeneration college students. The study notes that Over 27% of participants reported
IPV in the past year, while 25% reported sexual assault and 34% reported other
uncomfortable sexual experiences in their lifetime. Nearly 20% of assaults and 34%
reported other uncomfortable sexual experiences in their lifetime. Domestic violence
significantly contributes to the global burden of ill health in terms of female morbidity
leading to psychological trauma and depression, injuries, sexually transmitted diseases,
suicide, and murder (Bhattacharya, Yasmin, Bhattacharya, Baur, Madhwani (2020).
Intimate partner violence (IPV), sometimes called domestic violence (DV),
continues to be a significant global public health issue. The World Health Organization
defines IPV as any behavior by an intimate or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual, or
psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse,
and controlling behaviors (Mittal, Paden, McCormick, Palit, Trabold, Spencer, 2023).
Children are also victims of domestic violence. A study done by Harper,
Ogbonnaya, and McCullough (2018), analyses report that when mothers who did not
report IPV physical victimization compared with mothers who reported IPV physical
victimization, the mothers who did not report the abuse were more likely to have toddlers
with higher levels of socioemotional and behavioral problems. Abused children
experience can result in emotional trauma, physical and psychological barriers to
learning, and disruptive behavior in school, while the underlying causes of these
problems remain hidden (Lloyd, 2018).
Usually, men are known to be the offenders of domestic violence. Alsawalqa
(2020) states that men perpetrate abuse more frequently than women, and women face
higher rates of repeated severe abuse, such as murder, assault, or rape. The prevalence of
domestic abuse perpetrated by women is difficult to ignore (Joseph-Edwards & Wallace,
2020) and is related to abuse, control, power, escaping dangerous situations, and getting
help (Walby & Towers, 2018).
Submissive hypothesis as indicated by Choi and Ting (2008) suggested that if a
woman was too submissive to their partners, they were more likely to receive domestic
abuse. Submission was worst in African American community where women were
required by the society to be submissive to their husbands. Thomas (2000) argued that
even women who had more resources and power than their husbands were likely to be
abused.
Anderson (2010) found that in African American community, women who had
more money and education than their partners were at a higher risk of experiencing
domestic violence. When men have low education level and income as compared to their
female partners, they prove their masculinity through violence. Choi and Ting (2008)
labeled this as compensation hypothesis during their study as men seek to compensate
their inability to fulfill their roles with violence. Another explanation that Choi and Ting
(2008) used was transgression hypothesis. The researchers argued that when a woman
had a high education level and brought more resources in the relationship than the man,
they became assertive with no respect to their partners. Increased assertiveness and
struggle for superiority in the relationship made men feel threatened and thus become
violent to make the women submissive (Anderson, 2010; Thomas, 2000).
Coercive Controlling Violence
Coercive Controlling Violence (CCV) is an emotional intimidation pattern which
individuals use to cause physical and mental harm to their intimate partners (Kelly &
Johnson, 2018). CCV is the pattern of manipulation and control from a person to their
partners. An African American community, men control the actions and activities of the
women (Kelly & Johnson, 2018). A coercive partner monitors their victims all the time
and when they violate their rules, they take punitive actions Kelly & Johnson, 2018).
The Kelly and Johnson (2018) states that power and control wheel includes
different forms of violence such as isolation, intimidation, blaming, minimizing,
emotional abuse, asserting male privilege, coercion, denying resources and economic
abuse. Ali, Dhingra and McGarry (2016), notes that an individual can use one or
combination of these violence tactics to keep their partners under their control. Ali et al.
(2016) compared CCV to intimate terrorism, where partners lack the freedom to express
their thoughts. Ali et al. (2016) found that CCV is a severe form of domestic violence that
occurs regularly. Ali et al. further noted that, CVV is mainly perpetrated by men. The
study found that 97% of the CVV cases reported in Pittsburgh were male perpetrated.
CVV male perpetration was also supported by Gulliver and Fanslow (2016). Few studies
exist regarding women’s use of CVV. However, some studies have associated women
with perpetrators of this type of domestic violence (Cook & Nash, 2017).
Violent resistance, as referred to by Kelly and Johnson (2018), is retaliation
violence that victims use to stop their coercive partners from abusing them. Cook and
Nash (2017) referred to this type of violence as “female resistance.” Feminist scholars
consider any violence perpetrated by women toward men as a form of female resistance
(Cook & Nash, 2017). However, Kelly and Johnson (2018) acknowledged that women
could abuse their intimate partners. Both men and women may resort to violence to stop
the abuse or stand up for themselves.
Female resistance is always short-lived, and do not encounter law enforcement.
For most women, as Cook and Nash (2017) argued, self-protection is an automatic
process. It always occurs immediately after their intimate partners begin to control and
abuse them coercively. In many romantic relationships, women find their self-protection
reaction ineffective and may worsen the situation (Kelly & Johnson, 2018). O’Neal and
Beckman (2017) found that women who tried to defend themselves during domestic
violence were more likely to get injured than those who did not.
What Role Low Education Plays in the African American Community
O’Neal and Beckman (2017) reminded us that in African American communities,
education has focused on how blacks can access quality education programs and other
essential resources to achieve equality. Since the 1960s, most learning institutions across
the United States have continued to be segregated and unequal in standards (National
Women’s Law Center, 2016). Therefore, African American men and women continue to
live in poverty. Segregated schools in areas such as Michigan and Maryland have a high
population of black students but lack enough funding for better learning programs
(O’Neal & Beckman, 2017).
The data from the National Women’s Law Center (2016), these schools do not
have well-developed curricula, highly trained teachers, and extracurricular activities that
can give African American students opportunities to learn about real-life situations.
African American students have few support programs, falling short of standards (Kelly
& Johnson, 2018).
O’Neal and Beckman (2017) highlighted that many efforts had been focused on
African American men, thus leaving women becoming less and less in the current
education system in the country. Data from the US Department of Education (2015)
showed that the school dropout rate among African American females was 7%. Many
dropout cases cited a lack of support as the primary cause (Kelly & Johnson, 2018). The
system gives black women reduced opportunities to better their current situations, thus
leaving them vulnerable. However, O’Neal and Beckman (2017) explain that while the
education system continues to fail African American women, it still presents the only way
to learn rules and ways of becoming successful in the men-dominant African
American culture.
Negative racial experiences in schools are damaging the education achievements
of African American women (Gracia &Herrero, 2006). People of color are more
vulnerable to racial discrimination. African American youths report many cases of racial
abuse within the learning environment, thus making it difficult for them to concentrate.
This discrimination has been one of the leading reasons why most black females drop out
of school (Gracia &Herrero, 2006). In African American schools, female students must
be quiet and obedient to be considered feminine and ladylike (Gracia &Herrero, 2006). In
schools and homes, black women are required to be submissive, and any attempt to
change this cultural norm may result in violence.
Public studies indicate that only about half of domestic and intimate partner
violence reports to law enforcement (Morgan, R. E., Oudekerk, BA, 2019). Along with
socioeconomic factors, such as education and income, there may be many reasons for
individuals not reporting domestic violence to law enforcement, including fear or
mistrust of law enforcement; fear of getting the offender involved in the criminal
justice system; the belief that law enforcement will or could not help; and, belief the
offense was a personal issue or too insignificant to report (Holiday et al., 2020; Cheng
& Lo, 2019).
Mental and Physical Health and Intimate Partner Violence
Several researchers have established a relationship between intimate partner
violence and individuals' physical and mental health (Dillon, Hussain, Loxton& Rahman,
2017; Abuya et al., 2012; Fox et al., 2014). Chepuka et al. (2014) studied the mental and
physical impact of IPV in Malawi. The researchers conducted focus group discussions
and in-depth interviews in three different regions. All participants who participated in the
research mentioned mental health as an impact of IPV. The consequences included
pressure from families and friends to resolve the conflicts and the fear of being wrongly
judged (Chepuka et al., 2014). The participants, essentially victims of IPV, indicated that
they were unprepared to handle the mental and psychological consequences of domestic
violence. Chepuka et al. (2014) noted that restructuring the country’s healthcare system is
essential for preventing IPV and improving mental health.
In developing countries such as Malawi, responses to domestic violence are not
well documented in the general healthcare system. In the healthcare system of Malawi,
IPV is classified as a communicable disease, including excessive consumption of alcohol
and trauma (Chepuka et al., 2014). The country aims at developing ‘one-stop centers’
which will be used in providing comprehensive care for victims of IPV. The study
conducted in three districts of Lilongwe, Mangochi, and Blantyre identified one major
problem Malawi is experiencing: gender inequality. Chepuka et al. (2014), more than
65% of Blantyre’s population lives in unplanned poor settlements. The district has poor
infrastructure and social services. Blantyre has a population growth rate of 3.3%, with
most of its population below the age of 25 (Chepuka et al., 2014). Data used in this study
was collected both from IPV victims and policymakers in the three districts. A total of
three small group discussions were held, and 28 focus groups were used. The researcher
also interviewed 47 people (Chepuka et al., 2014).
Chepuka et al. (2014) found that IPV survivors viewed police and healthcare
facilities as the primary sources of health during domestic violence. Victims also agreed
to see help from community organizations working against IPV. The respondents
indicated that the police and authority prioritized mediating the partners (Chepuka et al.,
2014).
Healthcare providers and policymakers agreed that they limit their responses to
domestic violence whenever victims seek help (Chepuka et al., 2014). The health workers
revealed that they focused on treating the physical health of the victims and tried as much
as possible to avoid talking about their mental health status. Chepuka et al. (2014) note a
lack of psychological support for victims of IPV in developing healthcare systems.
Participants described stress, anxiety, low esteem, and depression as the negative
consequences of domestic violence (Chepuka et al., 2014). They mentioned alcohol as a
trigger for IPV (Chepuka et al., 2014). However, Chepuka et al. (2014) argued that
victims also turned to alcohol to help them forget the difficult times they were going
through.
Most research studies related to intimate partner violence are constructed on
women of low socioeconomic status and the interventions established by and for White
women. Up-to-date primary prevention approaches emphasize violence that is enacted by
strangers rather than their primary wrongdoers. Chepuka et al. (2014) recommend
developing and rigorously evaluating prevention strategies that should incorporate the
visions of African American women and attention to primary prevention.
The deadly impact of intimate partner violence (IPV) is prevalent along with
several health-related dimensions, including acute injuries, somatic health complaints,
diminished psychological functioning, and decrements in other social role domains,
including occupational, interpersonal, and parental functioning (Lee, Thompson &
Mechanic, 2002). It is explicit so that some preventative measures and interventions can
be part of the healing process. In the US, there are services for the victims of domestic
violence. The above article notes shelters for women and their children's legal measures
such as orders of protection and court interventions, the establishment of specialized
family violence police teams using IPV policing strategies, advocacy services,
psychological and social service counseling, and others.
Evaluations of these services and their effectiveness are emerging in the literature.
Findings suggest that different IPV types require different types of services. Short-term
counseling services are often desired and seem to provide at least some benefit, and
postshelter services may help and assist women who do not wish to return to abusive
relationships.
Muhammad-Farooq et al. (2017) cited that many cases of domestic violence go
unreported due to personal reasons such as economic dependency, embarrassment, and
fear of retaliation and societal reasons such as family privacy. Failure to report will mean
the victims won't have psychological or physical help (Bosick et al., 2012).
Health Care's Role in Domestic Violence is just as vita as any other problem.
Some participants expressed concerns about the health system's role in domestic violence.
Few domestic violence victims also give education on domestic violence, as per Ozer and
Fidrmuc (2017). Most studies, such as the Ozer and Fidrmuc, state that some women,
mostly from rural communities, reported feeling ashamed, surprised, and shocked when
asked about domestic violence. In contrast, others considered the problem personal and
questioned interference in private affairs. The shame leaves these women not wanting to
seek treatment. Female education is vital in stopping domestic violence, for the female
gender has been recognized as inferior to males. Still, it is not the only factor that
prevents this violence, as indicated in the literature. It is a collective effort, and one of the
steps in addressing this issue is the healthcare role. Even though female education does
away with such a notion, the female ends up not being subject to any form of domestic
violence. Still, when healthcare providers are involved, this can help prevent further
abuse by the abuser. Few domestic violence victims also give education on domestic
violence, as per Ozer and Fidrmuc (2017).
Black women have a strong sense of cultural affinity and loyalty to the
community. Race solidifies many to remain silent, so their stories are not told or taken
seriously. Most African American women feel indebted to put racial issues ahead of
sexbased (Gordon, 2019). One of the significantly related impairments is our
unwillingness to trust the police or the justice system. The author further states that
Black people are uncomfortable with the police's attitude toward them. The article also
said that Black women experience domestic violence at significantly higher rates than
white women; they tend to remain silent out of fear of the police force and a sense of
duty to their race and culture. Subsequently, their first response is not to report. Instead,
they decide to protect their men and their community. They also feel like they need to be
healthy, and asking for help would be a sign of weakness. The idea of strong Black
women is rewarded and can even be a source of resilience. Gordon (2019) noted one of
the victims, saying that it can also leave us feeling like we have no one to help.
A phenomenological approach suits this study because the researcher seeks to
understand different individuals' feelings, opinions, and experiences regarding domestic
violence in African American communities. The Jones (2014) newspaper article describes
domestic violence as a family secret in the Black community. She also stated that the
reasons Black women suffer disproportionately from abuse are complex. Discrimination
and sexism are two of the principal difficulties Black women in America face, but many
Black women and men believe racism is a higher issue than sexism. The article added
that black women tend to feel indebted to putting racial issues ahead of sexbased issues.
Alesina et al. (2015) that violence committed by men against their female partners is one
of the most common yet puzzling forms of violent behavior. Besides being a fundamental
violation of women's human rights, domestic violence is becoming a significant public
health problem, spawning high economic and social costs. As the methodology refers to
the overarching strategy and research project, this study therefore, phenomenology
approach is best suited for this study because it exposes the study assumptions, highlights
the importance of understanding domestic violence against women, factors that influence
domestic violence, and the measures that the government can undertake to reduce the
problem among African Americans.
The Heal (2019) study focuses on law enforcement and the abuse of women
victims who do not trust the justice system. Even though my reflection is on African
American women, this study was beneficiary to my research because it gives an in
side look at the behavior of law enforcement officers that are abusers and how their
profession and partners protected them.
This establishes why these victims are sometimes silent and why they think
reporting their abuse to the police is useless. This article tells how men and women who
experience domestic abuse speak of the fear of reporting or of not being believed, of what
their abuser might do, and of being judged. Just 28% of women using community-based
domestic abuse services and 44% of those refugees had reported their experiences to the
police when Women’s Aid performed a survey in 2017.
The research design for this study was a qualitative study with 20 female African
American participants. There was a need to raise awareness within the Black
communities to educate individuals to adhere to accountability and non-impunity. This
can help restore ethical values in society, reducing domestic violence. Effective authority
responses are essential in ending gender-based violence. The current study shows a
positive correlation between recurring domestic violence and effective measures.
The Morris, Mrug, & Windle (2015) article states that adolescents face a severe
problem: dating violence. The study further noted that 10% of high school students were
victims of physical dating violence in 2014. The 10th grader also reported that 24% were
victims of verbal dating abuse. The study notes that dating violence has been linked with
prior exposure to violence in the family, including harsh parenting and inter-parental
conflict. However, the evolving instruments through which family violence leads to
dating violence are poorly understood. Family violence likely serves as a distal risk factor
for later adolescent dating violence, with its effects facilitated by more proximal
individual and peer factors. For instance, predictors of dating violence include individual
attitudes toward dating violence and deviant peer affiliations. The implications of these
women's narratives for criminal justice responses to domestic violence are discussed. The
study linked the future relationship between pre-adolescent reports of harsh discipline and
adolescent dating violence perpetration, consistent with previous longitudinal research
and the Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977).
Goodrum, Rosa, Self-Brown, Veauuse-Brown, and Armistead's (2019) article
speaks on the high violence victimization rate, including physical, sexual, and emotional
abuse in childhood and intimate partner violence in adulthood. According to some
USbased research, Black South African women and girls face high rates of violence, and
violence victimization predicts parenting difficulties. Still, this relationship has not been
examined in a South African context. Goodrum et al.; study reviewed a sample of 99
Black South African female caregivers for child abuse, IPV, and cumulative trauma rates.
The study noted the associations between the caregiver's victimization history and current
parenting quality. Includes parent-child relationship quality & parental involvement with
the child, and the article reports that women killed by intimate partners in South Africa
are six times the worldwide average, and rates of rape of women and girls are also high in
this country.
A long history of gender- and race-based discrimination underpins the
unacceptably high rates of victimization experienced by Black South African females.
Interpersonal violence victimization is linked with subsequent adverse outcomes,
including relationship and family difficulties. Among these negative consequences may
be impairments in parenting, which impacts children’s well-being. Despite the potential
long-term effects of victimization history on female caregivers and their families, little is
known about whether and how Black South African women’s past victimization
experiences predict their parenting quality. Poverty, economic inequality, unemployment,
migrant labor, housing overcrowding, and common misconceptions about sexual violence
are all factors that further exacerbate the risk of violent victimization among women and
girls. Many women with a history of child maltreatment are later victimized in their
intimate relationships.
The TePoel, Saftlas, Wallis, Harland, & Peek-Asa (2018) article gives insight into
women seeking an induced abortion. The report notes that these women with this
procedure have experienced high rates of intimate partner violence. However, little is
known about their help-seeking behaviors. The data for this study were collected from
patients attending a large Midwestern clinic who screened positive for intimate partner
violence. The data were analyzed to determine how help-seeking women differed from
women not seeking help and those not disclosing their help-seeking behavior. The study
research measured current and planned resource use and evaluated the self-perceived
helpfulness of resources. The conclusions were severe battering, physical and sexual
abuse, frequent sexual abuse, increased relationship length, and employment were
positively associated with help-seeking. Approximately half of the women who screened
positive for abuse in the past year had already pursued or planned to seek help, signifying
this population is receptive to intervention.
One emerging trend in the context of domestic violence is the use of technology to
facilitate stalking and other forms of abuse. The Woodlock (2017). the study surveys 152
domestic violence advocates, and 46 victims, showing that technology, including phones,
tablets, computers, and social networking websites, is commonly used in intimate partner
stalking. The perpetrator's omnipresence uses this form of technology and to isolate,
punish, and humiliate domestic violence victims. Offenders also threatened to share
sexualized content online to humiliate victims. The study states that technologyfacilitated
stalking needs to be treated as a serious offense, and effective practice, policy, and legal
responses must be developed.
The Semahegn and Mengistie (2015) article, acknowledged that violence against
women is a global recognized problem and it’s been classified as a human right abuse
and a public health problem that is associated with physical, mental, sexual, and
reproductive health. The age group studied were 15-49 years. The study indicates that a
significant number of women experienced violence during their pregnancy. The study
link alcohol consumption with domestic violence. The study listed chat chewing, family
history of violence, occupation, religion, educational status, residence, and
decisionmaking power as all factors that contributes to the domestic violence women
experienced in Ethiopia.
The Macy, Martin, Nwabuzor Ogbonnaya & Rizo (2018) study investigated the
perspectives of 80 program directors of domestic violence and sexual assault agencies
regarding whether gathering specific information during intake helps determine survivors'
needs for five service areas such as legal advocacy, medical advocacy, support group,
counseling, and shelter. We explore whether directors' opinions of information-type
usefulness differ by type of service agency (single- or dual-focus). Findings show
directors perceive the information most helpful to early service provision includes
survivors' goals, experiences of violence and trauma, and health status. MANOVA results
show no significant differences among directors from single- or dual-focus agencies.
The Yohannes, Abebe, Kisi, Demeke, Yimer, Feyiso, & Ayano (2019) article
describes domestic violence as a common global health problem, which is hidden and is
an ignored form of violence against pregnant women. It also states that this violence is
high in low and middle-income countries. This study was limited to pregnant in Ethiopia.
This study aimed to measure the degree and predictors of domestic violence among
pregnant women in southeast Oromia, Ethiopia.
The Favaretto, Freitas, Benetti & Crempien (2020) article mentioned that Intimate
partner violence against women is one of the most common forms of violence. This study
investigated the operationalized psychodynamic diagnosis of women victims of domestic
violence, exploring the severity and experience of violence, structural functions,
dysfunctional interpersonal patterns, and intrapsychic conflicts. The study concluded that
there were some patterns in these abused women's behaviors. Most stay in the
relationship, leaving themselves vulnerable; they perceive the partner as controlling,
aggressive, offensive, and fear abandonment. These women give in to their abuser's desire
by being submissive. The main emotional struggle was the need for care versus self-
sufficiency.
The Duran and Eraslan study were to determine women's exposure to domestic
violence, its affecting factors, and coping methods. The study concluded that beating
rated first among physical violence behavior reported by 83(14.2%) subjects.
Namecalling and yelling ranked first among verbal violence behavior reported by 118
(20.1%).
Women at a certain distance ranked first among emotional violence behavior, reported by
95(16.2%). Not purchasing the fundamental needs of the home ranked first among the
economic violence behavior, reported by 38(6.5%). Finally, 14(2.4%) said being
physically forced to engage in a sexual act, which ranked first among sexual violence
behavior. Among the women abused, 114 (66.7%) women said the violence occurred
because of the instant anger of their partners, and 69 (44.2%) said they did not apply to
any official institution for help. The study's conclusion indicates that women preferred to
remain silent about domestic violence. The study noted that there is a need to end
domestic violence.
Gharacheh, Azadi, Mohammadi, Montazeri, and Khalajinia (2015) note that
domestic pregnancy-related violence is a significant health issue and has psychological
and physical risks for these victims. The study was a cross-sectional study, and it was
conducted on 341 postnatal women who were referred to urban health care centers in
Gachsaran, Islamic Republic of Iran. Domestic violence was assessed using a
questionnaire modified from the Abuse Assessment Screen (AAS), and the Iranian
version of the Short Form-36 questionnaire was used to evaluate women's HRQoL.
The findings from the study showed 44.5% of women reported experiencing domestic
violence during pregnancy. All the SF-36 subscales, including physical and mental
health dimensions, scored lower in abused women than in non-abused women.
Differences between the groups in the six subscales of SF-36, except for 'physical
functioning' and 'bodily pain,' were statistically significant (P<.05). These results
suggest that domestic violence during pregnancy is associated with poor HRQoL in
abused women.
The Valandra, Murphy-Erby, Higgins, and Brown (2019) study, explores
domestic violence from diverse African American viewpoints, experiences, and
sociodemographic backgrounds within rural African American communities. The
researcher used Community-based participatory action research methods to investigate
domestic violence perceptions of African Americans with heterogeneous environments
and experiences of violence. Three major themes emerged, during the study, including a
heightened awareness of race, gender, and class differences. Another set includes the
imbalanced and mixed messages from media, and the last were multi-systemic dynamics
influencing abusive behavior and relationships. The result from the study indicates that
participants' perspectives and experiences with domestic violence reflect a complex
interrelated gamut of societal, community, familial, and individual dynamics. Current
healthcare practice policies recommend screening for Intimate Partner Violence,
including reproductive coercion RC. These practices are recommended for an extension
to women receiving services in community-based settings, consequently strengthening
the connection to referral for supplementary mental health treatment and victim service
support. Alexander, Willie, McDonald-Mosley, Campbell, Miller, & Decker (2019)
argued that in the environment of the social burdens affecting young Black women's
health, a comprehensive approach integrates mental health and reproductive/sexual
health care is essential for women reporting RC experiences. This study examined the
associations of reproductive coercion (RC) with the mental health of Black adolescent
and young adult women. The findings from the study propose that RC. and IPV
independently contribute to mental health morbidities among this population of women.
The Basile, Smith, Fowler, Walters, & Hamburger (2016) study used data from a
community sample of African American women, examining the association between
current health and lifetime experiences of sexual violence. In-person interviews were
completed in 2010. Among interviewees, 53.7% of women reported rape victimization,
and 44.8% reported sexual coercion in their lifetime. The result of the study shows that
Among victims whose first unwanted sexual experience was rape or sexual coercion,
perpetrators were mostly acquaintances and intimate partners, and over one-third were
injured and needed services. More attention is required on the health needs of African
American women and their association with victimization status. The study also
recommends that more attention is required on the health needs of African American
women and their association with victimization status.
Domestic violence during pregnancy is an essential social & health issue in all
societies. Domestic violence is often under-reported in the Muslim world and particularly
in underdeveloped countries. Habib, Abbasi, Khan, Danish, & Nazir (2018) emphasize
the need of the hour to encourage reporting of such events & implementation of
researchbased policies for the prevention of women abuse & support of the victims of
domestic violence (DV). This study aimed to highlight this neglected social problem of
our society & to identify at-risk populations.
This cross-sectional study was conducted at Ayub Teaching Hospital & Benazir
Bhutto Shaheed Teaching Hospital, Abbottabad (January 2014 to December. 2016).
Pregnant women were inquired regarding a history of abuse by their husbands, and
sociodemographic characteristics were noted in a Performa to analyze the risk factors for
domestic violence. The overall prevalence was found to be 35%. Of 1000 pregnant
women, 270 (27%) suffered from simple violence, and 60 (6%) were victims of grievous
assault. Violence among pregnant women is found to be more prevalent among residents
of urban areas, women of older age being uneducated & belonging to poor
socioeconomic status. Domestic violence during pregnancy is a common & often
neglected psychosocial health problem. A high-risk population needs to be identified so
that preventive strategies can be planned & implemented.
The Mohhamadian, Mohtashami, Rohani, & Jamshidi (2018) article notes that
Domestic violence is the third sociopathology after addiction and child abuse in Iran.
Fifty-six percent of Iranian women aged 17-32 are exposed to the highest domestic
violence. Objective: This study aimed to design and psychoanalyze a comprehensive
questionnaire on coping with domestic violence against women in Iranian society.
This study was conducted on a random sample of women exposed to domestic
violence and referred to the health and care center of Shahid Beheshti University of
Medical Sciences in Tehran, and Forensic Medical Centers in Urmia city (Iran), in
2017. Two hundred questionnaires were distributed among the participants. One
hundred sixty-eight questionnaires were returned to the researchers for data analysis.
Eight of those were excluded from the analysis because of incompleteness. Finally,
exploratory factor analysis was performed. After reviewing the literature, a
questionnaire with 32 items was developed. The content validity ratio (0.95) and
content validity index (0.97) were obtained. The results of exploratory factor analysis
indicated that the questionnaire explained 69.34% of the data variance. Cronbach's
alpha coefficient and test-retest methods were used to determine the reliability and
the obtained value, which were 0.82 and 0.81, respectively. The validity and
reliability of the questionnaire with 32 items were confirmed by the Cronbach
method. The tool can be utilized to measure how women cope with domestic
violence.
Domestic violence is recognized as a public health problem with a high
prevalence in the general population. Healthcare professionals play an essential role in
identifying and treating domestic violence. Hence, researching factors that facilitate or
inhibit appropriate actions by healthcare professionals is of the utmost importance. The
objective of the Zorjan, Smrke & Lilijana (2017) study was to examine the relationship
between healthcare professionals' attitudes toward the acceptability of domestic violence
and their responses when dealing with victims of domestic violence. The sample
comprised 322 healthcare professionals (physicians, dentists, nursing staff, and other
healthcare workers; 85.2% female) who completed a questionnaire assessing their
attitudes towards domestic violence, experience, behavior, and perceived barriers in
recognizing and treating domestic violence in the healthcare sector. The study was
crosssectional and used availability sampling.
The results showed no significant differences in domestic violence acceptability
attitudes when comparing groups of healthcare professionals who reported low or high
frequency of domestic violence case encounters. Furthermore, we found that domestic
violence acceptability attitudes were negatively associated with action taken when the
frequency of meetings with domestic violence cases was high and medium. However, the
attitudes were not associated with action taken when the frequency of encounters with
domestic violence cases was low. The results highlight the critical role of mindsets in the
action taking of healthcare professionals when it comes to domestic violence. This
indicates the need for educational interventions targeting healthcare professionals'
attitudes toward domestic violence.
Borras-Guevara, M. L., Batres, C., & Perrett, D. I. (2017) note that potential
protection from violence has been suggested to explain women's preferences for more
masculine partners. However, previous studies have not considered that violence may be
multi-modal and come from different sources. Therefore, a test was done for the effect of
other fears of violence (i.e., vulnerability to public crime, the likelihood of
withinpartnership violence) on the masculinity preferences of women from Colombia, a
country known for its high rates of violence. Eighty-three adult heterosexual women
answered a survey that included questions about health (e.g., frequency of illnesses
during the last year and childhood), access to media (e.g., time spent watching television,
frequency of internet use), education (i.e., the highest level achieved), and violence
perceptions. Participants' masculinity preferences for Salvadoran, European, and
Colombian male faces were recorded by the Borras-Guevara study.
Factor analysis revealed two different factors for answering questions related to
violence. One aspect is loaded mainly with inquiries related to public violence, and the
second factor is related to domestic violence. We found that women with higher scores on
the domestic violence factor preferred significantly less masculine Colombian male faces.
Even after controlling for participant age, education, access to media (TV and internet),
and health-related factors, the domestic violence factor contributed significantly to
explaining masculinity preferences. The results presented here suggest that women's
preferences for masculinity may be a strategy to avoid aggressive partners and that the
source of violence matters in mate choice. Women who perceive higher risks of domestic
violence prefer less masculine-looking partners.
Domestic violence poses a significant challenge for social workers. Low-income
families are significantly more likely to have to contend with domestic violence, as
poverty can act as a fueling factor in this type of conflict. The objective of the Slabbert
(2017) study was to explore and describe the experiences of low-income abused women.
The aim of the Turk, Celik, Ãetin, & Soydan (2017) study was to determine the
experiences and views of married women about domestic violence. This research was
planned as a mixed methods study with an in-depth interview and descriptive approach.
The study was conducted between November 2011 and December 2012 with 24 married
women living in Ankara, Turkey. The study used two main data-collection tools: the
"Personal Information Form" and the "In-depth Interview Questionnaire." Data from this
study were evaluated by content analysis. A majority of the participants (83.3%) stated
that they had been exposed to domestic violence committed primarily by their husbands.
The actual reasons for the violence were reported to be such factors as "financial
problems and lack of education and love and respect between the couples." It was
determined that as the victims became more desperate, they turned to reading the Koran,
praying, and smoking.
Domestic violence adversely affects the physical and mental health of individuals,
families, and the entire community. Therefore, it will take a community effort to address
the causes of domestic violence and to create viable solutions that will improve the health
of everyone. In recent decades, significant effort and money have been spent to change
social and legal responses to domestic violence and affect public perceptions.
A small body of research has examined individuals' opinions about what
behaviors are considered domestic violence. Using a sample of college students, the
Wagers, Wareham, & Boots (2017) study examined a modified version of a somewhat
popular instrument used to measure beliefs about domestic violence, extending previous
work by Carlson and Worden. Results indicated assumptions about domestic violence are
multidimensional, depending on the nature of the behavior and, in part, the gender of the
perpetrator. Opinions about the lawfulness of these behaviors fit the same factor structure
as beliefs about domestic violence. Demographic characteristics, current relationship
status, secondhand experiences with domestic violence, and perceived prevalence of
domestic violence in the community are generally unrelated to beliefs about domestic
violence or the lawfulness of these behaviors. However, attributions of the blame on the
victim are negatively related to domestic violence beliefs and legality.
Moreover, lawfulness is a key covariate for domestic violence beliefs. In addition,
results also indicate that the gender of the perpetrator is an important variable affecting
students' beliefs about sexual assault behaviors. Results from this study support the
prevailing ideas behind the Battered Women's Movement that enacting policies and
educational programs deeming domestic violence socially, morally, and legally wrong
could shift long-standing sociocultural beliefs about men's use of violence against
women. Implications of this study for research and policy specific to college students are
discussed.
Research indicates that women victims of domestic violence show significant
cognitive changes, emotional numbing, and avoidance of interpersonal relationships. The
aim of Avdibegovic, Brkic, & Sinanovic (2017) was to analyze the dynamic profile of
women victims of domestic violence and to determine the relationship between
dimensions of emotions and the frequency of women's exposure to domestic violence.
The research was conducted on a sample of 169 women, 111 were victims of
domestic violence, and 58 were women who did not experience domestic violence.
Plutchik's Emotions Profile Index (EPI) was used to measure the emotion profile, and the
Modified Inventory of Domestic Violence was used to measure experiences of different
types of violence. Primary socio-demographic data were also collected. Significant
differences between women victims of domestic violence and women who did not
experience domestic violence were found in a few dimensions of emotional profile.
The aim of the Drieskens, Demarest, D'Hoker, Ortiz, & Tafforeau (2017)
study.assesses if a Health Interview Survey (HIS) targeting the general population is
appropriate for collecting valid data on domestic violence. Studying item non-response to
the question on domestic violence and its association with socio-demographic and health
characteristics compared with victims of domestic violence can contribute to this.
Crosssectional data from the Belgian HIS 2013 were analyzed. The question of whether
the perpetrator of a violent event was a member of the respondents' household was
embedded in a general topic on violence in the self-administered questionnaire. This
study was limited to people aged 15+ who at least completed this topic's first question.
Sociodemographic characteristics of item non-respondents and victims of domestic
violence were explored, and the association with health status was assessed through ORs
calculated via logistic regression. The yearly prevalence of domestic violence is 1.1%.
Although the question on domestic violence yields a high level of non-response (62%),
this does not hinder the further completion of the questionnaire.
When compared with victims of domestic violence, those not responding to the
question of the perpetrator have better (mental) health. Compared with those not being a
victim of domestic violence, victims report poorer physical and psychological health. A
HIS can be an appropriate tool to assess domestic violence in the general population and
its association with health. Knight & Hester (2016) note that domestic violence affects
every age group and is present throughout the life span, but while the mental health
impact of domestic violence is established in working-age adults, less is known about the
nature and effect of domestic violence among older adults. This review, therefore, aimed
to synthesize findings on the prevalence, nature, and impact of domestic violence among
older adults and its identification and management. Results suggested that, although
prevalence figures are variable, the likely lifetime prevalence for women over 65 is
between 20-30%.
Physical abuse is suggested to decrease with age, but rates of older adults,
domestic violence is strongly associated with physical and mental health problems, and
the scarce research comparing the impact of domestic violence across the age cohorts
suggests that the physical health of older victims may be more severely affected than
younger victims. In contrast, there is evidence that older victims may experience less
psychological distress in response to domestic violence than younger victims.
Background Experience of domestic violence has negative mental health
consequences for women. The association of cumulative and specific forms of domestic
violence, particularly emotional violence and controlling behavior, with common mental
disorders and stress has rarely been studied in pregnant women. The Frith, Ekström, &
Naved (2018) study evaluates associations of specific and multiple forms of lifetime
domestic violence and controlling behavior with distress and cortisol levels during
pregnancy in rural Bangladeshi women. Methods and findings in this observational
substudy of larger MINI at trial, 3504 pregnant women were interviewed using a
shortened Conflict Tactic Scale about their life experience of domestic violence,
including physical, sexual, emotional domestic violence, and controlling behavior. All
forms of domestic violence were associated with higher levels of emotional distress.
Women who experienced either emotional violence or controlling behavior had the
highest levels of emotional distress.
The Jahromi, Jamali, Koshkaki & Javadpour (2016) article note that domestic
violence against women is a health problem. Research on domestic violence to clarify the
relationship between the different forms of violence and health outcomes is needed. This
study aimed to determine the frequency and risk factors of domestic violence in women.
It also assessed the association between risk factors and psychological, physical, and
sexual violence against women by their intimate partners. Materials and Methods: This
cross-sectional study was done on married women 16-80 years of age living in Jahrom,
south of Iran, between August 2013 and December 2014. This research was implemented
through questionnaires including the demographic characteristics. The form of partner
violence, including emotional abuse, physical violence, and sexual violence, was assessed
with a validated questionnaire.
Community involvement is another method to decrease domestic violence.
Violence against women is an emerging problem worldwide and more so in India.
Considering its adverse effects on women's health, assessing the community's violence
burden will help plan services for the victims. To determine the prevalence of domestic
violence and to identify factors associated with domestic violence among married women
in the reproductive age group in rural Puducherry. This community-based cross-sectional
study, by George, Nair, Premkumar, Saravanan, Chinnakali & Roy (2016), was carried
out in a rural area of Puducherry, South India. Married women in the reproductive age
group were interviewed using a structured pretested questionnaire. Domestic violence
was assessed using 12 questions that were used in the National Family Health Survey-3.
The Tonsing (2016). the study examines South Asian women's experience of
domestic violence in Hong Kong. Despite the proliferation of literature on domestic
violence, this issue remains unexplored in the discourse of domestic violence in Hong
Kong. A qualitative research approach through face-to-face interviews with 14 women
was employed. Participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling.
Findings from this study highlight the importance of considering the social and cultural
influence on how women perceive and construct their experiences of abuse. Implications
for practice and policies are highlighted.
This qualitative study by Laing (2016) explored the experiences of 22 domestic
violence survivors attempting to negotiate safe post-separation parenting arrangements
through the Australian family law system. Their allegations of violence put them at odds
with a design that values mediated settlements and shared parenting. Skeptical responses,
accusations of parental alienation, and pressure to agree to unsafe arrangements
exacerbated the effects of post-separation violence. Core themes in the women's
narratives of engagement with the family law system-silencing, control, and undermining
the mother-child relationship-mirrored domestic violence dynamics, suggest the concept
of secondary victimization as a valuable lens for understanding their experiences.
Summary and Conclusion
The literature review examined further existing research on the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence against African American women. The
most important areas concerning domestic violence against African American women
were showcased in the literature. The recent evidence-based literature on the topic
discussed how education could be a risk factor and prevention for domestic violence in
African American community. The studies included in this chapter discussed different
relevant areas such as intimate partner violence, domestic violence, the impact of
education on domestic abuse, domestic violence risk factors, and access to education and
employment by African American women. The specific examples include the works of
Choi and Ting (2008), Anderson (2010), Thomas (2000), Stinson and Robinson (2006),
O’Neal and Beckman (2017), Rennison and Welchans (2000), Reed, Raj, Miller, and
Silverman (2010), West (2014), Bhandari (2020), BabuandKar (2010) and Akers and
Jennings (2019). Power and education differences were discussed in studies done by
Anderson (2010), Bonnes (2016), and Choi and Ting (2008).
Research on the lack of access to education and other essential resources by
African American community was discussed by Bent-Goodley (2001), Cook and Nash
(2017), and Gracia and Herrer (2006). The literature review concluded that education
could be used in the prevention of domestic violence against African American women.
The next chapter will discuss the methodology implemented in addressing the gaps
concerning the impact of education on the incidence of domestic violence against African
American women.
Chapter 3: Research Method
Introduction
A phenomenological qualitative research design was used in this study to explore
African American "lived" experiences and perspectives of domestic violence. Chapter 3
of the study discusses the research design, data collection process, data analysis, and
results from the presentation. This study aimed to describe the lived experiences of
African American women as it relates to domestic violence and its disproportionate
impact on African American women. The qualitative open and closed-ended survey
questions were used to gather the data from 20 African American women in the southern
state. The direct and logical link to the research questions identified ways to allow this
community and people to realize that this issue can lead to a fatal ending. Identifying and
minimizing this problem is discussed, which might help this population find the resources
they need.
Research Design and Rationale
A qualitative research design enables researchers to obtain in-depth information
about participants’ experiences and viewpoints on domestic violence. Qualitative
research was selected as a helpful approach because of its exploratory nature. While
survey research oversimplifies findings, facilitates the formulation of hypotheses, and
relies on deductive reasoning, qualitative research is mainly descriptive and interpretive.
One of the most popular types of research design used in the qualitative tradition is
phenomenology.
The Byrne (2020) article reported that a phenomenological study’s primary
objective is to describe the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived familiarities of a
person or a group of people about a specific occurrence. The phenomenologist goes to
understand human behavior through the eyes of the participants in the study. Byrne called
it “verstehen,” a German word meaning the interpretative understanding of human
interaction. Moustakas (1994) used the term “co-researcher” for participants because
participants are included in discovering the meaning of the phenomenon alongside the
researcher. My primary goal was to inform the co-researchers of their status and role. At
the beginning of the study, researchers should tell the co-researchers how they fit into the
research purposes and questions.
Role of the Researcher
Phenomenology is one of the popular types of research used in qualitative study.
Byrne (2020) noted that a phenomenological study’s primary objective is to explain the
meaning, structure, and essence of a person’s or group of people’s lived experiences of a
specific phenomenon. The phenomenologist endeavors to understand human behavior
through the eyes of the participants in the study. In this research study, my role was to
collect data and code the notes. It is important as a researcher to collect clear and precise
data and the data using code so that no one can understand and interfere with the data. In
a study, direct observation is the key as it is always needed; the observer must pay keen
attention to the coding and the triangulation process. When a researcher decides to serve
as a participant in their study, they must have a research team member to serve as a
participant. However, a student researcher must consider their school IRB’s stipulations
or regulatory process. Self-experimentation can always raise an ethical concern with the
Belmont Report.
The researcher plays the role of observer-participant. This form of research is, in
some ways, one of the most natural and challenging of qualitative study. Many
disciplines use this form of methodology; that is why this study has adopted this
methodology and all the methods that is associated with the process.
Throughout the study, my role was to oversee the process and procedure and ask
the participants about their experiences through an online survey with the goal of
understanding the research topic under investigation. According to Sutton and Austin
(2015), the role of a qualitative researcher is to access the thoughts and feelings of the
participants.
A qualitative researcher must also safeguard the data, protect the participants, and
assess all risk factors before conducting the research (Sutton & Austin, 2015). I achieved
these protections by gaining the approval of the research from my mentor and Walden
University’s IRB. Since the data collection is a process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest in an established systematic fashion, it will enable
one to answer a stated research question test hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.
Before the start of the project, I designed a written consent and attached it to the survey
for the participants to read and understand before participating in the study (Appendix A).
With this qualitative inquiry, there were significant variations between its
different paradigms and traditions, proposes to reduce power differences and encourages
disclosure and authenticity between researchers and participants. This study promoted the
participants’ equality in the research process, and less ultimate source of authority by the
researcher. There is always some ongoing discussion of issues and concerns that
constitute a review process, ensuring no unethical issues. These address more specific
areas of activity associated with professional standards of practice; for the profession, that
could be included in an ethical guideline.
I was mindful of misconduct, including conflicts of interest, and calls for
professional accountability. Soskolne (1996) stated that guidelines among some health
professions now address vulnerable and dependent groups, but these are silent on
biomarkers’ issues. In comparison, attention must be drawn to human rights concerns
associated with detecting hyper susceptible workers, especially in democratic countries.
Therefore, this study complied with all guidelines to address the issues associated with
the vulnerable and dependent group, such as protecting them from harm and injury.
Furthermore, some safeguards maintain the privacy of data derived from biomarker
studies, and the research should develop and implement them to develop application of
these new technologies. I incorporated ethical, social, and legal considerations
surrounding introducing new technology to susceptible populations and individuals who
may be vulnerable to environmental exposures. The data of this study was collected from
participants in the metropolitan Atlanta area, and the qualitative survey questions method
guided the research design.
The goal of my project was to gain first-hand knowledge from the participants,
since the study is focused on African American women and their lived experience of
domestic violence. Qualitative studies characteristically require a smaller sample size
than quantitative studies. Qualitative sample sizes should be large enough to obtain
enough data to adequately describe the phenomenon of interest and address the
research questions. The goal of qualitative researchers should be the fulfilment of
saturation. Once saturation is reached, adding more participants to the study does not
result in additional viewpoints or information. Other studies have given different
sample sizes, but Creswell (2007) recommended five to 25 for phenomenological
studies as an appropriate size to get the maximum results. The study required the
participation of 20 African American women who had experienced domestic/intimate
partner violence within the past 5 years. The women were selected using the
purposeful sampling. Creswell observed that the purposeful sampling strategy
involves the researcher selecting the participants purposively, since they understand
the phenomenon.
Research Design
A qualitative descriptive psychological phenomenological design, as outlined by
Giorgi (2009), was employed for this research. I used a survey questionnaire to guide the
process of collecting data from participants. Screening materials in this study included a
flyer for recruitment, semi-structured, closed, and open-ended questions, inclusive of
demographic questions, types of abused, education, etc. to determine participants’
eligibility. The use of semi-structured questions is a qualitative method used to collect
data using open-ended questions that are developed in advance (Chan et al., 2013; Morse
& Richards, 2002). The questions were analyzed using the descriptive phenomenological
method (Giorgi, 2009) to develop a description of the phenomena. Purposeful sampling,
which is often used in qualitative research, helped identify and select participants who
could provide information that related to the phenomenon of interest (S. Campbell et al.,
2020; Palinkas et al., 2015).
Protection of Participants
The participants’ well-being and safety was of utmost importance. Each
participant was treated with respect, and no harm occurred to them. Each participant was
provided the contact information of free counseling services if they became distressed
during or after the survey. During the process, if the participant felt distressed, they were
permitted to stop. At the end of the survey, the participants were reminded about the
availability of counseling services if needed. Another form of protection was to ensure
the privacy and confidentiality of all data and information. The participants were made
aware that any information that would identify them would be removed, and each
participant was referred to using a unique alphanumeric code (Participant 1 [P01],
Participant 2 [P02], etc.). The participant’s data, and informed consent forms, were done
online, which gave me, as the researcher, the only individual who would have access to
the study data.
Data Collection
The data collection process was reviewed and approved by both Walden
University’s IRB and the dissertation committee. The dissertation committee was made
up of one professor and the committee chair, all of whom had earned a PhDs. A
conference call was held, which included all the committee members and I. Only minor
editing was suggested and made. The chair of the committee provided expert review
during the data collection and analysis.
I used a semi-structured survey method to collect data from participants.
Semistructured interviewing is a qualitative method used to collect data (Chan et al.,
2013; Morse & Richards, 2002). The data collection instruments for this study consisted
of a recruitment flyer, consent, and open and closed ended interview questions structured
as a survey. I assembled questions into an interview guide developed specifically for this
study. Building trust with the participants is an important factor in making participants
comfortable to share their experience (Bell et al., 2016), so I took care to ensure an
effective data collection process.
Participant Selection
The recruitment process for participants began once Walden University’s IRB
granted permission for the research to commence. The recruitment processes unfolded in
the following steps:
1. Flyers containing information about the study were created and approved.
2. The research consent was approved.
3. Online survey questions and confidential processes were developed and
approved.
4. The confidentially and ethical process was created and approved by the IRB.
Setting and Sample of the Study
A researcher can ask the co-researcher about their experiences to seek answers to
the research questions. Seidman (2016) suggested that it is necessary to build amity with
the participant during the study. If the researcher can develop appropriate amity with each
participant, it will encourage them to share their experience about the phenomena during
the investigation.
This study’s setting is metropolitan Atlanta, the capital of Georgia, the second
largest city of Georgia and the 36th largest city in the United States. Atlanta serves as the
cultural and economic hub of Georgia, home to more than six million residents.
This study’s sample size consists of 20 African American women selected
purposively out of a population of 23 African American women who have experienced
domestic/intimate partner violence within the last 5 years and were the first qualified to
answer the survey questions. There was no co-researcher, nor was there any face-to-face
interaction.
Data Analysis
This study initially planned to use the face-to-face in-depth interview process for
data collection, which provides a relaxed atmosphere for the participants to converse and
participate freely without interruption. The process was later changed by the IRB; the
new process recommended by the IRB was to use an online survey question for the data
collection purpose. Creswell (2005) stated that the data collection method in qualitative
research is useful when a researcher is interested in collecting exhaustive information on
participants’ thoughts and behaviors or examining issues in depth. The qualitative data
were analyzed using thematic analysis and codes. This approach is a method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns and themes with data (Braun & Clarke,
2006). The Merriam (2002) article indicated that thematic analysis has been proven to be
a useful method for analyzing qualitative data because it provides essential skills for
analyzing data. Unlike other methods, thematic analysis emphasizes working with data,
systematic and objective coding, organizing data, and searching for patterns to develop
themes. I initially intended to conduct this study using face-to-face in-depth interviews
for data collection, which can be useful for collecting extensive information on
participants thoughts and behaviors or issues in depth. However, the process was
changed by the IRB, and I conducted an online survey questionnaire to collect the data.
Research Questions
This study aimed at exploring African American women "lived" experiences and
perspectives of domestic violence. There are three research questions that were used for
the study:
Research Question 1: Why do African American women stay in domestic/intimate
partner abusive relationships?
Research Question 2: What are the consequences of domestic/intimate partner
violence on the health and wellbeing of African American women?
Research Question 3: What are some of the barriers preventing African American
women from seeking professional help with respect to domestic/intimate partner
violence?
Central Concept is an image of things held in mind; and an element used in
developing a theory. The central concept of this study was Domestic violence, and its
causes. The study did involve 20 African American women who experienced
domestic/intimate partner violence, during the past five years. This study did aim to better
understand through firsthand experience, truthful reporting, and questions of actual
conversations. It seeks to understand how the participants derive meaning from their
surroundings and how their purpose influences their behavior.
Methodology
Domestic violence affects every race and gender, regardless of status. But the
study focused on African American women and the impact of domestic violence amongst
African American Women. What can we do to decrease this violence in the Black
community? The qualitative method was best suited for the research questions for this
study. Qualitative research makes one understand how people experience the world.
In comparison qualitative research approaches, tend to be flexible and focus on
retaining rich meaning when interpreting data. Qualitative is predominately used in the
social sciences field to explore social interactions, organizations, and processes. It
provides an in-depth understanding of how people understand, act, and manage their
dayto-day situations in particular settings. For this study, qualitative research was the best
because it was a day when these women experienced domestic violence from the hands of
their abusers. It did help one understand the behavior pattern and how to help these
victims.
This phenomenological qualitative research utilized the interview method to
assess the impact of domestic violence amongst African American women. Twenty
women aged 18 to 45 in Atlanta participated in the study. I constructed the semistructured
survey questionnaire to collect data from the lived experiences of African American
women relative to the topic of domestic violence. I collected data via the survey
questionnaire. Participants were given detailed information about the study design and
assurances about ethics, such as anonymity, and confidentiality, via a flyer (Gill,
Stewart, Treasure, and Chadwick, 2008).
Sample Size
The population for this study was initially to be 300 African American women
residing in Metropolitan Atlanta. However, the sample population should have been 15
African American, ages 18-45. During a meeting with the mentor, he recommended a
sample size of 20, and a discussion with the IRB suggested having fewer than 300.
During the data collection process, there were 23 participants, and the data collection was
from 20 women. The setting was via an online survey collection. Purposeful sampling,
also known as purposive and selective sampling, was used to select the participants.
Creswell (2007) explains that the purposeful sampling strategy involves choosing the
participants purposefully since they understand the phenomena. This method was helpful
because, as Creswell (1988) argued, open, -ended, semi-structured phenomenological
research is suited to understanding the lived experiences of participants in their natural
setting, while Seidman (1988) observed that qualitative phenomenological research helps
us to understand participants' point of view and their thoughts.
Purposeful sampling is a sampling technique that qualitative researchers use to
recruit participants that can provide in-depth information about the phenomenon under
investigation. We may use a population sample for any study in qualitative research. The
study's research objectives and population characteristics (such as size and diversity)
determine the number of people to select. The sample size refers to the number of
participants or observations included in a study, and n represents the number. The size of
a sample influences two statistical properties; the first is the precision of our estimates,
and the second is the study's power to conclude. In a qualitative study, saturation is a
reflection of the sample size. Saturation occurs when adding more participants to the
study does not result in additional perspectives or new information (Creswell, 2007).
For interview studies, Creswell (2007) suggests 5 to 20 participants. Likewise,
Crouch and McKenzie (2006) indicate that the number of participants to be used in a
qualitative study to minimize validity threats and provide in-depth data should be 20.
Lathan (2013) suggests a sample size of 15 and 20 homogenous participants is enough for
qualitative studies. Most qualitative researchers classically make sampling choices that
allow them to intensely understand whatever phenomenon they are studying. Qualitative
research requires options to enable a deep understanding of the phenomenon under
investigation. I seek responses from 20 African American females who have experienced
domestic/intimate partner violence within the past five years. I distributed the flyers in
the North Fulton County area.
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
The 20 African American women were selected for this study because they
experienced domestic/intimate violence within the last five years. If you are not an
African American female living in metropolitan Atlanta between the ages of 18-45, you
were not eligible to be a study participant. Inclusion and exclusion methods or criteria
included African American females aged 18-45 who experienced abuse within the last
five years. And the listing states African American female. Concerning education, all
were at least high school graduates.
The selected sample was goal-oriented, which is related to the sample design. It
was an accurate representation of the study. It will be proportional, and the population
will be randomly selected. The study will include many sample factors to identify a
sample's characteristics in the survey. They will consist of gender, age, race, ethnicity,
and victim of domestic violence. All four of these characteristics were proportional to
that of the population. There were considerations of geographic location and the final
sample size of 20. The flyers allowed the recruitment and participation process. The
Metropolitan Atlanta area has 25 neighborhoods, and the Southeast is said to have the
largest concentration of African Americans Women. The researcher focused on the
Demographics of Atlanta-Race and Ethnicity by communities and distributed flyers in
those areas.
I had no physical contact, mail, e-mail, or telephone calls with any participant. All
communications were via an online survey, with the participant's identity protected—a
small enumeration after the survey was completed ($20.00) for their participation in the
study. The recruitment process did involve several activities, including identifying
eligible participants through a flyer that adequately explained the investigation to the
potential participants. Recruiting an adequate sample based on the study goals and the
design, obtaining informed consent, and maintaining ethical standards, were challenging
but followed.
Despite the widely acknowledged fact that recruitment was a challenge, details
about recruitment efforts and outcomes were made to identify, recruit, and retain eligible
participants. Recruitment was successful through flyers, with all the needed information
and a barcode attached to scan, and it led the participants to the consent and the survey
questions.
Data Collection Instrument/Reliability/Validity
This study's data collection consisted of in-depth semi-structured survey questions
to improve the quality of information. The interviewer posted questions for participants to
willingly share their experiences of thoughts on domestic/intimate partner violence. Some
instruments allow the researcher to create powerful forms to help you collect the
information you need for the study. The selection of tools used to collect data is a crucial
step in the research process. When selecting your instruments, remember the Validity and
reliability of the collected data. Comparability with data from previous investigations
should be a priority during this phase. A research instrument is reliable when it can
consistently generate the same results after being applied repeatedly to the same group of
subjects. This concept is significant in multiple stages of the research process and is part
of this study. For example, there was a quality control check with the NVivo system
when I collected. Validity is to be present in an instrument, procedure, or research as a
whole. When they produce results that reflect what they initially aimed to evaluate or
measure, when their conclusions are correct for that sample of studied individuals, and
external Validity when its effects can be widespread to other backgrounds and population
territories, the data collecting instructions used for this study is the NVivo software. The
software is helpful for the management and statistical analysis of social science data.
NVivo Statistics is available for Windows and Mac operating systems; quickly
understand large and complex data sets with advanced statistical procedures that ensure
high accuracy and quality decision making. Delivers tables and visualizations to
communicate results effectively. Classifies cases and predicts the values of target
variables based on the importance of predictor variables. Enables accurate modeling of a
linear and non-linear relationships,
The number and types of available statistical software packages continue to grow
each year. I choose the NVivo because of its popularity in the academic and business
worlds. It is the most widely used package of its type. NVivo also has a versatile package
that allows many different analyses, data transformations, and output forms. Arkkelin
(2014) notes that the researcher's data entry is essential and can be tedious; it is a critical
first step in analyzing the research results. Therefore, you must be careful when entering
your data to avoid text entry errors. This software is frequently updated and improved;
with each significant revision comes a new version of that package.
Experiencing violence is within the context of multiple, complex, and challenging
life issues. Domestic abuse is a daily experience, especially for African American
females; they face many lives issues every day. African American women are the
majority who suffered domestic abuse or violence from their partner's hands. Many
victims do not seek redress for various reasons, but the primary one is cultural. African
American females often believe traditional program services are based mainly on the
values, beliefs, and culture of women of other cultures. They work well for the population
they were created by and believe in family values. I do not see specific issues directed
explicitly to this population because the tool is general. It relates to women of all ethnic
groups and colors. Any group and community can use this instrument.
My study focused on the City of Atlanta, Fulton County, to capture all this.
Atlanta is the capital and most populous city in Georgia. It is the 37th most populous city
in the United States. It serves as the Atlanta Metropolitan area's cultural and economic
center and is home to more than six million people. The consideration of Fulton is
because of having the largest population of African American women. The frequency of
the data collection was once a week until I met the goal. The duration of the data
collection was an ongoing process, with no limitation to the time and date, because it was
an online data collection.
Treatment of Data
Because this research data is precious and vital, it was managed to the highest
standards throughout the lifecycle to support excellence in my research study and
questions. Good data management is fundamental to all stages of the research process.
The data was securely stored and maintained according to the Walden University policy.
The researcher utilized the qualitative data analysis software NVivo to code and identify a
common language among the research participants. NVivo has been used to analyze data
from many qualitative research designs, including phenomenological studies. Leech and
Onwuegbuzie (2007) advised that researchers should have basic knowledge of the
program before using this software. With this software, large amounts of data can be
coded and put in transcripts quickly and managed by the researcher. It works well with
various qualitative research designs and data analysis methods such as discourse analysis,
grounded theory, conversation analysis, ethnography, literature reviews, phenomenology,
and mixed methods (Zamawe, 2015). Working with Research Data requires concentration
from its entry to disseminating and archiving valuable results. This process aims to ensure
reliable verification of results and permits new and innovative research built on existing
information. I did spend time and effort collecting and organizing the research data. I was
efficient and effective in saving time and reducing frustration. Because my research data
was precious and essential, it was managed to the highest standards throughout the
lifecycle to support excellence in my research study. This process did enable data re-use
and sharing. Researchers have questioned the trustworthiness of qualitative research
because we must consider the concept of validity and reliability. However, several
writers have demonstrated how qualitative researchers can incorporate measures that deal
with these issues.
Credibility is one aspect of the data treatment process, and ensuring credibility is
one of the most critical factors in establishing trustworthiness. One of the key criteria
researchers address is internal validity, in which they seek to ensure that their measures or
tests are the intentions. Lincoln and Gruba (1986) note that the qualitative investigator's
equivalent concept, credibility, deals with this question. Another concept in dealing with
trustworthiness is triangulation. Triangulation deals with the use of different methods of
data collection strategies in qualitative research. Another form of triangulation may be
using a wide range of informants. A member check is another form of reaching
trustworthiness. The reflection of the researcher is to record the researcher's initial
impressions of each data collection session, patterns appearing to emerge in the data
collected, and theories generated.
Saturation is another example. Saturation is when the sample size gives rich and
thick data. Thus, in choosing a sample size for qualitative studies, the aim should be to
study a few sites or individuals and collect extensive details about each study (Patton,
2002). Peer review is another critical consideration. Opportunities for scrutiny of the
project by colleagues, peers, and academics should welcome, as should feedback offered
to the researcher. Finally, prolonged contact means being present at the study site long
enough to build trust and confidence with the participants. Merriman writes that external
validity concerns the extent to which the findings of one study relate to other situations.
The audit trail is critical to this process, which allows any observer to trace the
research step-by-step via the decisions and procedures described. Emphasizing the role of
triangulation in promoting confirmability is to reduce the effect of investigator bias.
Triangulation involves using different methods, which form the data collection strategies
for qualitative research.
The trustworthiness of rigor of a study refers to the degree of confidence in data,
interpretation, and methods used to ensure a study's quality (Pilot and Beck, 2014). In
each study, researchers should establish the protocols and procedures necessary for a
survey to be considered worthy of consideration by readers. Because trustworthiness has
become an essential concept in qualitative research, it allows researchers to describe the
virtues of qualitative terms outside of the parameters in qualitative analysis, which is why
I choose the qualitative method for this study.
Orb, Eisenhauer, and Wynaden (2003) note that the principles of respect for
people should guide any research and that researchers should consider the participant's
rights—the right to information, participation, and withdrawal without penalty. In this
qualitative research study, the participants had the right to information, participation, and
exit, free of liability at any time. The participants were informed of their rights as
autonomous persons to accept or refuse to participate in the study voluntarily. This study
did not use the experimental method because exploratory research investigates a problem
that has not been studied or thoroughly investigated. Exploratory studies are conducted to
understand the existing problem better but usually don't produce a conclusive result.
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
Domestic violence is a public health problem in the United States. It can be
associated with physical, mental, emotional, and psychological problems for the victims.
African American (AA) women experience this type of violence more than any other
ethnicity or race. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study was to identify
and report AA women’s lived experiences of domestic violence. Even though research
devoted to understanding domestic/intimate partner violence’s consequences contains
significant gaps, this problem has devastating consequences for African American
women. This problem needs immediate attention. Likewise, there is limited empirical
research done on the topic. Why do African Americans experience domestic/intimate
partner violence more often than their White counterparts? Some of the barriers
preventing African American women from reporting domestic/intimate violence were
considered in order to answer the research questions. Bandura’s learning theory informed
this study, and data were collected from 20 African American women 18 years of age and
older, located in the metropolitan area of Georgia. The phenomenological research
method was used to explore the lived experiences of African American women. This
study includes significant social change implications for social workers, law enforcement,
the criminal justice system, and others interested in domestic/intimate violence.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the lived experience of African
American women who experience domestic violence. This phenomenological qualitative
research aimed to ascertain the impact of education on the incidence of domestic violence
among 20 African American women between the ages of 18 and 45. Another purpose was
to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural and social context in which domestic
violence occurs among African American women. The phenomenological approach
enabled me to investigate common themes relating to how African American women
described their lived experiences. The following research question guided this study:
What are the lived experiences of African American women who experienced domestic
violence?
The research questions are:
Research Question 1: Why do African American women stay in domestic/intimate
partner abusive relationships?
Research Question 2: What are the consequences of domestic/intimate partner
violence on the health and wellbeing of African American women?
Research Question 3: What are some of the barriers preventing African American
women from seeking professional help with respect to domestic/intimate partner
violence?
This phenomenological qualitative research unfolded when I decided to do my
dissertation on violence against African American women. I decided it would be
qualitative research, and my mentor helped me narrow the topic to the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence against African American women. I
developed an interview method to assess the impact of education on the incidence of
domestic violence against African American women. The study recruited 20 women
between the ages of 18 and 45 in the Fulton County, Atlanta area to be used as
participants in the study. The process was a semi-structured question, which was used
to collect data from the lived experiences of African American women relative to the
topic of domestic violence. Data triangulation was done through member check (i.e.
flyer and survey questions). There was no pilot study needed or done for this study.
Data were collected via the survey given to the participants, with questions that gave
detailed information about their lived experiences. Initially, the data collection process
was done through interviews and tape recording. After meeting with the IRB and due
to the population’s vulnerability, the data collection process was changed to a survey
done online. The location and setting remained the same, but the process was online,
not faceto-face. The confidentiality of the participants was respected and enforced.
The setting for this study was online. Initially, the location was to be in Fulton
County at some mega churches, where recruitment would have begun. After meeting with
the IRB committee, I changed the data collection plan. The IRB also suggested that I
change the interview process; The process was changed to a survey with questions for the
participants to answer. The IRB recommended the shift in the research data collection
method from a face-to-face interviewing participants and tape-recording, which they felt
was not safe for this population. The IRB noted that if the process were done face-toface,
it would defeat the purpose of confidentiality and expose the participants. The
confidentiality of the participants was of high priority, and the research method changed
to an online survey, which the IRB suggested would protect the participants.
The demographics of the study included 20 African American women that have
experienced domestic violence. The women lived in Fulton County; participants were
married, divorced, or single and abused within the last 5 years. These participants were
willing and could withdraw from the study at any time. The research was done with those
who volunteered to partake in the survey. There was no disrespect shown to any
participants at any time. They could stop at any time during the study without punitive
action. If you were not an African American female living in Fulton County or
metropolitan Atlanta between 18 and 45, you were not eligible to be a study participant.
Careful considerations were made to avoid common errors regarding inclusion and
exclusion of criteria, including the following: using the same variable to define both
inclusion and exclusion criteria (for example, in this study, including only African
American females, ages 18-45, who lives in Fulton County). The recruitment flyer stated
all the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
The study data was collected through an online survey suggested by the IRB. The
process was recommended to secure the participants’ privacy and confidentiality. A
highly secure survey service was established, providing a mechanism for the participants’
privacy; there was no room allotted for identifiers. Only numbers were used for identity;
23 women responded to the survey. The first qualified 20 were chosen to participate in
the study. The numbers for each participant for identity were 01-20. The other three
participants were not included in the data collection process. Data were collected through
the survey provided. Step 1, recruitment was done via a flyer; in Step 2, the content on the
flyer was read and understood by the participants; if they decided to participate in the
study, then the barcode on the flyer was scanned, which took them directly to the consent.
After the consent was read and understood, the participants proceeded to the first
question. After answering Question 1, participants were allowed to continue or stopped
from taking part in the survey.
In analyzing the qualitative data, thematic analysis was implied. This method is a
method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes). The data were coded
about the research questions. Although there are many types of software for analyzing
qualitative data, the data for this study were analyzed by NVivo 10 Software. Ethical
considerations were taken and outlined what is acceptable and unacceptable in
conducting research. It was a process that mainly ensured that the rights of human
subjects were not violated, and it minimized the risks while conducting the research.
Participants were assured that their rights, dignity, and identity were protected for this
study.
The trustworthiness of rigor of a study refers to the degree of confidence in data,
interpretation, and methods used to ensure a study’s quality (Pilot & Beck, 2014). When
the data were collected, there was a quality control check, reapplying some questions to
the same subjects already interviewed. The reliability and consistency of the given
answers were examined. Overall, validity is present in an instrument, procedure, or
research. When the instrument produce results that reflect what they initially aimed to
evaluate or measure, research can be judged both in terms of internal Validity. The data
collecting instrument used for this study was the NVivo 10 software. This instrument
helps with data preparation. The data were collected using a survey for the participants to
give a view of their life experience of domestic violence. It features automated data
preparation. It enhanced the model viewer for computerized data preparation, validated
data, and streamlined the process of validating data before analyzing it. Each question
was broken down into how many participants answered yes and no.
As such, the phenomenological qualitative study was used to unpack the lived
experiences and perspectives of domestic violence as it relates to African American
women. The phenomenological inquiry allowed 20 African American women to give
insight about their lived experiences without judgment from the researcher.
Phenomenological inquiry provides a rich description of human experiences and helps
researchers understand the meaning of people’s lived experiences. The qualitative data
were analyzed by using thematic analysis. This method was used for identifying,
analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes). The data was collected using the participants
numbers as they enrolled in the survey. The first participants were coded as participant
01.
The budget was one of the conditions that influenced participants and
interpretation of the study result. Good research is expensive because people drive it.
Budget restraints affect the quality of the study. Qualitative research requires a lot of
funding (sample size, travel, hotel, meals, printed materials, participant compensation).
The goal of this researcher was to get a broad cross-section of African American
women from the north area of Atlanta, Fulton County to generate more depth or insight
on the topic of domestic violence. The study did generate a representative sample.
Representative samples are essential, but this study required 20 African American women
that experienced domestic violence in the last 5 years. The age requirements were 18-45.
There was no specification or conditions related to their educational level. No pilot study
was done, so there was no change in personnel, budget cuts, and other trauma. The study
did not involve any personal or organizational conditions that influenced participants or
their experiences at the time of the study that could influence the interpretation of the
study results. This study was done on a solo basis, and participants were anonymous. The
only budget involved in this study was my own; I gave $20 gift cards to the first
participants who qualified for the study. That did not influence any decision or result of
the study.
Data Collection
Walden University’s IRB and the dissertation committee reviewed and approved
the data collection process. The dissertation committee comprises one professor and the
committee chair, who have earned PhDs. The process was initially to host a data
collection process of interviewing participants, but the IRB did not accept that process.
They suggested changing the process to a survey through an online process for
confidentiality purposes. The IRB approved the flyer with a barcode inserted. After the
participant scans the barcode, it takes them to the consent and survey. The permission was
on the first page, and the questions were on the second and other pages. After the
questions were developed and sent to the IRB, there were some modifications done and
accepted by the IRB.
The consent form was approved by the IRB and attached to the survey. I used a
data collection process that was a semi-structured question with one question used for
screening purposes before moving forward. Semi-structured interviewing is a qualitative
method used to collect data; even though there was no interview done for this study, the
questions were in the form of an interview with some yes, and no questions that needed
some definitive answers. The data collection instruments for this study consisted of a
screening tool, demographic questions, and open-ended and close-ended interview
questions. I gathered two queries in an interview guide developed specifically for this
study. An overview of the process was listed on the flyer, as was the consent to inform
the participants of the study, the criteria of the study, and what to expect. There was no
face-to-face study, and everything was done online.
The plan in Chapter 3 was to have an interview with African American women
and record the interview. This was to extract accurate and reliable information about the
participant’s lived experience. The process involved asking interviewees specific
questions about their lived experiences and recording via tape recorder. Because tape
recording is a more accurate and transparent method of capturing than the traditional
method, this method is thought to be more effective. One of the primary benefits of
recording the interview was to allow me to concentrate on the discussion rather than
writing notes, which could have been a distraction to both the interviewer and
interviewees.
The research question has been discussed in question #2; the questions speak on
the consequences, health, and well-being of the victim/participant. Physical abuse
impacts the victim, such as injuries, bruises, broken bones, or even death. Emotional
health is as important; it affects the individual's overall health. The World Health
Organization (WHO) (2013), notes that physical, sexual, and psychological can cause
serious short- and long-term physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health problems
for women. It is associated with high social and economic prices for women, their
families, and society. Violence of such nature can be related to homicide or suicide,
unwanted pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV. Most
participants stated that they suffered consequences related to their health and well-
being. Some questions asked about the types of abuse; there was a question that asked
if they told friends and family about the abuse, and the majority stated no because they
were afraid of being harmed by their abuser.
Participant 01 Is an African American Female, single, with unknown educational
and religious status. She lives in Fulton County and is 18 or above, which qualified her to
partake in the study. She has been in an abusive relationship for the past two years and
finally decided to get out. She told her clergyman that she was experiencing abuse at the
hands of her boyfriend. She is not married and is choosing to return to school to advance
her career.
Research Question #2: What are the consequences of domestic/intimate partner
violence on the health and well-being of African American women? Interview questions #
8,9,10, and11, will answer research question #2. The participants will identify and answer
the health and well-being of Abuse African American women. These questions will
intrigue the participants' minds in explaining their health and well-being during the time
of the abuse and after, and it will also give the research the needed answer to this
question.
Furthermore, research has shown that recorded interviews allow the interviewee
and interviewer to develop and foster a better relationship and rapport during the
proceedings, which can lead to the interviewee disclosing more detailed and in-depth
information. But during the research, there were some challenges and changes in the plan.
One of the significant challenges was switching from a face-to-face to an online process.
No direct contact and there were no way to recruit these participants except through the
flyer posted or left at specific locations. The survey was done online to protect the
confidentiality of the participants.
The data-collecting process encountered unusual circumstances in that the
recruitment process was tedious. First, it started with the IRB scrutinizing the process.
The face-to-face interview and tape-recording process, initially proposed, was rejected by
the IRB committee due to the population's vulnerability. The data collection process
started after the IRB approved the process and the steps. The process was asked to be
changed due to the population's exposure. Because of the Covid 19, locating these women
were difficult. Another unusual circumstance was some of the participants navigating to
the survey. Some complained of trying to scan the barcode, which wasn't working. Others
found it easy to check and participate in the survey, while others found it challenging.
Besides the barcode not working for some, there were no other unusual circumstances.
The data collection process took about ten weeks. The process was expected to begin and
end in six weeks, but it took longer. The survey was opened on
July 20th, 2022 and finished on September 10th, 2022. The survey was closed when 23
women successfully answered the questions. Then the analysis process begun and was
completed.
A research question defines what you will examine, within which population, and
what the outcome of interest will be. Defining a straightforward research question is the
project's first and most important part. This phenomenological qualitative research aims
to ascertain the impact of education on the incidence of domestic violence among African
American women between the ages of 18 to 45. Another purpose was to understand the
cultural and social context in which domestic violence occurs among African American
women.
When the participants answered the questions on the survey about their lived
experiences, they provided a clearer picture of how these relationships slowly unfolded.
They were able to give a detailed pattern of their experiences. The questions and answers
described were to the point of being controlled, abused, and manipulated. Even though
there were no direct quotes from most of the questions, some of the questions allowed the
participants to write out their experiences and feelings. The intent was to give an in-depth
investigation of the different aspects of abuse these participants experienced.
This phenomenological qualitative research goal was to ascertain the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence among African American women
between the ages of 18 to 45. Another purpose is to understand the cultural and social
context in which domestic violence occurs among African American women. It begins
with addressing the age of the participants, they had to be 18 years or older, or they were
not qualified to partake in the study. Research question # 1 will relate to interview
questions # 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7, which speak or give an insight into research question #1:
Why do African American women stay in domestic/intimate partner abusive
relationships? A few reasons why some women stay in an abusive relationship are
because they think the relationship is normal or healthy; others think about social, peer,
societal, cultural, religious, financial, economic, and family pressure. The interview
questions help the participants answer the questions and dig deeper into the research
question. minds in explaining their health and wellbeing during the time of the abuse and
after, and it will also give the research the needed answer to this question.
Research question #3: What are some of the barriers preventing African American
women from seeking professional help with respect to domestic/intimate partner
violence?
Research question #3: What are some of the barriers preventing African American
women from seeking professional help concerning domestic/intimate partner violence?
This research question relates to survey question # 12,13,14,15,16, and 17. Where it
relates to the participant's health and well-being. It also relates to fear and life
improvement after the abuse.
Because this research data is precious and vital, it must be managed to the highest
standards throughout the lifecycle to support excellence in my research study and
research questions. This process enabled data treatment and integrity. The data for this
study was not opened and accessible to other researchers due to the confidentiality of the
participant. No other researcher was involved in this study. There were 20 participants or
cases; each case was unique. There were 23 participants, and three were disqualified,
because of the need for 20 participants. The pattens were similar, the written portion had
detailed information. There were yes and no questions and questions that needed written
answers. There were no discrepant cases because each person's questions were direct and
unique. Everyone gives their life experiences in detail, what happened during the abuse,
and how it affected their well-being and health. How did this change their lives? Most of
these women's lives have changed for the better, and some have remained the same. The
data give the percentage of single, married, and divorced women and the age ranges of
these women. More details were given related to why some women refused to seek help
from friends and family. Most fear their abusers because of the threat they make of
killing the victims. The online survey was divided into sections to show the percentage of
women who answered yes or no.
The data collection process was designed to protect the identity of the participants.
When the Walden University IRB approved the study, there were recommendations and
input from the committee on how the questions should be phrased. The corrections were
made by the IRB and sent back to me. Some questions were yes or no, and some needed
specific answers. Some questions were open-ended, and some were closed-ended. Chen,
Wang, & Hung (2015), state that Semi-structured interviewing is a qualitative method
used to collect data. The data collection instruments for this study consisted of consent, a
screening tool, demographic questions, and open-ended and closeended questions. A
survey was recommended and used for this study; no interview or tape-recording
interview was allowed.
The themes guided the questions; the first theme was about abuse and how it
began. The second theme was related to fear, and the third was related to health and
wellbeing. The participants were coded according to the time of enrolling in the survey.
The Participants shared the emotional issues and health concerns they faced with their
abusers. Some quotes from the participants were, “The abused started right from the
beginning of the relationship.” Another participant wrote, “I did not report the abuse for
fear that I would have been killed.” Another wrote that I ran away because I was
depressed from the combination of abuse and wanted a better life.
Some quotes from the participants: “The abuse started right from the beginning of
the relationship.” another participant wrote, “I did not report the abuse for fear that I
would have been killed.”, Another wrote, I ran away because I wanted a better life for
myself.” As explained in chapter three, the researcher used the qualitative data analysis
software NVivo to code to identify and sort out the data. The NVivo software was
recommended and used for this research study. The NVivo software has been used to
analyze data from many qualitative research designs, including phenomenological
studies, such as this study (Zamawe, 2015). Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2007), Zamawe,
(2015). recommends that the researcher have some knowledge of the program because
large amounts of data can be coded and put in transcripts during a period. The research
efficiently manages the software.
The validity of this research study did require a thorough process from the design
to the data collection process and to the analysis. What made this study unique, was the
method of data collect, which was different from the normal interview process. With the
process, it was difficult to detect discrepant cases, because the process was straightly
done via an online process. There was no contact with the participants and no method of
conversing with them. Whatever the participant wrote down, is what the researcher took
into consideration. Different study designs have different strengths and weaknesses. The
selected design that the researcher chose was appropriate to answer the objectives of the
research questions. The sample size and other design aspects of the study were aimed at
achieving valid conclusions of the study. It was important to the researcher for this study
to strive for compatibility between study design and analysis plan. As researcher I chose
the study designs at the time of the development of this study before the investigation was
carryout. This eliminated the discrepancy cases. There were 3 participants eliminated
from the study due to their time of enrollment. The study needed 20 participants and 23
answered the survey. The last three where not included into the data analysis process.
Evidence of Trustworthiness
As stated in Chapter 3, the trustworthiness of qualitative research has been
questioned by researchers because the concept of validity and reliability cannot be
addressed in the same way in naturalistic work. However, several writers have
demonstrated how qualitative researchers can incorporate measures that deal with these
issues. One such measure is credibility. One of the key criteria addressed by researchers is
that of internal validity, in which they seek to ensure that their measures or tests what is
intended. The qualitative investigator’s equivalent concept, credibility deals with this
question. Lincoln and Grub (1985), argue that ensuring credibility is one of the most
important factors in establishing trustworthiness. Another concept in dealing with
trustworthiness is triangulation. Triangulation deals with the use of different methods of
data collection strategies in qualitative research. Another form of triangulation may be the
use of a wide range of informants. Member check is another form of reaching
trustworthiness. Lincoln and Grub (1985), consider member check to be one of the most
important provisions that can be made to bolster a study’s credibility. Reflexivity is
another example. The investigator should seek to evaluate the project again as it develops.
This can be done through a reflective commentary. The reflective commentary may be
used to record the researcher’s initial impressions of each data collection session, patterns
appearing to emerge in the data collected and theories generated. Saturation is another
example. Saturation is reached when the sample size gives rich and thick data.
Thus, in choosing a sample size in qualitative studies, the aim should not only to
study a few sites or individuals but also to collect extensive detail about each site or
individuals studied (Patton, 2002). This study follows these steps to ensure the credibility
of this study.
Conclusion
Domestic/intimate partner violence is a severe social, mental, and public health
problem in the African American community. The adverse effects of domestic/intimate
partner violence are far beyond reach. (Zorjan, Smrke, Lilijana, 2017). Each year,
African American women are traumatized, stabbed, brutalized, and murdered in the
United States. A qualitative study was conducted to capture the lived experiences of
African American women lived experienced as it relates to domestic/intimate violence.
Twenty participants, ages 18 to 45, participated in the study. Participants were required to
have been in an abusive relationship. The researcher used open-ended and closed-ended
questions via an online survey to collect the data. No participant's name was documented
on any form, and no email addresses of any participant were released to ensure that the
rights of the participants were not violated.
For reasons such as ethical issues, confidentiality, informed consent, and respect
for privacy, the participants did not use any identifiers, and the researcher adhered to that
strict rule. The participants were instructed to withdraw from the study at any time
without punishment. The participants were recruited at will and could stop the process at
will. The consent had a number embedded, for participants to call, in case of any anxiety,
stress or trauma from the research study and survey. The flyer gives the criteria for
inclusion and exclusion, and a bar-code to scan, which took them to a confidential survey,
that only the participant had access to.
Significant themes that emerged from the survey were: power and control, sexual
abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, physical abuse, and financial and economic
hardship. The researcher took into consideration the issue of trustworthiness to ensure
credibility. Framework for ensuring dependability included (1) credibility, which refers to
confidence in the truth value of the data and interpretations of them. The concepts of
credibility include triangulation, member checks, prolonged engagement, and saturation.
The ideas also include dependability, reliability, and stability of the data over time. (3)
Confirmability refers to objectivity, the potential for unity between two or more
independent people about the data's accuracy, (4) transferability, the extent to which
qualitative findings have applicability in other settings or groups. The study had a pattern
of yes and no, and there was no surprise with the yes and no questions and answers that
emerged from the design. There were questions that needed elaboration by the
participants, which gave a better insight into the lived experiences of these participants.
The researcher conducted the research study responsibly and correctly.
Researchers mustn't manipulate their data because if they do, they deceive others,
violating both the fundamental values and the widely accepted professional standard of
science. Data should be appropriately stored, especially collected from an individual, and
should be coded to ensure privacy and for the data to not be altered. Pilot and Beck
(2014) state that data should not be manipulated or changed because changing data leads
to false results. The online data was secured, and no one could get to the data except the
researcher. This process was secured, because there were no personal identifiers included,
such as names, date of birth and address. The bar-code that the victims scan from the
flyer, could only lead the participants to the consent and survey. There was no other
information available to anyone. The researcher was the only person having access to the
data but not the personal information of the participants. Treatment is something that a
researcher administers to investigational units. The research was shown responsibly and
correctly; the findings show a need for the African American community to be educated
about this type of violence and for additional resources to be provided. The result also
indicates that this community has a problem that needs serious attention.
Chapter 5 will provide a thorough discussion of the research study findings as well
as the implications and limitations of the study. Additionally, Chapter 5 will conclude
with recommendations for future research on this population.
Transition
Domestic/intimate partner violence is a severe public health problem in the
African American community. While many studies have been done on the topic, few
have focused exclusively on African American women. This study investigated the lived
experiences of 20 African American women, ages 18-45, living in Fulton County, who
have experienced domestic/intimate partner violence. The study was guided by a
qualitative phenomenological method. The survey questions were constructed to capture
the participants' lived experiences through open and closed-ended descriptive questions
from the lived experiences of the women that participated in this study. Several
significant themes and sub-themes emerged: stalking, physical, emotional/psychological,
financial, sexual, and employment. These central themes will be used to explored and
discussed in chapter 5 of this study. In chapter 3, the study related to the transferability.
External validity is concerned with the extent to which the findings of one study can be
applied to other situations. Lincoln and Gruba (1985), suggest that it is the investigator's
responsibility to ensure that sufficient contextual information about the fieldwork sites is
provided to enable readers to make such a transfer. They maintain that since the
researcher knows only the sending content, they cannot make transferability inferences.
Table 1
Social Demographic Background of Participants
Participants Age
18-45
Marital Status
Married, Single
or Divorced
Occupation Residence Religion
Participant 18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
01(P01)
Participant
02 (P02)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
03 (P03)
18-45 Married Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
04 (P04)
18-45 Married Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
05 (P05)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
06 (P06)
18-45 Married Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
07 (P07)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
08 (P08)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
09 (P09)
18-45 Divorced Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
10 (P10)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
11 (P11)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
12 (P12)
18-45 Divorced Unknown Fulton Unknown
Participant
13 (P13)
18-45 Single Unknown Fulton Unknown
Table 2
Types of Abuse
Physical 8.7%
Emotional 13.7
Verbal 17.4%
Sexual 3.7%
Combination 56.5%
Total N=20 100%
Table 3
Was the Abuse Reported to the Police?
Yes No
20% 80%
N =4 N=16
Table 4
High School Graduate
Yes No
100% 0%
N=20 N=0
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate the lived experience of African
American women who experience domestic violence. The purpose of this
phenomenological qualitative research was to ascertain the impact of education on the
incidence of domestic violence among African American women between the ages of 18
and 45. Another purpose was to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural and social
context in which domestic violence occur among African American women. The
phenomenological approach enabled me to investigate common themes of how African
American women described their lived experiences. The research designed of this study
was guided by the phenomenological qualitative method. In the phenomenological
qualitative research method, the researcher is interested in people’s belief’s experiences
and meanings from the participants’ point of view. Open and closed-ended
semistructured survey questions were used to gather the necessary data. Purposeful
sampling was used to select the participants.
Discussion
Qualitative phenomenological research is used to understand the meanings
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. As such, the
phenomenological qualitative study was used to unpack the lived experiences and
perspectives of domestic violence as it relates to African American women. The
phenomenological inquiry allowed African American women to speak about their lived
experiences without judgment from the researcher. Phenomenological inquiry provides a
rich description of human experiences and helps us understand the meaning of people’s
lived experiences. The phenomenological inquiry allowed 20 African American women
to give the perception of their abuse by answering questions related to domestic
violence. The study was conducted using flyers for recruitment, and an on-line survey
was developed with questions to get an in-dept look at the lived experiences of these
women without judgment.
The data collection was an on-line survey, which provided a relaxed atmosphere
for the participants to discuss issues of domestic violence in detail. This method is a
method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes). The data was coded in
relation to the research questions. Although there are many types of software for
analyzing qualitative data, this study used the NVivo software.
The qualitative data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. This method was
used for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes). The data were collected
using the participants’ numbers as they enrolled in the survey. The first participant was
coded as Participant 01. The data collection process was reviewed and approved by the
Walden University’s IRB and the dissertation committee. The dissertation committee is
made up of one professor and the committee chair, both of whom had earned PhDs. The
process was initially to host a data collection process of interviewing participants, but that
process was not accepted by the IRB. They made some suggestions of having the process
changed to a survey, though an online process for confidentiality purposes. The flyer was
approved by the IRB with a barcode inserted. After the participant scans the barcode, it
takes them to the consent and survey. The consent was on the first page and the questions
were on the other pages. After the questions were developed and sent to the IRB, there
some modifications done and accepted by the IRB. The consent form was approved by
the IRB and attached to the survey.
I used a data collection process that involved semi-structured questions, with one
question used for screening purposes before moving forward. Semi-structured
interviewing is a qualitative method used to collect data; even though there was no
interview done for this study, the questions were in the form of an interview with some
yes and no’s and some that needed some expressive answers.
The data collection instruments for this study consisted of a screening tool,
demographic questions, and open-ended and close-ended interview questions. I gathered
questions into an interview guide, developed specifically for this study. An overview of
the process was listed on the flyer and the consent to inform the participants of the study,
criteria of the study, and what to expect. There was no face-to-face for this study and
everything was done online.
Interpretations of the Findings
Findings from the interviews include results from the questions answered on the
survey. A research question is a sentence that defines what you will examine, within
which population, and what the outcome of interest will be. This phenomenological
qualitative research aimed to ascertain the impact of education on the incidence of
domestic violence among 20 African American females between the ages of 18 and 45.
Another purpose was to understand the cultural and social context in which domestic
violence occurs among African American women.
As the participants answered the questions on the survey about their lived
experiences, they provided a clearer picture of how these relationships slowly unfolded
from what the questions that where asked and their responses to the questions that they
answered. The questions and answers concerned the experience of being controlled,
abused, and manipulated. Even though there were no direct quotes elicited from the
majority of the questions, some of the questions allowed the participants to write out their
experience and feelings.
The data collection process was designed to protect the identity of the participants.
When the Walden University IRB approved the study, there were recommendations and
input from the committee regarding how the questions should be phrased. The corrections
were made by the IRB and sent back to me. Some of the questions were answered with a
simple yes and no, while others asked for more detailed answers. Some questions were
open ended, while some were closed ended. Chen et al. (2015) stated that semi-structured
interviewing is a qualitative method used to collect data, and the data collection
instruments for this study consisted of a consent, screening tool, demographic questions,
open-ended and close ended questions, and a survey, since the study was not approved for
a face-to-face interview or tape-recorded interview.
The questions were guided by themes. The first theme was related to the abuse
and how it began. The second theme was related to fear, and the third theme was related
to health and wellbeing. The participants were coded according to the time of enrolling
into the survey. The participants shared the emotional issues and health concerns they
faced due to their abusers. According to one participant, the abused started right from the
beginning of the relationship.” Another participant wrote, “I did not report the abuse for
fear that I would have been killed.” Another wrote, “I ran away, because I was depressed
from the combination of abused and I wanted a better life.”
As explained in Chapter 3, I used the qualitative data analysis software NVivo to
code to identify and sort out the data. The NVivo software has been used to analyze data
from many qualitative research designs, including phenomenological study, such as this
study. Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2007) recommended that the researcher have some
knowledge of the program, because large amounts of data can be coded and put in
transcripts during a period. The software is easily managed by the research. The intent
was to give an in-dept investigate the different aspects of abuse these participants
experienced.
Research Question 2: What are the consequences of domestic/intimate partner
violence on the health and wellbeing of African American women? Interview Questions
8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 helped answer Research Question 2. The health and wellbeing of
abused African American women was described by the participants. The findings from
the research show that the women’s health and wellbeing were impacted. These women
experienced metal anguish, fear and anxiety, distrust, and physical, sexual, and emotional
harm. The women also experienced setbacks, such as financial ones, and challenges to
live a normal life. The women in the study provided insights into the relationships and
how they were about to gain the courage to get out.
Many studies speak about the health and wellbeing of abused women, but this
specific study speaks to the how domestic violence leaves the abused with mental
anguish, anxiety, distrust, and physical harm (O’Neal & Beckman, 2017). The data
related to the research question were analyzed, and findings showed a great percentage of
the women had emotional problems such as anxiety, depression, pain, and physical injury.
Yung-Mei et al. (2014) argued that African American women only seek for help
from the authority when the domestic violence is seriously threatening their lives. As
compared to Whites and other races, African American women reported cases are very
severe (Yung-Mei et. al., 2014). Gillum (2017) asserted that African American women
were more likely to call police for help as compared to White women. Perpetrators of
domestic violence in African American communities show their dominance through
violence. Therefore, women are deterred from standing up against men, as it is a sign of
lack of respect. above studies notes that about one in three (35%) of women worldwide
have experienced physical and sexual intimate partner violence in their lifetime.
Worldwide, one third (30%) of women who had a relationship report they have
experienced domestic violence in some form of physical or sexual abuse by their intimate
partner in their lifetime. Globally, as many as 38% of murders of women are committed
by an intimate male partner.
Salcioglu et al. (2017) conducted a study that involved 27 focus groups consisting
of African Americans. An African American woman with extensive experience in
psychology led the focus groups. She was assisted by graduate students in guiding and
counseling (Salcioglu et al., 2017). The research aimed to understand the extent of
domestic violence among the African American women and how it affected their mental
well-being (Salcioglu et al., 2017). Therefore, it was not necessary for participants to
have past experiences with domestic violence. Four different factors were examined
during the research. The factors included the perception of respondents towards domestic
violence in the African American community, barriers to seeking help, perception
towards the necessary services, and knowledge of exiting services across the country
(Salcioglu et al., 2017). The participants of my research study revealed that one of the
reasons why they left was they could not withstand physical abuse any longer.
Domestic/intimate partner violence is a pervasive and recurring problem among African
American women. African American women experience domestic/intimate violence at a
significantly higher rate than other women in society. The 2010-2012 national personal
and sexual violence survey reported that nationally, 46% of African American women
experienced contact sexual violence and or physical violence in their lifetime.
This phenomenological qualitative research goal was to ascertain the impact of
education on the incidence of domestic violence among African American women
between the ages of 18 and 45. Another purpose is to understand the cultural and social
context in which domestic violence occurs among African American women. It begins
with addressing the age of the participants; they had to be 18 years or older, or they were
not qualified to partake in the study. Research Question 3 asked, “What are some of the
barriers preventing African American women from seeking professional help with respect
to domestic/intimate partner violence?” This research question relates to Survey
Questions 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17. Recent evidence-based literature on the topic discussed
how education can be a risk factor and prevention for domestic violence in the African
American community.
The studies included in this chapter discussed different relevant areas such as
intimate partner violence, domestic violence, the impact of education on domestic abuse,
domestic violence risk factors, and access to education and employment by African
American women. The specific examples include the works of Choi and Ting (2008),
Anderson (2010), Thomas (2000), Stinson and Robinson (2006), O’Neal and Beckman
(2017), Rennison and Welchans (2000), Reed et al. (2010), West (2014), Bhandari
(2020), Babu and Kar (2010), and Akers and Jennings (2019). Power and education
differences were discussed in studies done by Anderson (2010), Bonnes (2016), and Choi
and Ting (2008). Research on lack of access to education and other important resources
by African American community were discussed by Bent-Goodley (2001) and Cook and
Nash (2017). The literature review concluded that education can be used in preventing
domestic violence against African American women.
Limitations
Domestic violence affects women of all races and sociological background
globally. However, this study was limited to 20 African American women residing in a
specific geographic area in Atlanta, which is Fulton County. Therefore, the findings of
this study were not generalizable to all women in the United States, but to the listed
population. Another limitation was changing the option from face-to-face to the on-line
survey. Financial constrain was not a major issue, because conducting interviews is an
expensive proposition. The study was limited to African American women ages 18 to 45
living in the Atlanta area. The study included domestic violence victims who had
experienced partner abuse within the last 5 years. This study was voluntary, and any
participant could withdraw at any time without punishment. For the literature review
sections of this study, studies that were used as references were related to studies
published between 1989 and 2022, and most of the literature were peer-reviewed English
language and scientific journals; this was enforced to safeguard the quality, readability,
and interpretability of the study.
Recommendations
Findings from the research provided an understanding of the descriptions and
created awareness within this population. Also, the women in this study shared that they
were afraid of their partners, and some explained that they lived in the abused for years.
Others stated that they were afraid to share the abuse with friends and family, while
others were afraid to share it with law enforcement officers and clergypersons. The study
specifically chose women 18-45, living in Fulton County, and having experienced
domestic violence within the last five years. These women experienced mental anguish,
fear, anxiety, distrust, and physical, sexual, and emotional harm. The women also
experienced setbacks, such as financial challenges in living everyday life. The women in
the study provided insights into the relationships and how they were about to gain the
courage to get out.
The results from this study also illuminated how some women gained the courage
to leave the relationship, even with the threats that if they left the relationship, they could
face negative consequences from their partners. The findings from this research will
impact human behavior, criminal justice, law enforcement, healthcare providers, and
clinical social worker. The study may also impact public health by shaping the
development of programs and interventions that recognize and respect the importance of
the many types of domestic violence.
The Heron & Eisma (2021) study notes that the healthcare settings disclosure of
domestic violence by their providers is a barrier. The Heron and Eisma study also
recommends training healthcare providers to help these individuals understand the
complexities of the disclosure process and the potential obstacles.
The researcher disseminates the information through different communication
sources. Some include social medial, newspapers, church bulletin, flyers, and community
speaking engagements. The results will help the victims to report the abuse and help
lower their emotional barriers or shame, blame, and embarrassment. The result will let
these women know that they are not alone; they need help and where they can locate
service without being judged. The victims will also be aware that exposing the abuse will
make their abusers know they are not afraid, and prosecution is possible.
Based on the findings, the conclusion indicates that education can impact the
Incidence of Domestic Violence for African American Women. Education can inform the
victims of the signs and symptoms before becoming victims. Educating the victims about
the resources they have on hand to leave the abuse sooner is essential, and reporting the
abuse to your family, friends, and law enforcement officers will significantly decrease
this problem. The community will also make a positive impact in helping its people.
Even though this study investigated the impact of education on domestic violence
Among African American Females, other studies also noted that education is not the only
barrier. Other barriers or lack of opportunities, including financial obstacles, have led to
domestic violence (Coburn Place, 2022).
The problem is not just a community problem but a systemic one. The black
community has been behind in many ways, including education, healthcare, finances, and
a lack of other resources. According to Coburn Place (2022), It's a combination of things
we're not given, including opportunities in education that generally would have been
made available to other populations, specifically white people. The higher you are in the
socioeconomic strata, the more excellent knowledge you will have of education and
resources, making it easy for you to know where to get the information and receive
services and resources. Education is significant for the victims of the information and
things available to make a difference for the many few.
Recommendations for Further Research
Outcomes from this study suggested several opportunities for future research to
expand knowledge in human behavior and social science and decrease the gap in the
literature regarding African American females and domestic violence. A thorough
literature search and review indicated that this study might be the first research focusing
on the impact of education on domestic violence among African American females.
Giorgi’s (2009) descriptive phenomenological approach provided opportunities to gain an
understanding of the lived experience of African American females, and the research
results also identified areas for future studies. One possibility for further inquiry is
examining the experience of domestic violence among Caucasian women. Expanding the
population to additional geographic regions might address questions about cultural
differences in expectations and perspectives.
Implications for Social Change
The significance of this phenomenological inquiry was to assess the impact of
education on the incidence of Domestic Violence for African American females. This
study was significant on many levels. Healthcare providers, social service workers,
African American organizations, and sociologists will find this valuable work as they
seek to find vexing problems associated with domestic violence among African American
females. As Trochim, Donnelly, and Arora (2016) acknowledged in their text, giving
voices to their plight will "Contribute significantly to the process of policy making,
policy implementation, and policy evaluation" (Trochim, Donnelly, and Arora, 2016, p.
59). On another level, implications for social change for this study will include the
potential to enhance opportunities for African American females to acknowledge the
different signs of domestic violence.
Moreover, this study can give a voice to a group of victims unseen in current
discourse and literature. The study will also fill a gap in the existing literature by
examining the relationship that assesses education's impact on the incidence of Domestic
Violence for African American females. Other women, healthcare providers, and
educators can use the study's findings to bring about awareness to women suffering from
this type of abuse. The study will contribute to the criminal justice world by helping to
provide knowledge for students and instructors to use as a reference and a resource.
Finally, this study will add to the growing literature on domestic violence related to
African American females.
Many studies report data on domestic violence. Still, the 2010-2012 national
personal and sexual violence survey says that nationally, 46% of African American
women experienced contact sexual violence and or physical violence in their lifetime.
Based on existing studies on domestic violence among African American women, the
theoretical framework used for this study was Social Cognitive Theory and Social
learning theory. The two approaches analyze psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The
critical components of these theories include observation, retention, motor reproduction,
attention, learning, and motivation (Chen, Wang & Hung, 2015). Based on these ideas,
individuals acquire new and desired behaviors through education, which help them
selfregulate and develop physical and mental maturation, personal behavior control, and
selfefficacy. Albert Bandura's Learning Theory will inform this study.
The phenomenological research method was to explore the lived experiences of
African American females. Given that this study method focuses on African American
female victims of domestic violence, it also notes that other ethnic groups faced the same
problem but at a lower rate. Although the risk of African American female domestic
violence rate is higher across racial and ethnic groups, the study suggests that the
authorities should duly investigate any crime.
This analysis is vital to this research since it focuses on women’s experiences of
domestic violence in the African American community. Several studies have applied
phenomenological study design to understand domestic violence in different communities
in the United States. The study suggests that the authorities duly investigate any rights
violation and then punish the perpetrators accordingly (Ozer & Fidrmuc, 2017).
The research design for this study is a qualitative study, which surveys 20 female
African American participants. There was to raise awareness within the Black
communities to educate individuals to adhere to accountability and non-impunity. This
will restore ethical values in society, hence reducing domestic violence. Effective
authority responses are essential in ending gender-based violence. The current study
shows a positive correlation between recurring domestic violence and practical
measures. Education empowers people economically and socially; hence, it is a
protective tool in preventing violence (Rapp, Zoch, Khan, Pollmann & Krämer, 2012).
Individuals with low education levels are more likely to experience violence than those
with high education levels (Rapp et al., 2012).
However, it is essential to note that domestic violence can occur across all
academic levels. “In the simplest of terms, those individuals with less than a college
education are at a higher risk of being victims of domestic violence than those with a
college degree” (Rapp et al., 2012). Individuals with low education levels are limited to
jobs that have low wages. Due to discrimination and racism in the US, African American
women do not have access to quality education and hence fall into this low-income class
(Rapp et al., 2012). The Black women unwillingly return to their partners, who, in return,
abuse them. The women found it difficult to report the cases to the police or leave abusive
relationships since they did not have adequate financial resources to support themselves
and their children (Rapp et al., 2012). However, according to Chen et al.
(2015), the behaviors acquired through observation depend on the resulting actions.
The theory takes into consideration the past experiences of an individual. These
experiences determine whether a behavioral action will occur. Past experiences influence
reinforcements, expectances, and expectations. They are used to explain the reason why a
person engages in a particular behavior. Behavioral capability involves the capability of a
person to show a particular behavior using their skills and knowledge. For an individual
to perform a specific behavior, they must understand how and when to do it. People tend
to learn and have experiences based on the consequences of their behavior. Observational
learning in Social Cognitive Theory allows individuals to acquire behaviors from those
around them.
Though researchers have not reached conclusive ways to stop domestic violence,
a growing research base has developed various strategies and approaches to prevent
domestic violence. The plans to help solve this problem include:
•Teaching safe and healthy relationship skills.
•Engaging influential peers and adults.
•Disrupting developmental pathways towards domestic violence.
•Creating protective environments.
•Supporting survivors to increase their safety.
•Strengthening the economy for families.
The positive social change of my study will include protection, education, and
resources for these abuse victims.
Reflections of the Researcher
Sometimes, when conducting a regular investigation, the researcher may
intentionally or unknowingly influence the process. When this happens, it is termed
research bias, and like every other type of bias, it can alter your findings. From Plus Blog
(2022) notes research bias is one of the dominant reasons for the poor validity of research
outcomes. If the researcher pays more attention to the research, errors will not occur. A
researcher must be able to identify and ultimately avoid or reduce occurrences to the
barest minimum (Form Plus Blog, 2022). Research bias occurs when the researcher twists
the entire process towards a specific research outcome, which occurs when the researcher
manipulates the process to get the desired result. There was no knowing bias for this
study, so there was no need to control the investigation. There could have been some
biases in the developed survey, but none existed. My mentor and the IRB reviewed the
questions on the survey.
The IRB evaluated the process and made corrections to the study by changing
some questions and suggesting other questions to replace the deleted ones. The research
stayed within the process after the Walden IRB approved it. All the process was followed
according to the agreement between the researcher and the Walden IRB to have no
discrepancy in the findings or result by introducing an orderly error into the sample data.
In other words, it is a process where the researcher influences the systematic investigation
to arrive at specific outcomes. When there is any form of bias in research, it takes the
investigation off-course and deviates from its actual results. Research bias can also
happen when the personal choices and preferences of the researchers have undue
influence on the study.
Phenomenology is one of the popular types of research design used in a
qualitative study. Byrne (2020) notes that a phenomenological study's primary objective
is to explain the meaning, structure, and essence of a person's lived experiences or a
group of people around a specific phenomenon. The phenomenologist endeavors to
understand human behavior through the eyes of the participants, so during this study,
I conducted the data collection and did the final analysis as the researcher. A
researcher must collect clear and precise data using code, so no one can understand and
interfere with the data. By the time I met with my mentor for the second time the
Introduction and Information gathering chapters of the work had been completed, and I
received detailed feedback for those chapters of my research study. Also, there were
discussions about data analysis and presentation associated with the project. During the
final meeting with my mentor, the IRB scrutinized the overall work, and the IRB and my
mentor mentioned a set of specific points.
In dealing with research bias, the researcher must have a clear picture of what it is
and be able to identify it in any form. To ensure that this research did not have or deal
with bias, the data sample was from different or multiple sources and groups in my
research population. Even though the people were specific, African American female
population, the ages varied from 18-45. The data collected was collected and verified
before analysis. In other instances, I could have asked other research participants or team
members to review and help interpret my finding. This study was a small sample size,
and I had to carry the burden by myself because of the vulnerable population.
This research aimed to fill in the gap and contribute to the literature on domestic
violence, which is high among African American females. Findings from the analysis
provided an understanding of the descriptions and created awareness within this
population. Also, the women in this study shared that they were afraid of their partners,
and some explained that they lived in the abused for years. Others stated that they were
afraid to share the abuse with friends and family, while others were afraid to share it with
law enforcement officers and clergy members.
The study specifically chose 20 African American females aged 18-45, living in
Fulton County, and having experienced domestic violence within the last five years.
These women experienced mental anguish, fear, anxiety, distrust, and physical, sexual,
and emotional harm. The women also experienced setbacks, such as financial
challenges in living everyday life. The women in the study provided insights into their
abusive relationships and how they gained the courage to get out.
Findings from this study also illuminated how some women gained the courage to
leave the relationship, even though they felt that if they left the relationship, they could
face negative consequences from their partners. The findings from this research will
impact human behavior, criminal justice, law enforcement, and clinical social work. The
study may also impact public health by shaping the development of programs and
interventions that recognize and respect the importance of the many types of domestic
violence. This study benefits not only the criminal justice field but other disciplines.
Conclusion
This study aimed to assess the impact of education on the incidence of
domestic/intimate partner violence against African American women in Metropolitan
Atlanta, Georgia. As such, the phenomenological qualitative study unpacks the lived
experiences and perspectives of domestic/intimate partner violence related to African
American women. The phenomenological inquiry allowed African American women to
speak about their lived experiences without judgment from the researcher.
Phenomenological inquiry provides a detailed description of human experiences
and will help us understand the meaning of people's experiences. The study did not use
face-to-face in-depth interviews for data collection, as initially planned. A survey with
questions was developed and used for data collection. The survey was online, and the
participants answered the questions without interacting with the researcher. The
qualitative data analysis used a thematic analysis. This method is a method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes).
The data uses the coding system. Although there are many types of software for
analyzing qualitative data, the data for this study was examined by NVivo 10 Software.
Ethical considerations outline what is acceptable and unacceptable in conducting
research. It ensures that the rights of human subjects are not violated and minimizes risks
in conducting research. The researcher protected the participant's rights, dignity, and
identity.
Summary
In summary, the present study strengthened the research base on the disclosure of
domestic violence in healthcare settings by providing a comprehensive, updated
systematic review of qualitative research barriers and facilitators of exposure, advice of
victims on disclosure, and the potential outcomes of the disclosure. Results were partly
consistent with a prior review but also demonstrated novel themes and issues relevant to
disclosure in healthcare settings. The questions answered vexing problems associated
with domestic and intimate partner violence, and they answered those questions. The fact
that barriers to disclosure persist despite the development of international guidelines and
regulations for healthcare services suggests that improving HCP and healthcare service
responsiveness to domestic violence remains an important goal for the future.
The study showcases the most important areas concerning domestic violence
against African American women. The recent evidence-based literature on the topic
presented a discussion. The research study investigated how education can be a risk
factor and prevent domestic violence in African American communities. The studies
included relevant areas such as intimate partner violence, domestic violence, the impact
of education on domestic abuse, risk factors, and access to education.
This phenomenological research assessed the impact of education on the
incidence of domestic violence on many levels. Healthcare workers, social service
workers, law enforcement officials, sociologists, and African American females of
organizations will find this helpful study.
