1
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS
IN THE MANUSCRIPT OF THE BOOK OF AL-
GOOD"
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
A. SCOPE OF THE MANUSCRIPT STUDY
Manuscripts are objects of study in philology that have meaning and news, about expressions,
thoughts and feelings as a result of the culture of a nation in the past expressed by texts that can be
read in relics in the form of writing.29 Ancient manuscripts are one of the sources of information that
have noble values, then they can also be a guideline for increasing intellectual, spiritual and
emotional intelligence for a nation. The Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (NKRI) has a
number of ancient manuscripts in the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia, totaling 11,147
manuscripts. The collection of ancient manuscripts is made of various tools such as paper, lontar,
bamboo, bark, and rattan from various regions in which there is a message, expression, feeling,
science, thought and so on.30 reviews
Ancient manuscripts can be a means of communicating with the past. Through ancient
manuscripts we can find out how life happened in the past. Therefore, ancient manuscripts should be
preserved, cared for, and preserved so that they can become a contribution of insight in today's
times.31 Then there are several scopes contained in the study of this manuscript, as follows:
1. Definition of manuscript
Manuscript is a term that is often heard and commonly known by most people, especially
those who delve into writing. The Great Dictionary of Indonesian (KBBI), defines a manuscript
as an essay that contains an expression that is still written by humans using their hands.32
Meanwhile, manuscripts in the true sense are all relics in the form of handwritten writings by
men in the past, on paper, on stone, bark, and rattan.33 reviews
A manuscript can also be interpreted as a written document that is written directly using
human hands. Then the manuscript can be distinguished from the printed document or mostly by
means such as typing, printing and so on. All of this is due to the absence of
2
38 Septiyadi Sobar Barokah Saripin, "Text Criticism and Function Analysis of the Manuscript of Wawacan
Bidayatussalik‟, Journal of Indonesian Literature Ark, 2014.
facilities that can help the process of writing as it is at this time. The definition of manuscripts
according to experts is as follows: Salastin and Siti Baroroh Baried, define manuscripts as
handwriting in which various expressions, thoughts, and feelings are stored as works of past
culture.34 According to Oman Fathurahman, manuscripts are all written relics written by hand by
humans in the past, whether written on paper, lontar, bark and rattan.35 According to Achadiati
Ikram, Ancient manuscripts are one of the sources of knowledge that contain various data,
information, thoughts, feelings and historical and cultural knowledge of certain groups or groups.
The manuscript here is a cultural object in the form of the results of an essay in the form of
handwriting or typewriting that is fifty years old or more.36 As a source of information that is tens
or even hundreds of years old, manuscripts are very useful for human life, as the heritage
contained in them contains a lot of things that store a local wisdom, ancestral messages to
organize life in the present and future, as well as points of thought in various disciplines.37 reviews
Then manuscripts as a variety of literature that uses the medium of writing or writing as a
means of conveying messages, manuscripts are written using various forms of essays and the use
of materials in their writing. For example, like the manuscripts found in the archipelago, based on
the aspect of disclosure, these manuscripts are written using various forms of composition, such
as prose, rhythmic prose, and poetry. In the use of materials, manuscripts are made using various
writing materials such as paper, bark (daluang), leaves, animal skins and so on.38 reviews
From the above explanations, it can be concluded that a manuscript is an essay produced
from human writing, whether it is original or has been transferred to the form of a copy, which
contains various kinds of writings such as information about things that happened in the past,
human thoughts that lived in the past, life culture and traditions that existed in the past, and
historical knowledge. Then all of them are applied through a writing and engraved on objects
such as paper, rocks, lontar, wood and rattan. Thus, manuscripts as an inheritance of old cultural
documents have diversity based on physical aspects and the content contained in them.
The diversity of the manuscript is not only found in the physical elements of the manuscript,
such as the diversity of materials used to write the manuscript, the type of ink used, the state of
the manuscript
34 Siti Baroroh, Introduction to Philological Theory (Jakarta: Center for Language Development and Development,
1985), p. 55.
35 Oman Fathurahman, et al, Indonesian Philology and Islam (Jakarta: Agency for Research and Development and
Training of the Center for Research and Development of Religious Literature, Ministry of Islamic Religion, 2010),
p. 4.
36 Achadiati Ikram, The Forgotten Identity (Jakarta: Yanassa, 2004), pp. 115-116.
37 Taufiqurrahman and Ahmad Taufik Hidayat, "Conservation, Digitalization, and Counseling of Ancient Manuscripts
in Surau Manggopoh, Agam Regency‟, Axiologies: Journal of Community Service, 6.1 (2022).
3
41 Septiyadi Sobar Barokah Saripin, "Text Criticism and Analysis of the Function of the Wawacan
Bidayatussalik Manuscript‟, Journal
Ark of Indonesian Literature, 2014.
Script writing and so on are also something interesting in a manuscript. The diversity of
manuscripts can also be seen in terms of the types of writings written on the manuscript. The
category of manuscript types is a grouping of manuscripts based on certain diversity, which is
characteristic and distinguishes one manuscript from another. But it must be understood,
sometimes it is not easy to determine a manuscript because of the variety of content in each
manuscript.39 reviews
2. Other names of manuscript studies
Along with the study of manuscript studies which are relics in the form of written works, both
original and those that have been duplicated into new sheets, because it is feared that there will be
damage to the manuscript, there are several names or terms from the study of the manuscript,
including the following: Philology, Codicology and Textology which will be explained and their
respective contexts below.
a) Philologists
Philology comes from the Greek language, namely philologia which is a combination of the
words philos which means friend and logos which means talk or knowledge. In Greek,
philologia means to like to speak, then develop into a love of learning, a pleasure in knowledge, a
pleasure in writings, and then a pleasure in high-value writings such as literary works.40 reviews
The object of philological study basically consists of three aspects, namely, language,
literature and culture. The relationship between philology studies and linguistics, because
language is a tool or means of communication of manuscripts with written media as a means of
conveying messages. The relationship between philological studies and literature is because
manuscripts are written using various forms of essays. Furthermore, in the field of culture,
manuscripts are the result of the representation of people's lives, both individuals and groups.
Thus, the study of philology is a discipline that plays a dual role, in addition to studying a
manuscript as well as a science that helps other branches of science such as history,
anthropology, religion, language, and literature.41 reviews
There is a flow of research stages in philological studies that become a structured arrangement
and provide stages in reviewing a manuscript, as follows:
1) Text determination
39 Alfian Rokhmansyah, Philological Theory (Revised Edition) (Yogyakarta: Faculty of Cultural Sciences,
Mulawarman University, 2018), p. 51.
40 Siti Baroroh, Introduction to Philological Theory (Jakarta: Center for Language Development and Development,
1985), p. 2.
4
The earliest stage in determining a manuscript is to select and determine what text to
study. In this case, each researcher has different references depending on what text he finds
interesting. It is very possible that a text that is considered interesting by someone will be
considered mediocre in the eyes of others, or maybe vice versa. In essence, the text that has
been selected for research is useful for the general public.42 reviews
2) Manuscript inventory
Manuscript inventory is intended as an effort to maximize the search and recording of
the existence of manuscripts that contain copies of the text to be studied. To search for the
manuscript, you can do it through the local manuscript catalog or the national manuscript
catalog, then search the manuscript collection owned by individuals. A catalog is a
collection list of a documentation center that is compiled using a specific system. This can
be done by going directly to people who are famous for their manuscript collections.43 reviews
3) Script description
The third stage in the study of philology is the description of the manuscript, namely by
identifying, both the physical condition of the manuscript, the content of the text contained
in the manuscript, as well as the identity of authorship and copying with the aim of
producing a description of the manuscript and the text in its entirety.44K
4) Text editing
The fourth stage in the study of philology is to make edits from the text contained in the
manuscript, or in other words to prepare an edition of the text from foreign writing to Latin
writing. In editing a manuscript, there are several editions that can be used by researchers,
namely: Diplomatic Edition, Mixed Edition and Critical Edition.
The Diplomatic Edition, is a model of editing a text that is produced through the attempt
to transcribe a text to match the original, that is, the text of the manuscript being studied. In
this case, the manuscript reviewer does not aim to present the text that has the best reading,
but to present the text as it is.45 Furthermore, the Mixed Edition, or Joint Edition, is a model
of text editing resulting from the process of combining readings that have more than one
version of the manuscript. This means that the researcher edits not only based on the text
sourced from one copy of the manuscript, but from several copies of the manuscript that
are worthy of merging.46 Then, the Critical Edition, is a model of text editing produced by
researchers who have the desire to form the best reading. In this case,
42 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Method (Jakarta: Kencana, 2015), p. 69.
43 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Method (Jakarta: Kencana, 2015), p. 74.
44 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Methods.,p. 77.
45 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Method., pp. 88-89.
46 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Methods.,p. 90.
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Editors usually do not leave the text edited by them only in its original form, but intervene,
in the form of corrections, subtractions, additions, or substitutions to the extent that it can
be accounted for.47 reviews
5) Text translation
In the context of Indonesian philology, of course, translation will be carried out, if the
text in a manuscript being studied is written in a foreign language or regional language,
especially one that is not widely known by prospective readers. Such as Arabic, Javanese,
Sundanese, Bugis (Makassar), Balinese, or other languages. Except for texts that use Malay
in their writing, they are usually no longer translated into Indonesian, although there are
some expressions that sound archaic or foreign to hear. Because some words that are
categorized as archaic can be explained by themselves on a footnote.48 reviews
6) Content analysis
The last stage in the study of philology is content analysis, which is to analyze the text
and also the context according to the perspective used. Researchers must be able to explain
and explain the meanings contained in the texts they study, so that they can be useful for
the general public as one of the sources of knowledge reference.49 reviews
b) Codicologist
The term Kodikology comes from the Latin word "codex" which means the form of a
manuscript. Then "logos" comes from the Greek word which means science, so in the sense of
codicology language means knowledge about the form of the manuscript. In terms of definition,
codicology is a special science that studies the physical form of a manuscript.50 Kodikologi or
often referred to as manuscript criticism is the study of the physical components of a manuscript
consisting of manuscript inventory, manuscript description, kinship between manuscripts, and
determination of manuscript editions. The tasks of codiology include examining the history of
manuscripts, the history of manuscript collections, research on the places of actual manuscripts,
cataloging problems, cataloging catalogs, manuscript trading, and manuscript users.51 Regarding
the definition of codicology, there are experts who define this codiology as follows:
47 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Methods.,p. 91.
48 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Method.,p. 95.
49 Oman Fathurahman, Indonesian Philology: Theory and Methods.,p. 96.
50 Agus Supriatna, Theology & Kodicology: An Introduction to Ancient Manuscripts (Southeast Sulawesi: UD.
Al- Hasanah, 2021),p. 3.
51 Wening Pawestri, Undang Ahmad Darsa, and Elis Suryani, "MANUSCRIPT CRITICISM (KODIKOLOGY)
ON THE HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPT OF RAGASELA‟, Jumantara: Journal of Nusantara Manuscripts,
9.2 (2019).
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Mulyadi, defines the term codicology as coming from the Latin word "codex" which means a
relationship to the use of wood as a stationery, and basically the word means a terrace of tree
trunks.52 Then Robson, defined the term codikology as the study of the manuscript, which is to
study all the intricacies of all aspects of the manuscript such as the material of the manuscript, the
age of the manuscript, the place where the manuscript was written, and the estimation of the
scriptwriter. 53 Then Dain, defined the term codicology as the science of the manuscripts and not
the study of what is written in the manuscripts themselves, and also the science of codicology
itself is not a new science. According to Dain, codiology also has tasks, including studying the
history of manuscripts, the history of manuscript collections, research on the actual location of
manuscripts, the problem of cataloging, compiling catalog lists, manuscript trading, and the use
of manuscripts.54 reviews
In the analysis of codicology, there are common things to do, such as tracing the history of the
manuscript. Usually the history of the manuscript is obtained from the notes on the beginning or
end pages written by the owner or keeper of the manuscript. Things that are considered in the
physical of a manuscript are the length, width, thickness of the manuscript as a whole and the
number of pages used to write as well as the material or media of the manuscript.
After these things are done, continue to the part in the manuscript or text. In this process, you
will see the typeface and language used, whether or not there are markers or references at the
beginning and end of the part in the text (usually in the form of writing that is given a different
color from the content of the writing), whether or not there is a catchword (hook word) that is
usually used to mark the pages of the manuscript and the form of the manuscript writing. Next,
check the help lines used to arrange a writing, paper stamps (watermarks and countermarks) that
give a sign of the company producing the base paper, whether or not there are decorations on the
edges of the manuscript and illustrations or parts that contain images of information that explains
something in the manuscript. Then it is also necessary to note the damages contained in the
manuscript.55 reviews
c) Textology
Initially, there was not much difference between textology and philology, because each
studied classical texts, especially texts written by hand in the form of manuscripts. However, due
to the development of the understanding of philology which is very developed, so that philology
and textology have a much different meaning. Therefore, special
52 Sri Wulan. R. Mulyadi, Malay Kodikology in Indonesia (Depok: Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia,
1994), p. 1.
53 Sri Wulan. R. Mulyadi, Malay Kodikology in Indonesia (Depok: Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia,
1994), p. 2.
54 Sri Wulan. R. Mulyadi, Malay Kodikology in Indonesia.,p. 2.
55 Alfian Rokhmansyah, Philological Theory (Revised Edition) (Yogyakarta: Faculty of Cultural Sciences,
Mulawarman University, 2018), p. 55.
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For the study of historical studies, texts began to use the term textology. The term textology was
used by Russian researcher Liechaecev. Meanwhile, the term philology is still used for the study
of classical manuscripts that look at the cultural background of the people who gave birth to it.56
reviews
Mythology is one of the branches of philology that has a focus on the study of the content of a
manuscript (text). What distinguishes textology from the previous discussion is that codicology is
the focus of the study of the objects contained in the manuscript. Theology focuses on the content
of the text contained in a manuscript, while codicology focuses on the physicality and state of the
text in a manuscript. Text or content of the manuscript, consists of several forms of content that
contain ideas and messages that the author wants to convey to the reader, in accordance with the
characterization approach, flow and also the writer's style in writing a manuscript. 57 reviews
De Haan, categorized texts into four types. First, text is a value of oral storytelling. Second,
the text is a recording and storytelling of the author. Third, the text is a written writing, which can
be read by anyone. Fourth, text is writing that is used as a textbook. Meanwhile, Teeuw, said that
the text has an unlimited variety of forms in the form of manuscripts. In textology, texts can be
distinguished based on the variety of declines into three types, namely textology that examines
oral texts, textology that examines manuscript texts, and then textology that examines the history
of printed books.58 reviews
Based on the limitations of a text, the record about the text here has a theoretical basis, namely
printed text (book), oral text (grades and recordings), and written text (manuscript).59 An oral text
will have different meanings, intents and functions depending on the context. The choice of
context and narration depends on the variety of texts being studied. Within the scope of oral
tradition, there are four contexts that must be considered, namely: cultural context, social context,
situational context, and ideological context.60 According to De Haan, the emergence of a text is
due to several possibilities, including the following:
First, basically the text only exists in the memory of the author or storyteller, then the text has
been declining for generations, especially if there is a personal party or individual who wants to
own the text. So the text is dictated to others so that it can become a manuscript and have a varied
text. Second, the original text
56 Doni Wahidul Akbar, Philology Learning Module (Indonesian Science Media, 2021), p. 35.
57 Mohamad Mahrusillah, Fiqh Neurostorytelling Oral Tradition of Teaching Fatḥ Al-Mu"īn in Banten (Banten: A-
Empat Publishers, 2022), p. 91.
58 Mohamad Mahrusillah, Fiqh Neurostorytelling Oral Tradition of Teaching Fatḥ Al-Mu'īn in Banten.,p. 91-92.
59 I Nengah Duija, "Oral Traditions, Manuscripts and History: A Record of Cultural Politics‟, Journal of Discourse,
Vol 7, No 2, (October 2005).
60 Mohamad Mahrusillah, Fiqh Neurostorytelling: The Oral Tradition of Teaching Fatḥ Al-Mu"īn in Banten (Banten:
A-Empat Publishers, 2022), p. 92.
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It is still possible to change because it requires artistic freedom. But it is possible that the original
text was copied, borrowed, inherited and even stolen. So it becomes the second or third branch of
tradition because of the variants that bring the story that are included. Third, the text originally
did not allow freedom in its presentation, because as a rule, the author has determined the choice
of words and then the order of words and composition to fulfill the purpose contained in a
manuscript.61 reviews
3. Philology in Islam
The presence of Islam brought by the Prophet Muhammad SAW, is believed to be able to
guarantee and ensure the realization of a harmonious and prosperous human life both physically
and mentally. In Islam, there are many clues about how humans should respond to life and life is
more meaningful in the broadest sense. In the implementation of education in Islam, it requires a
very precise, effective and efficient method. The goal is to deliver a teaching that has been
planned. Most of the methods used today are lecture models without touch and motivation.
Philology is one of the methods in the process of Islamic religious development, with many texts
contained in manuscripts about the message, characteristics, history and development of Islam in
the past. And the manuscript is one of the indicators of the rapid spread of Islam, especially in
Indonesia.62 reviews
Philology is one of the approaches used in the process of studying Islam and other religions.
The philological approach uses text as the object of its focus, although currently the philological
approach is not very trendy to be carried out due to the development of a very modern era, but
this approach plays a very important role in intellectual progress around the world, because the
term philology itself comes from the Greek language and was first applied by western
researchers.63 reviews
Philology in Islam, is an abbreviation that can be used to study a text or religious books such
as Tafsir, Fiqh, Sufism, Hadith and others. Philology is also used to study religious texts or books
that have been damaged by time and to purify the text by conducting criticism so as to produce a
text that is closest to the original.64 There is one convincing example that the study of Islamic
philology is indispensable in the process of the development of Islam itself. A paper that explores
the concepts, methods and significance of Islamic philology in the archipelago and
61 Doni Wahidul Akbar, Philology Learning Module (Indonesian Science Media, 2021), pp. 35-36.
62 Achmad Slamet, Methodology of Islamic Studies (Study of Methods in Islamic Sciences) (Yogyakarta: CV
BUDI UTAMA, 2016), p. 31-32.
63 Wiwik Indriani State Islamic University of Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, PHILOLOGICAL APPROACH IN
ISLAMIC STUDIES, YASIN: Journal of Education and Socio-Culture, 2021, I.
64 Arsyad Almakki, "PHILOLOGY (An Approach to Studying Religious Books)‟, Al Qalam: Scientific Journal of
Religion and Society, 2018.
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contextualization in Indonesian manuscripts, for example. Starting from the problem that many
Nusantara Islamic manuscripts have not been studied, even though they contain the values,
thoughts and culture of the past Nusantara scholars which will certainly clarify the concept
related to Islam Nusantara itself.
With a descriptive approach based on literature data and discourse analysis, it was found that
the concept of the study method of Nusantara Islamic philology is almost the same as philology
in general, but the only difference is the object of study. In addition, its contextualization as an
approach to Islamic studies in Indonesia, especially related to Nusantara Islamic manuscripts, can
be suggested to use new philology without leaving classical philology.65 reviews
4. Characteristics of the study of religions in the classical era
The study of religions has been the main object of attention of observers of religious studies
since the Age of Enlightenment. There are many definitions related to the study of religions
among scientists in particular. The study of religions, according to Mukti Ali, has grown along
with the categories that have been determined, and it can be seen that the religions of the world
are movements that develop based on historical communities.66 In the face of a pluralistic society
due to the rapid development of the times, like other approaches, the study of religions has a
feminist perspective that is faced with the need to establish a good theoretical framework, so that
a dialogue between faith and culture is held.67 reviews
By classical definition, A.N. Whitehead stated, that for him religion is what is done by a
person who embraces him in silence. But perhaps this is Whitehead's definition of religion, which
cannot be equated with anyone else. Because in essence, the meaning conveyed by Whitehead
has a broad meaning and at the same time this understanding denies the rituals that exist in
religion.68 Emile Durkheim emphasized, that there is nothing wrong with religion in principle. All
religions are true according to their own fashions. All of them meet certain conditions of human
existence even in different ways. Durkheim asserted that primitive religions met the same needs
and played the same role and departed from the same cause. Therefore, primitive religion can
explain religious life well. At the same time, Durkheim also has a goal, which he is very
ambitious to achieve. He believed that by analyzing the origins of religion he could also reveal
the origins of human thought. Then Durkheim notes, that all religions require a separation
between the sacred and the profane
65 Khabibi Muhammad Luthfi, "Contextualization of Philology in Islamic Texts of the Archipelago‟, IBDA' :
Journal of Islamic and Cultural Studies, 14.1 (2016).
66 Mukti Ali, Comparative Science of Religion in Indonesia (Yogyakarta: IAIN Sunan Kalijaga, 1988), p. 13.
67 Peter Connolly, Various Approaches to Religious Studies (Yogyakarta: LKIS PELANGI AKSARA, 2002), p. 110.
68 Dikutip dari E.J. Shape, Understanding Religion. (London: Duckworth, 1983),h. 34.
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(ordinary) and defines religion as the unity of the belief system and worship practices related to
the sacred, that is, something that is alienated from things that are not good.69 In the 19th and
early 20th centuries, the discussion of totemism (belief), which was the earliest form of religion,
was particularly controversial. Durkheim was very convinced, then, that society needed some
form of religion to bind them together.70 reviews
Van Der Law, who was a historian, also studied the study of religions and had responsibility in
Sweden at the time for the establishment of the comparative position of religions. At the end of
his life he said "I know that God is alive, and I can prove it through the history of religion".71 The
influence of Imam Madzhab is still strong even though it is hundreds of years away from our
present day. It is none other than because the classical Islamic heritage in the form of manuscripts
by previous scholars is still able to be revived so that it gives birth to new works that are quite
colorful for Islamic treasures in the next era. One of them is the book Bulghath At-Thullab by
KH. Thaifur Ali Wafa, a charismatic scholar from Sumenep Madura. This work experiences a
unique phenomenon, because it was born in the modern era, but is able to present the aroma of
classic fiqh.72 reviews
The question of truth in religion which is an indicator of the study of religions can be
approached philosophically. Such as the criticism conveyed by Donald Wiebe, who is an author
of a book on religion. According to Wiebe, an alternative paradigm or perspective on an object is
needed in religious studies. Because actually in the classical era, people who embrace beliefs or
religions have a very deep sense of what they believe. It even gives rise to the term radicalism,
which has an understanding that all religions are wrong except the religion they adhere to and
consider other beliefs to be far from the truth.73 reviews
5. Characteristics of Literature on Religions in the Contemporary Era
Religions have two dimensions that cannot be separated, namely the esoteric dimension and
the exoteric dimension. The esoteric dimension is everything that is manifested in the form of
Sufism or the spiritual path. While the exoteric dimension is everything that is manifested in the
form of sharia. In the esoteric dimension, religion transcends space and time, transcends
rationality, and
69 Peter Connolly, Various Approaches to Religious Studies (Yogyakarta: LKIS PELANGI AKSARA, 2002), pp. 19-
20.
70 Peter Connolly, Various Approaches to Religious Studies.,pp. 20-21.
71 T. Andrae, Nathan Soderblom. Uppsala, 1931,h. 328.
72 Moh. Afandi, "ISLAMIC LAW IN THE THOUGHT OF MADURA ULAMA (Analysis of the Book of
Bulghah At- Thullab by KH. Thaifur Ali Wafa, East Ambunten, Sumenep)‟, et-tijarie: Journal of Sharia Law
and Business, 5.1 (2018) <https://doi.org/10.21107/ete.v5i1.4598>.
73 Peter Connolly, Various Approaches to Religious Studies (Yogyakarta: LKIS PELANGI AKSARA, 2002), p. 144.
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transcendent and absolute. While in the exoteric dimension, religion manifests itself in a
structured form, existing in space and time, rationality, limited and relative.74 reviews
The relativity of the form of religion or exoterism, opens up opportunities for a critical,
rational, and in-depth study so that the values of truth contained can be revealed from the ta'bir
of its limitations and relativity, and can also function as a source of benefit for human life. In the
context of the public sphere, religion certainly cannot be separated from its dynamic and complex
history, so that the study of religion is not enough to use only one approach, let alone only use a
normative approach that only follows the rules, but must be carried out with a plural approach
and perspective.75 reviews
As an object of study, religion is an open space for all elements of society to be studied both
from insiders (adherents of the religion itself) and outsiders (non-adherents of the religion being
studied). Nevertheless, to maintain objectivity in conducting religious studies, it must be based on
the mapping of Kim Knott from an insider/outsider perspective. Observers from insiders no
longer position themselves as participants as observers. Likewise, outsiders no longer position
themselves as complete observers but position themselves as observers as participants.76 reviews
Muhammad Arkoun, a modern Islamic philosopher, elaborated the concept of religions based
on sociological and anthropological approaches. In studying and identifying religions, Arkoun
established four areas, namely intellectual, political, economic, and cultural areas. This is done so
that religions are not trapped in ideology or ideas. The four regions are called socio-historical. As
a result of the sociological and anthropological approaches to religion, according to Arkoun's
thought, there are no significant ideological differences between religions. Such a concept of
thinking is more precisely called a humanist approach, namely the taste of community diversity is
seen based on religious needs and also the depth of individual communities.77 reviews
Humans embrace a belief or religion because they have human interests, meaning that because
theological differences have been blurred, there is an approach that looks at the diversity of
human beings in essence. Because, humanity has the same needs in religion and they are under
the same umbrella, namely to meet the needs of humans seeking spirituality. From here
74 M. Arrfan Mu‟ammar, dkk, Studi Islam Contemporary Perspective Insidier/Outsider (Yogyakarta: IRCiSoD,
2017), p. 5.
75 M. Arrfan Mu‟ammar, dkk, Studi Islam Kontemporer Perspektif Insidier/Outsider.,h. 5.
76 M. Arrfan Mu‟ammar, dkk, Studi Islam Kontemporer Perspektif Insidier/Outsider.,h. 7.
77 Muhammed Arkoun, Aina is al-fikr al-Islami al-mu‟ashir.,h. 39.
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The sociological approach gives birth to a relative understanding. Then a humanist approach will
form a pluralist religious mentality.78 reviews
The religious study method used by Arkoun, in addition to the sociological method, is the
anthropological method. With the anthropological method, Arkoun sees that behind religions that
have very unique theological characteristics, there is a fundamental structure as an element of
commonality. Therefore, the issues studied in Arkoun's thought are not studies that only examine
one religious issue. Religious studies are detailed not to elaborate on the history of the
establishment of the religion. Arkoun's desire, however, is the study of comparative religion,
namely how the religion can conduct a healthy dialogue with other religions. This establishment
is meant by an anthropological stance. So Arkoun explained the religions of revelation and other
religions.79 reviews
So for example, when studying Islam, what Arkoun actually wants is how the phenomenon in
Islam can be captured by other religions. Therefore, according to Arkoun, the phenomenon of
religion does not only exist in the three monotheistic religions, but also concerns other religions
such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and all manifestations of sacredness among the
community. This perspective is called postmodernism of religion, which means that theology is
included in a closed system of rational explanation. So that postmodernism understands the
concept of religion in a different way and also contradicts the beliefs believed by theologians
(theologians).80 reviews
B. STUDIES OF RELIGIONS FROM A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
There are theories present in the study of religions that began with the scientific approach to
religion, and began to arouse the attention of scientists in the 19th century. Among the many theories
that can be chosen according to the purpose of writing, there are seven theories that play the most
role, not only in religious life but also in the intellectual culture of this century. The originators of
the theory are as follows: First, E.B. Tylor and James Frazer. Second, Sigmund Freud. Third, Emile
Durkheim. Fourth, Karl Marx. Fifth, Mircea Eliade. Sixth, E. Evans Pritchard. Seventh, Cliford
Geertz.81 Before entering the discussion, it is necessary to explain some reviews of the two terms that
are the basis of this discussion, namely the words religion and theory.
78 M. Arrfan Mu‟ammar, dkk, Studi Islam Contemporary Perspective Insidier/Outsider (Yogyakarta: IRCiSoD,
2017), p. 134.
79 Muhammed Arkoun, Aina is al-fikr al-Islami al-mu‟ashir.,h. 39.
80 M. Arrfan Mu‟ammar, dkk, Studi Islam Contemporary Perspective Insidier/Outsider (Yogyakarta: IRCiSoD,
2017), p. 135.
81 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion (Yogyakarta: IRCiSoD, 2018),h. 23-24.
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85 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 34.
In general, even if it is the first time to study religious studies, surely someone already has ideas
and thoughts about religion. Some interpret religion as believing in God, some interpret religion as a
supernatural force or life after the world, that is, the afterlife, and there are also those who interpret
religion with the names of religions in the world that have many adherents, such as Islam, Hinduism
or Buddhism.82 Similarly, one must already have a general understanding of the theory of studying a
religion. Because theory is definitely related to science, of course one interprets the word theory as a
part of an explanation, namely explaining something that cannot be understood at first. Generally,
the emergence of a theory is in order to answer the question "why can something happen?". So it can
be concluded that theory is a way to explain between matter and energy that has never been known
before.83 reviews
From the explanation above, theories about religions initiated by world-famous scientists will be
presented as follows:
1. Animism and the Magical (E.B. Tylor and J.G. Frazer)
The first theorist to discuss religion with a perspective on animism and magic was Edward
Burnett Tylor (1832-1917). Tylor is a self-taught man from England who has never experienced
the world of university education, but with his adventures and experiences in independent study,
to the theory of animism, which he says is a key theory to understanding the origins of religion.84
At first Tylor was not interested in religious issues, but rather in the problems of human culture
and social groups. Therefore, some consider it as the originator of social anthropology or cultural
anthropology as a science. Tylor's experience in America was very important in his life, because
it was there that Tylor developed his interest in the study of foreign cultures. In his adventures,
Tylor always recorded every culture and belief he encountered in society. When he returned to
his original residence in England, his entire collection of notes was later published under the title
"Anahuac: On Mexico and The Mexican Ancient and Modern (1861)". Shortly thereafter, Tylor
published his second book, "Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development
of Civilization (1865)". Six years later, after working seriously in this field, Tylor again published
a book entitled "Primitive Culture (1871)", which consisted of two large volumes. The book
Primitive Culture (1871) is the pinnacle work and is one of the main references in any study of
human civilization.85 reviews
82 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 26.
83 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 26.
84 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 31-32.
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87 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 50.
Tylor continued to work later in 1884, Oxford asked him to become the principal lecturer in
the field of anthropology, which was a new course of study at Oxford at the time. Tylor became
the first professor of anthropology, and enjoyed a long career until the time of the first world war.
The book Primitive Culture has a great influence so much that it is used as the main material in
studying animism definitively (absolutely). Because this book Primitive Culture was published to
the British Victorian community at a time when religious people were facing challenges that
could damage religious beliefs.
Tylor outlines an important myth that leads to the unfolding of the path that must be taken in
investigating the origins of religion. Tylor explained that humans will not be able to explain
something without really knowing what the essence of something really is. So the first thing that
must be known is about the definition of religion first. Moreover, Tylor said, that humans simply
follow natural personal beliefs to be able to define religion only limited to believing in God. Then
Tylor proposed his definition which he thought was very appropriate to be used as the basis for
carrying out this task, namely defining religion as a belief in something spiritual. According to
Tylor, this definition is definitely acceptable and has its own advantages, because it is very
simple and includes a wide range of meanings. Although man can find other similarities in every
religion, the only characteristic that every religion, big or small, has in common, ancient or
modern, is the belief in spirits that think, feel, and behave like humans. Because the essence of
religion is animism (derived from Latin, anima meaning spirit), that is, the belief in something
that is alive and has the power behind everything. Animism is the oldest form of thinking, which
can be found in every human history.86 reviews
Furthermore, Tylor explained that spiritual ideas were indeed integrated with the thinking of
primitive societies, but were not contaminated in the form of things that were not easily changed.
Just like other elements, animism also undergoes development and growth.87 Tylor also asserts
that this description of animism is particularly interesting because religion has undergone rapid
development, ranging from primitive belief in the spirit of an object to the highest level of
monotheism and ethics.
But Tylor also said that any progress found is limited for very simple reasons. Like animism,
for example, no matter how broad and great the influence of a civilization and history, people
will not be able to forget that actually animism is a fatal mistake, such as
86 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 45-46.
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90 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 55-56.
which modern researchers have proven that the world cannot be moved by invisible spirits.
Tylor admitted that in his heyday, explanations related to animistics were very acceptable.
However, there are better methods, which modern science offers. They proved that in the
reasoning of primitive societies, there were things that did not make sense. But the intellectual
progress that exists today must be judged in the opposite way, because the only way to explain
civilization is to remove animistic theories from everyday life. In this modern era, the
development of religion, as mythical and magical, is dying, both in the content of its teachings
and in its number and proportion.
Finally, Tylor gives a very diverse picture of religion and its development. Tylor says that
animistic religion played a role in an ancient society's attempt to understand and respond to
mysteries, and that extraordinary events have similarities with science that exists today. Both
arise from man's quest for an understanding of the world, in the form of a deep desire to know
how things can function. Tylor also added that although religion is as ancient as science, religion
is more primitive and its ability to provide explanations is far inferior to science.88 reviews
The second figure who has a similar discussion of religion who has a perspective on animism
and magic is James George Frazer (1854-1941). Frazer is a Scottish scholar who has a shy nature
and is very different from Tylor. Frazer spent his entire life in a book-filled apartment at
Cambridge University. Frazer is more often associated with the so-called magical theory of
religion. But even so, Frazer was one of Tylor's students who later took Tylor's methods and main
ideas by adding some touches that were purely derived from his own methods and ideas.89 reviews
James George Frazer was a proponent of the ideas and methods applied by Tylor. Frazer then
devoted all his attention to anthropological research, until he was finally able to put forward his
own version of the animistic theory. For Frazer, religion is indeed something very interesting but
not something to believe in. In his first year of education, Frazer was more interested in things
that had nothing to do with religion, but what interested him was the discussion of ancient Greek
and Roman civilizations. 90 reviews
88 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 52-54.
89 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 32.
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91 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 65-67.
When Frazer began translating the works of the popes, he unexpectedly experienced two
events that changed his way of thinking and his career. During the lesson, a friend of Frazer's
gave me a copy of the book Primitive Culture. When he saw the book, Frazer was intrigued by
Tylor's presentation of animism for primitive societies. When religion and the magical were
introduced, they became central themes in The Golden Bough (Fraser's most popular work first
published in 1890).
Magical is built on the assumption that, when there is a ritual or act that is done correctly, the
consequences that arise will also be realized as expected. The beliefs that are the basis for each
ritual are proof that primitive societies already had a kind of knowledge that had prevailed among
them. Then they apply the laws of how nature works and try to control it. Frazer said that
knowledge of the magical has its own value, and he emphasized that a person who has knowledge
of the magical will have very strong social power.
According to Frazer, the power that magic bestows on humans in primitive societies cannot go
beyond the sight of ordinary humans. Because magic is dealing with an even more fundamental
problem. Indeed, magic can be said to be science, but it is limited to false science. Perhaps
primitive society can be deceived, but it will not be the same for modern people. Thinkers and
scientists, must know that magical principles (imitation and contact) cannot be applied in the real
world, because in essence magic will not work and is just a lie. For Frazer, the acknowledgment
of mistakes is a very important development in the history of human thought. At a time when the
magical has regressed from its existence, religion comes to take its place.
Religion chooses a different path from what is taken by the magic. In this case it is inevitable
that Tylor's definition of religion is a belief in spiritual power. Frazer concluded, in general,
religion is similar to magical, because each of them is founded on a combination of uncritical and
irrational ideas. So when a person who is a pure believer in religion wants to control and change
the forces of nature, what should be done is not to recite magical incantations, but to pray and ask
the God they believe in in their religion.91 reviews
2. Religion and Personality (Sigmund Freud)
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), was a psychologist from Vienna, Austria. In the 19th century, it
has caused an uproar in the medical world and also the public with its new analysis
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93 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 106-115.
about human personality. In his writings, Freud found so many things related to the subconscious,
that sometimes others wonder why these ideas are directed into such extreme imbalances.
According to Freud, the subconscious has a central place, because it is the link between the
physical and spiritual in every human person. Therefore, there is actually no pure spirit in man.
Physical impulses are common in humans, such as wanting to be satisfied and feeling happy. 92
reviews
Freud's view of the development of the human personality will become even more important
when he turns to religion, because one of Freud's main thoughts is to try to find a place for
religious belief in the normal stages of emotional development. What needs to be noted is that
everyone who accepts Freud's pattern of thinking will tend to take one of the understandings of
religion. First, religion is seen as part of the childhood of mankind. Second, religion is seen as a
feature of the adult development of human civilization.
Freud was a figure who was such a complex opponent of religion. Writers who have a close
relationship with Freud say that Freud lived his life from the beginning to the end of his life as an
atheist. Freud did not find a single reason to believe in God, so he considered the entire religious
ritual to have absolutely no meaning and benefit in life. Freud was very convinced that ideas
related to religion did not come from the One God or any other God. Because according to him,
the gods do not exist and also do not come from the conscience in contemplation about the world
that usually leads to the truth.
There is a similarity between Freud's earlier opinion and that of Tylor and Frazer, who
considered belief in religion to be a mistake (religion is superstition). But at the same time, Freud
saw religion as an interesting superstition because it raised important questions about man.93 reviews
Freud published an article entitled "Obsessive Action and Religious Practices (1907), which
contained early clues about Freud's approach to religion. In the article, Freud concluded that the
behavior of religious people is similar to that of neurotic patients. Because all of them equally
emphasize the ceremonial form of doing something and will feel guilty if they do not perform
these rituals perfectly.
In Freud's view and thought, the behavior of religious people is always similar to mental
illness. So the most appropriate concepts to explain religion are the concepts that have been
developed in psychoanalysis. The three books by Freud, in which they discuss religion entirely
using the approach described above,
92 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 95-106.
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95 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 153-154.
96 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 161.
but in different ways. The three books were also written by Freud in a very concise form, so that
they can be discussed in their entirety by paying attention to the psychoanalytic explanations
contained in the three books.94 reviews
3. The sacredness of society (Emile Durkheim)
At the time when Freud introduced all his controversial views in Vienna, there was an original
Franciscan thinker named Emile Durkheim, who also developed a revolutive theory of religion
and had a different way of doing things than Freud. If Freud is known as the first person to be
connected with modern psychology, while Durkheim is a figure who first appeared when
discussing sociology. Durkheim prioritizes and prioritizes the importance of society as a
structure, interaction, and social institution in understanding human thought. His perspective lies
in the emphasis on wanting to see almost all of the main human deeds, such as law and morality,
employment and recreation, family and personality, art and even religion using social lenses and
views.95 reviews
Society is a word that in the past was interpreted as the style and feasting of elite people.
According to Durkheim, there are two principles in studying a society: First, the nature of society
is the most systematic, suitable and promising object of inquiry. Second, all social facts must be
investigated using the subjective and purest scientific method possible.96 reviews
The Elementary Forms is one of Durkheim's books, which shocked scientists, especially
Francis. In the book, Durkheim and his followers began to see religion from a sociological point
of view, and received an astonishing reception from outside Francis until Durkheim's influence
was also felt in the study of religions. Durkheim is in his claim that religion is highly social. And
he emphasized that although as an individual human beings have their own choices, these choices
remain within the social framework. Talk about social influence on religion or vice versa, the
influence of religion on social life today has become very common.
To see the novelty from Durkheim's perspective, the first thing to do is to recall Tylor's
writings on religion written half a century before Durkheim. Tylor talks about the religion of
primitive societies and considers it to be the fruit of the thoughts of wild philosophers who
discovered spirits and gods. But Durkheim had a different view. Although it is not the first and
only person to pay attention to and concentrate social forces in human life, but the uniqueness of
94 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 116.
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97 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 194-196.
98 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 214-240.
Durkheim is found in his understanding of the importance of this social force. And the emphasis
he gave that the social perspective must be applied in future studies including religious studies.97
reviews
4. Religion as a form of alienation (Karl Marx)
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a social philosopher from Germany, and the originator of
communism. Marx lived before the figures we discuss the concept and theory of religion in this
scientific study. Marx discovered a simple fact, that the first thing man seeks is food, drink,
shelter and clothing. All of this is done first before humans seek and pursue politics, science, art
and religion.
There are two things that need to be noted to know the figure of Marx further, as follows:
First, Marx as the originator of communism does not provide a theory of religion in detail,
because religion according to Marx is only a part of the totality of his thought. Marx's writings
were made sacred to the communists, just like the Qur'an for Muslims, the Gospel for Christians
and the Talmud for Jews. Second, because Marx's philosophy has a wide scope of meaning, the
portion offered on traditional religious theory is very small and does not form a core part of his
entire thinking.
Discussing things that fall into the category of ideology and superstructure will ultimately lead
to a conversation about religion. The essence of Marx's view of religious theory is very
surprising. If you look closely, sometimes Marx talks about religion in very good or very positive
terms, but on other occasions on the contrary, Marx talks about religion very rudely and cruelly.
According to Marx, religion is only an illusion, then fear is an illusion that has very painful
consequences. Religion is a form of ideology and understanding that is the most extreme and
most real, which is a system whose main purpose can be to provide reasons and laws and then
aim so that the entire order of life in society can run in accordance with the belief in the ruler.
Religion is very dependent on the economy, because none of the doctrines and beliefs in religion
have independent values. Marx's view of all religions is the same, that is, it is a mere ideology.
Religion is no different from the state, art, moral order and other intellectual works. All of these
are superstructures that are highly dependent on the economy for society.98 reviews
Marx asserted that man must draw a parallel line between religion and socio-economic
activity. Because both create alienation, religion deprives it of its potential
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100 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 281.
ideal in the natural life of man and directing him to a foreign and unnatural reality called God.
Economics deprives another thing of human expression, namely the productivity of human labor,
the economy turns it into a material object or something that can be traded and owned by a
person.
In essence, according to Marx, religion is part of the superstructure of society and the
economy on which it is based. Competition in religion is basically an irregularity contained in the
foundation of society, namely the economy. So the evidence of alienation contained in religion
must be seen as a reflection and a reflection of the most obvious alienation of man.
Then this alienation is more of an economic and material nature than a spiritual one. On the
basis of this opinion, of course, it is not difficult to understand why religion for society is mostly
the greatest force and the last place of escape, because religion has its own advantages over other
superstructures in society. Religion is able to provide and direct human needs emotionally that
are alienated.99 reviews
5. The essence of the sacred (Mircea Eliade)
Mircea Eliade was a man of immense knowledge and talent in fictitious writings, and devoted
her entire life to the comparative study of religion, which she always called the History of
Religion in accordance with the European custom. Eliade said that historians must get out of
modern civilization, because the explanation that will be obtained about the (ancient) world is
only few, if you reflect on the modernity that exists today.
An archaic society is a society that lived in prehistoric times with a backward culture that lives
today. What will be obtained if you examine the society well is a life that is between two separate
areas, namely the sacred and profane areas. The sacred area is the supernatural territory,
something extraordinary (extraordinary) that is not easily forgotten and is very, very important.
While profane territory is the area of daily life that is carried out regularly, randomly and
sometimes not really very important. The sacred is the place where all order and perfection
reside, the dwelling place of the spirits of the ancestors, the knights and the gods and goddesses.
The profane is where humans make mistakes, and change is sometimes even filled with chaos.
Every time we meet an archaeological society, the religion found in the midst of the society is
positioned in the middle between the profane and the sacred continuously.100 reviews
Eliade mentions that the supernatural process flows to the natural, which is called the Sacred
Dialectic. For example, the black stone commonly called
99 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 244.
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102 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 324-326.
With the aswad hajar attached to the Kaaba is able to show and emit its own sacredness, then
when it is equated with other stones it is clearly different. Because in simple logic contradictions
like this do seem absurd. But if the profane area and the sacred area become a unit, then it can be
logically understood for those who believe in these values.
There is a new thing explained by Eliade, namely in human history there has been an
acceptance of philosophy that rejects the existence of values that are considered sacred.
Proponents of this opinion claim that all of these sacred beliefs make no difference to a person,
whether they are sacred in or out of history. The reason is very simple, that is, because humans do
not need it all. According to Eliade's perspective philosophy, there is no such thing as gods, no
sacred archetype that can lead to the necessity of life or show what the purpose of life is.101 reviews
The existence of Eliade's theories related to religion, sacred, and profane has made him
receive a lot of widespread opposition from other scholars. Indeed, very impressive, with a solid
foothold, Eliade tried to oppose the reductionist approach with a huge sense of connection. Eliade
had no hesitation at all in solving a problem that was on the opposite side of the prevailing
tendency at the time, although from the beginning of his policy this made scientists feel angry
and heated by all his arguments. But some researchers also claim that the key to the problem with
Eliade's approach to religion, which he thinks is sacred, is the religious problem.
Some of Eliade's critics say that Eliade is actually a Christian theologian, and he is even said
to be a missionary in disguise. Eliade believed in God and explained or explained religions in
ways that supported her faith in Christianity. Then he proved that the Christian faith is the truest
and the most perfect form of all religions.102 reviews
6. Anti-Haitian (E.E. Evans-Pritchard)
One of the main figures of modern anthropology, he is the full name Sir Edward Evan Evans-
Pritchard, who is widely known among the public as Evans-Pritchard. The Englishman was
undoubtedly a surprise in the form of very impressive discoveries and definitions in the field of
anthropology, which is his specialty. By stating that if theories related to religion are made as a
subject, it will mean nothing. Some consider Evans-Pritchard to be an anti-religious theory, but in
fact he tried to explain religion more
101 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 315.
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104 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 381-384.
rather than just throwing a criticism, like a scientist who only seeks the mistakes of other
scientists.103 reviews
Evans-Pritchard asserts that evolutionist thinking is no longer acceptable, because its approach
does not provide any meaningful benefit to the study of human culture and always puts primitive
backwardness at the bottom, and western culture at the top. This opinion arises because Evans-
Pritchard has a natural sympathy for religion. And that sympathy comes from outside of Evans-
Pritchard's own commitment and personal environment.
There is a phrase at the end of one of Evans-Pritchard's books entitled Nuer Religion,
describing the work as a step towards a classification of African philosophy that will provide a
broader form of comparison for religious theories as a whole. Regardless of whether the object of
study is religion or primitive belief, Evans-Pritchard emphasizes that in the future, a study should
be carried out outside of literature and theology. Because a valid theory will explain religion as it
grows in its own society. It is not like in the pastors or theologians of the religion, so that in the
end the source of the strength and growth of the religion itself can be found.
In novelty, Evans-Pritchard is able to show how religion can shape the ideal of transcendence
or things that go beyond what is seen for a particular society and a certain time. In terms of
building the best theory that will reflect the actual science of religion, Evans-Pritchard's work
provides an almost perfect first step. No one of the readers doubts the content and purpose of his
work.104 reviews
7. Religion as a cultural system (Clifford Geertz)
An American cultural anthropologist named Clifford Geertz, is a leading figure in
anthropology and sociology among American scientists. He was very interested in religion, even
though the field of religion was one of the many cultural analyses that caught his attention. The
themes conveyed in the essays about his views and books, over a period of more than 30 years
have included various studies on aspects of human life, ranging from agriculture which is a
branch of biological science to be able to use life resources, economics, ecology to patterns of
kinship relationships, history, politics, countries that develop from art, aesthetics, literary theory
to philosophy, Science, technology and of course the core discussion in this study is religion.
103 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 339-340.
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106 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 413-416.
To better understand Clifford Geertz's position among religious theorists, it is important to
note his background in anthropology. The most important thing to know is that Clifford Geertz
was not educated in the Durkheimian, Parisian or Evan-Pritchardian, Oxford. Rather, it is at
Harvard University, America. Clifford Geertz's ideas about religion and culture developed under
two influences: First, from the strong and independent tradition of American anthropology.
Second, from the social sciences he got from Harvard which was directly influenced by Talcot
Person who is a famous sociologist and lecturer at Harvard University in the United States.105
reviews
If interpretive anthropology is a way to see the system, meaning and values used by people in
living their lives, then it is quite reasonable if this interpretive anthropology is used as an excuse
to study any culture, including religious issues. Clifford Geertz strongly believed in interpretive
anthropology, and used it as evidence in his first study. The evidence emerged from where he
conducted field research, and is listed in his book entitled The Religion of Java (1960), which is
the best ethnographic book in the American anthropological tradition. Through symbols, ideas
and customs, Clifford Geertz found the influence of religion in every crevice and corner of
Javanese life.
Anthropological researchers of course do not easily find the summary, clarity and essence or
conclusion of Clifford Geertz's essay. At first glance, it does seem difficult to understand, but the
description is not as dark as expected. In this essay, Clifford Geertz actually provides a
continuous explanation of the complexity of his definition (which consists of definitions and
theories), by explaining the elements of the definition in detail.
When it is said that religious symbols create strong feelings and motivations, are easy to
spread and are not easily lost from a person or society, it can be concluded that religion causes a
person to feel or cause something. Motivation that arises certainly has goals, and motivated
people will be guided by a set of values about what is important, what is good and bad, and what
is right and wrong for them. The power of these feelings is not a trivial thing and comes out of
nowhere. But this feeling arises because religion has a very important role, it is religion that
forms the concepts of the order of the whole existence.106 reviews
C. RELIGION AND CONTENT ANALYSIS
It can be defined that religion is a system that plays a role in regulating the belief and worship of a
servant to God Almighty, along with the
105 Daniel L. Pals, Seven Theoris Of Religion.,h. 396-402.
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rules related to culture and worldview that connect humans with the order of life. Religion has a
sacred methodology, symbols, and history that intends to explain the meaning of life and the origin
of life or the universe. According to some estimates, there are 4,200 religions in the world spread all
over the world. Generally, religion organizes behavior, obedience, holy places, and holy books as
well as worship practices that include rituals, sermons, commemoration or worship of God, gods or
goddesses, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, initiations, funeral services, wedding services, meditation,
prayer, music, art, dance, and human culture.107 reviews
There are many methods that can be used to approach religion such as theories, padogogistic
approaches, social, psychological, content analysis and many others. What will be the method for
the process of approaching religious concepts in this scientific study is the content of analysis.
Content analysis is used to conduct a research that is not only limited to descriptive research, but
the research can also be used to test a hypothesis. In some conditions, there is a tendency that
content analysis studies are specifically aimed at testing a hypothesis. However, content analysis can
also be used for studies that are exploratory and descriptive.
Operationally, content analysis has objectives that can be understood as follows: First,
identifying the characteristics of information. Content analysis is often used to describe and identify
the content characteristics of a message or information sourced from discourse or text. Second,
identify the conclusion that is the cause of the information or message. The content of analysis is not
only used to identify conclusions and causes of information. In this case, the important point is not
the description of a certain information or message, but rather how to answer the question of why the
message or information of a content appears in various perspectives. 108 From some explanations
about religion and the content of the analysis above, the categorization of religion and the theory of
discourse analysis will be explained as follows:
1. Categorization of religion
Religion is a universal phenomenon that is always inherent in humans, therefore the study of
religion will always develop and remain an important study along with the development of
science. Research related to religion has been carried out by many experts, both theologians,
psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists. Along with the development of religious studies,
there have been many definitions of religion put forward by religious theorists, but there is no
agreement among them. The diversity of definitions of religion depends on which angle theorists
view religion.
107 Amir Daus, Islamic Religious Education (PTAI & General Textbook) (Riau: PT. Indragiri Dot Com, 2022),p, 36.
108 Almira Keumala Ulfah, VARIETY OF RESEARCH DATA ANALYSIS (Literature, Research and Development)
(Madura: IAIN Madura Press, 2022),p. 20-21.
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Theologians, see religion as a rule that comes from God who acts as an object worshipped by
religious believers, while for psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists, religion is seen as
an expression of human beings in responding to the problems of life they face. Interestingly, they
agree that religion has an important role in human life.109 Quoting the book Living of The Religion
by Abdullah Al-Masdosi, there are three types of religion based on their categorization, as
follows:
a) Religion of revelation and non-revelation
Revealed Rligion or the religion of revelation, commonly known as the religion of heaven
(derived from the same Arabic word meaning sky), is a teaching that calls for faith in Allah
SWT, to His angels, to His messengers, to His book, to the Day of Resurrection, and to His
qadha and qadr. And his teachings were spread by God's messengers to mankind.
Non-Revealed is often referred to as a cultural religion or cultural religion and is
commonly known as the religion of ardhi (derived from the Arabic word ardhun meaning
earth), is a religion that does not come from God and is not His revelation sent to mankind.
Rather, it is a religion that was born because of an anthropological process, which is formed
from customs.110 reviews
b) Missionary and non-missionary religions
Missionary religion is a religion whose teachings require its adherents to spread their
religion to all humans. Religions that belong to missionary religions are essentially only Islam.
However, in subsequent developments, Christianity and Buddhism became missionary
religions.
Non-missionary religions are religions whose teachings do not require their adherents to
spread their religion to all humans. It can be said that it is like a local religion whose existence
is not widely known to the general public.111 reviews
c) Geographical (tribal) and universal (general) religions
Geographical religion is a religion revealed by Allah SWT and is found in certain areas.
Such as Semitic religions, namely religions revealed by Allah in the Semitic region, the
Middle East region and its surroundings which include the Caldanese, Arom, Arabs,
Palestinians, Egyptians and Israel. There are three religions that fall into this category, namely
Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Meanwhile, universal religion is a religion that is universally
revealed. The only religion that falls into the category of universal religion is Islam.112 reviews
109 Shonhaji, "Religion as a Social Glue in a Multicultural Society‟, Al-Adyan, 7.2 (2012).
110 Rusdianto, Islamic Religious Education for Higher Education (Yogyakarta: DIVA Press, 2020), p. 45.
111 Rusdianto, Islamic Religious Education for Higher Education., p. 45-46.
112 Rusdianto, Islamic Religious Education for Higher Education.,p. 46.
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d) Theories of religious origins
Based on theory, the origin of religion has many theories that have been put forward by
experts and scholars. Among these theories are the theory of the soul, the theory of the limits
of reason, the theory of extraordinary powers, the theory of God's revelation and so on. But of
the many theories that have been put forward by experts, there is the most common theory in
recognizing the origin of religion, namely sociological theory. From a sociological
perspective, the origins of religion are reviewed from five theories, including the following:
1) Theory of the soul
Scientists who believe that the origin of religion comes from this theory argue that the
religion that first appeared and lived together with humans was the first religion to live in
this world. They realize that in this world there are not only living beings or material
beings, but there are immaterial beings called souls (anima).
2) Theory of the limits of reason
This theory argues that the origin of the form of religion in human life is because
humans experience obstacles and symptoms that cannot be explained and explained by
their intellect. All of this happens because humans realize that in essence, the intellect and
knowledge system, even though it has a very wide range, still have limitations.
3) Crisis theory in individual life
This theory argues that religious behavior exists in humans because they face times of
crisis. So people need something that strengthens and strengthens their hearts and
themselves, by performing several sacred ceremonies that are the foundation of religiosity.
4) Theory of extraordinary power
This theory argues that the origin of religion is due to human religious attitudes that
occur due to an extraordinary event experienced by humans themselves in the surrounding
natural environment. So that there is a desire to know the essence of something
extraordinary, and after proving it, humans have the desire to adhere to a religion.
5) Theory of societal sentiment
This theory argues that the beginning of the emergence of religion is due to the
existence of a vibration or emotion that arises from within the human soul as a result of the
influence of unity in society.113 reviews
113 Dian Cita Sari, Sociology of Religion (Medan: Yayan Kita Menulis, 2020), pp. 1-16.
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2. Discourse analysis theory
The term discourse is widely used by various fields of science such as linguistics, psychology,
sociology, political science, communication science, literature and so on. But specifically, the
definition, meaning and limitations of the term discourse are very diverse. Because it is caused by
differences in the scope and disciplines that use the term discourse. There are many scientists
who provide definitions of discourse, including the following: according to Cook, discourse is the
use of language in communication, both verbally and in writing. Halliday and Hasan define
discourse as a sematic unity (a branch of linguistics that investigates the meaning of language),
and not a grammatical unity (meaning that arises due to grammar).114 reviews
From the explanation above, there are several explanations and explanations about the
elements that are part of the discourse analysis as follows:
a) Definition of discourse analysis
The origin of the word discourse comes from the Sanskrit language, namely wac/wak/vac
which means to say or say. The term is an active form or a verb form. The term discourse is
also a translation from English, namely discourse which means, running here and there. In
Webster's dictionary, the term is expanded to the communication of words, the expression of
ideas, and written letters in the form of lectures, speeches, and so on.
Discourse is one of the studies in the study of linguistics and is determined in a separate
study, namely discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is one of the scientific disciplines in
linguistics that studies specifically discourse. Discourse analysis studies can be carried out
internally or externally. Tarigan 2009 said that discourse is the most complete and highest unit
of language above sentences or clauses with coherence and cohesion.
Thus, it can be stated that discourse analysis is one of the disciplines that examines the
units of spoken and written language that have a relationship and continuity between parts
(cohesion), coherent, and meaningful (meaningful) and then used to communicate in a social
context. Based on this understanding, the condition for the formation of a discourse is the use
of language which can be in the form of a series of sentences or a series of speech.115 reviews
According to Paltridge 2012, discourse analysis is a study that focuses on knowledge of
words, clauses, phrases, and sentences needed for communication to run effectively. Van Dick
1993, on the other hand, defines that the analysis of
114 Aris Badara, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (Theory, Methods, and Application to Media Discourse) (Jakarta: PT. Fajar
Interpratama Mandiri, 2012),p. 16-17.
115 Eti Setiawati, Discourse Analysis (Concept, Theory, and Application) (Malang: UB Press, 2019), pp. 3-5.
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Discourse is a method that looks at how the structures in the text have the power to discourse a
representation or ideology behind the text.116 reviews
It is undeniable that discourse analysis will always be related to social conditions, so in this
case an interesting term emerges, namely social discourse which is studied by
J.R Martin. In this study, he tries to make discourse analysis not only limited to the study of
words in clauses. But he seeks that a meaning can appear beyond the clause, even beyond the
clause.117 reviews
b) Discourse analysis approach
In the development of discourse analysis, there are several types of discourse approaches
and gain reinforcement from scientific disciplines, such as linguistics, anthropology and social
psychology. Each of these disciplines has different analytical weights and perspectives,
including the following:
1) Intrasessional sociolinguistics (interactional linguistics).
This approach emphasizes the influence of social aspects, including culture, satisfaction
and context, both implicit and explicit in a text. It also discusses linguistic phenomena
between different groups, such as ethnicity, religion, economic status, gender, and
education level as well as how the formation process of language used as the identity of
social classes, including the formation of dialect and slang (slank) symptoms.
2) Ethnography of communication.
This approach is a branch of ethnography that refers to the qualitative description
approach and also the phenomenon of human relationships. And also based on the scope of
work or fieldwork.
3) Speech act theory.
This approach looks at a simple theory, namely by formulating the pronunciation of
something, then something is done.
4) Conversation analysis.
This approach is also known as spoken discourse analysis. The originators are Emanuel
A Schegloff and Gail Jefferson. This approach has two elements as follows: First, the new
conversation does not depend on social elements and the setting that is the background of
the conversation. Second, pay close attention to the social setting behind the occurrence of
a discourse.
5) Discursive psychology
116 Daniel Susilo, VAN DIJK'S CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: A MODEL AND CRITICAL REVIEW ON
ONLINE MEDIA (Surabaya: Unitomo Press, 2021), p. 56.
117 Muhammad Yunus Anis, An Analysis of Arabic Discourse An Approach to Linguistics and Translation
(Yogyakarta: CV BUDI UTAMA, 2020),p. 63.
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This approach was developed by Jonathan Potter and Dere Edward at Loughborough
University. This approach emphasizes more on the ways and methods in which humans
prepare mentally, socially, and materially when expressing linguistic phenomena. So,
discursive psychology is influenced by social and cognitive psychology, such as the role of
memory, attribution, attitude and also intention.
6) Analisis wacana kritis (critical discourse analysis).
This approach is an interdisciplinary approach to text, because it views text as a form of
social phenomenon.118 reviews
c) Characteristics of discourse analysis
After discussing the definition of discourse analysis and its approach, there is a grouping of
characteristics in discourse analysis, as follows:
1) Action
The first important character in critical discourse analysis, namely discourse is
understood as an action. With this understanding, discourse is socialized as a form of
interaction. Discourse is not positioned as in a closed space and can only apply internally.
When a person speaks, then he uses language for the purpose of interacting with others
through verbal language communication. When speaking, a person may aim to ask or
provide information, prohibit someone from doing something, influence others to follow
their way of thinking, persuade someone to agree and carry out what they want, and so on.
In the characteristics of action, discourse analysis argues that discourse has several
consequences. The first consequence is that discourse will be seen as something that has
the following goals, whether to influence others, argue, persuade, refute, react, prohibit,
and so on. The second consequence is that discourse will be seen as something that is
expressed consciously, controlled, not something that is out of control or expressed outside
of consciousness.119 reviews
2) Context
In the analysis of the discourse of context interpretation, the intertextual context has a
relationship and relationship with the determination of a series of different texts. Therefore,
it can also be determined what is obtained as the general basis of the participant or
preposition. In general, the context is divided into two. First, gender, age, education, social
class, ethnicity, religion, in many ways relevant in describing
118 Munawar Ahmad, Ijtihad Politik Gus Dur (Yogyakarta: LKIS Yogyakarta, 2010), pp. 51-53.
119 Eti Setiawati, Discourse Analysis (Concept, Theory, and Application) (Malang: UB Press, 2019), p. 80.
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discourse. Second, certain social settings, such as place, time, position of speakers and
listeners or physical environment that are useful for understanding a discourse.120 reviews
3) Historical
The meaning of historical character is a discourse that is produced or created in the
dimension of time and social settings that have passed. Critical discourse analysis doesn't
just find out when something happened, it uses it to find out more about why the discourse
was constructed. This historical aspect is one of the guides to answer this question.
Eriyanto (2001) said that one of the important aspects to be able to understand a text is to
place the discourse in a certain historical context.121 reviews
4) Authority
Any discourse that appears in the form of text, conversation or anything else, is not seen
as natural, natural, and neutral. However, it is a form of power struggle. The concept of
power is one of the keys to the relationship between discourse and society, such as the
power of whites over blacks, or corporate power in the form of the domination of upper-
class entrepreneurs over subordinates, and so on. In this case, the speaker of the language is
not only a speaker, writer, listener, or reader, but he is also part of a member of a certain
social category, part of a certain professional, religious, community or society.122 reviews
5) Ideology
Discourse analysis analyzes the ideology hidden in the use of language in oral and
written texts. Ideology is a central study in the analysis of critical discourse. This is
according to Eriyanto (2001) because texts, conversations, and others are forms of
ideological practices or reflections of certain ideologies. Discourse in this approach is seen
as a medium discourse by dominant groups to influence and communicate to the audience
the power and dominance they have, so that the power and dominance appear legitimate
and correct.123 reviews
