INTRODUCTION The global population

The global population has increased to over 7 billion individuals, and more than

half (54%) live in urban settings (While and Whitehead 2013; Nations 2014). The urban

environment is where the majority of commercial, cultural, and political activities occur;

and these areas may be disproportionally impacted by climate change (Hamin and Gurran

2009; Corburn 2009; Revi, A., D.E. Satterthwaite, F. Aragón-Durand, J. Corfee-Morlot,

R.B.R. Kiunsi, M. Pelling, D.C. Roberts 2014). As urban populations continue to grow,

more individuals will be susceptible to projected impacts such as decreased water

availability, increased temperatures, and increased exposure to extreme weather events

(Mills 2007; Janković and Hebbert 2012a; Revi, A., D.E. Satterthwaite, F. AragónDurand,

J. Corfee-Morlot, R.B.R. Kiunsi, M. Pelling, D.C. Roberts 2014). Therefore, it is

important to consider how individuals in urban settings can best adapt to and mitigate the

risks of a changing climate.

Several major cities and some small municipalities across the U.S. and abroad

have been considered in case studies of the impact of climate on urban areas, particularly

with regards to the role of landscape architecture in mitigating and adapting to climate

change. These include London and its many surrounding boroughs and counties, Seattle,

WA; New York, NY, Keene, NH, and Göteberg, Sweden (Dierwechter and Wessells

2013; Hampshire 2004a; Eliasson and Upmanis 2000; Eliasson 1996; Eliasson and

Svensson 2003; Eliasson 2000a; Oke et al. 1991a; Hodson et al. 2013; Williams 2000a).

In the Southeast U.S., the city of Atlanta has been studied extensively, primarily with

regards to the urban heat island and its measurement using remotely-sensed data and

geographic information systems (Debbage and Shepherd 2015).

The first known research paper on the climatic influences of cities was The

Climate of London by Luke Howard (1833). His work showed that there was a notable

difference in temperature between cities and the outlying rural area, resulting in what has

become known as the urban heat island effect (UHI) (Howard 1833). Howard’s research

was later adopted in Sweden, where Ingegärd Eliasson examined variations in wind

patterns and solar radiation in urban areas (Eliasson 1996; Eliasson and Upmanis 2000;

Eliasson and Svensson 2003; Eliasson 2000b). Her work provided empirical evidence that

the urban form (i.e. physical structures and materials) does alter the surface energy budget

and the resulting local-scale circulation. Recent research in London by Katie Williams has

focused on how quality of life in neighborhoods is affected changes in urban density. Her

work identifies issues such as ‘town cramming’, a loss of neighborhood character, and

aversion to new residents by more established segments of the population (Williams

2000b).

In the U.S., the city of Keene, NH (population of 23,409 according to the 2010

U.S. Census) has taken steps toward mitigating for climate, beginning in the early 2000’s.

Specifically, the mayor and the city council put forth a local action plan, the Cities for

Climate Protection Campaign, outlining how Keene could decrease its carbon emissions

and limit its impact through use of cleaner, cost-effective energies. The plan references

the results of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the likely

impacts by climate change on the state of New Hampshire, most notably to the skiing and

fishing industries (Hampshire 2004b). The plan also includes recommendations for

individuals on how to reduce their carbon footprint, and even offers tax incentives for

businesses that choose to adopt carbon-reduction strategies. While the size of Keene may

make it easier to implement climate change mitigation strategies, larger cities and

municipalities, such as Seattle, have begun to follow suit and take direct measures to

reduce carbon emissions (Hampshire 2004b; Dierwechter and Wessells 2013).

While the plan developed for Keene focused almost exclusively on a reduction in

energy usage, larger cities may be able to adopt strategies to address both energy

efficiency and the UHI. One strategy is sustainable urban design, which comes out of

John Lyle’s Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development (1994). The idea is to

reconnect human development with the surrounding environment by taking into account

the ways of using, reusing, and replenishing the natural resources of the environment to

maintain or improve quality of life (Lyle 1996). Sustainable urban design can be

implemented at the level of individual buildings and structures as well as at the level of

urban planning and the design of communities and cities. It also addresses the growing

need to build resiliency to climate change in urban areas, as highlighted in both the latest

IPCC and U.S. National Climate Assessment reports. Such an effort will require greater

collaboration between atmospheric scientists, landscape architects, and urban planners.

While work has been done to examine the impact of urban form on climate at the

city level (Debbage and Shepherd 2015), relatively little attention has been paid to the

relationship between urban form and climate at the scale of the individual, or “urbanite”.

This level of analysis is important, as differences in urban form often exist within specific

neighborhoods, which can lead to variations in the urban microclimate resulting from

vegetation patterns, street orientation, and building materials (Kuras et al. 2015). In this

study, temperature and humidity were measured across the city of Jackson, Mississippi

using hand-held instruments on two clear days in the late summer and autumn of 2015. The

locations in Jackson chosen for this study represent different forms of urban design, and

therefore provide a framework for examining the relationship between urban form and the

local climate.

Jackson is the largest city in Mississippi with a population of 539,057 according

to the 2010 U.S. Census, ranking it 140th out of 357 metropolitan statistical areas in the

U.S. Over the past decade, Jackson has seen an increase in population of approximately

8% (US Census Bureau 2010). The city has diverse fabric of urban architecture, ranging

from traditional neoclassical architecture to Art Deco, as well as 1950’s suburbia to

modern subdivisions and retail centers. The architecture and urban form is important as

they are an expression of how people live, and how they interact with and effect their

local environment. Therefore, this thesis seeks to apply concepts and techniques from

urban climatology and landscape architecture to answer the following research questions:

(1) is there any thermal variation throughout the different areas of Jackson, Mississippi?

(2) Could any variation in the weather and climate around Jackson, Mississippi be

attributed to the built environments of these different areas?

A better understanding of how the urban environment is affecting the local climate

over small distances, such as those of a neighborhood, would be beneficial to forecasters

and the general public. Ultimately, the goal of this research is to improve our

understanding of the UHI effect and how sustainable urban design can increase climate

resiliency in mid-sized cities and semi-urban settings which are prevalent across the

American South.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

An examination of the relationship between climate and urban landscapes must be

informed by several bodies of literature. Global changes in climate driven primarily by

anthropogenic carbon emissions have received the most attention and have been

summarized, along with their likely impacts, in a series of assessment reports conducted

by the IPCC (Barker 2007; IPCC 2013). These reports (and ones published by the

National Climate Assessment in 2014) also provide recommendations for adaptation and

mitigation strategies and the impacts of climate change may be particularly notable in

urban areas, where roughly 80% of the U.S. population currently resides (Revi, A., et al.

2014). The urban landscape and infrastructure also contribute to local changes in climate

that may exacerbate the regional-scale changes discussed above. For example, cities tend

to be warmer than the surrounding rural areas, particularly at night due to building

materials and changes in albedo (Jackson et al. 2010). Urban climatology is the branch of

climatology that examines and describes the effects of urban areas on the climate, and

vice versa. Urban climatology has become a popular research theme in places like Europe

and Asia where rates of urbanization and population growth have been increasing

significantly. In fact, many cities in China were burgeoning metropolitan areas even

before Europeans discovered North America (Veeck et al. 2011). European scientists have

long documented the effect that urban areas have on the local and regional climate (Mills

2007, 2008; Howard 1833). This effort has been led in large part by British climatologist

Timothy Richard Oke. His work in urban climatology has been widely published over the

past 30 years and has become the foundation for this growing field of study. Many of

Oke’s studies have involved theoretical and applied concepts related to increased

nocturnal temperatures in urban areas compared to surrounding rural areas (Oke 1981).

More recently, Scandinavian scientists have built upon Oke’s seminal work in

urban climatology, including study of the patterns of wind flow through cities,

temperature differences between old new construction, and quantifying street shading

through fisheye lens photography of the sky from the street (Figure A.1). Such studies

have incorporated both in situ and mobile measurement techniques, and have taken

advantage of unique photographic equipment to better understand how thermal energy is

distributed, retained, and released across several urban areas across Sweden (Eliasson and

Upmanis 2000; Eliasson and Svensson 2003; Eliasson 2000a, 1996).

In the U.S., much of the work in urban climatology has involved the observation

and evolution of the urban heat island (UHI) and its effects on the local and regional

climate (Figure A.2). Other studies have also looked at its effect on human health and

other socioeconomic patterns. The UHI is a simple way to determine the influence of the

built environment on the climate of a location by looking at temperature differences

between the urban location and nearby rural areas. Formally, the American

Meteorological Society offers the following definition:

“The physiographic analogy derives from the similarity between the pattern of

isotherms and height contours of an island on a topographic map. Heat islands commonly

also possess "cliffs" at the urban–rural fringe and a "peak" in the most built-up core of the

city. The annual mean temperature of a large city (say 106 inhabitants) may be 1°–2°C

warmer than before development, and on individual calm, clear nights may be up to 12°C

warmer. The warmth extends vertically to form an urban heat dome in near calm, and an

urban heat plume in more windy conditions (American Meteorological Society 2016)”.

The UHI is most pronounced on cold, calm nights (Oke et al. 1991b; Corburn

2009; Arnfield 2003; Eliasson 1996, 2000b; Eliasson and Upmanis 2000; Hamin and

Gurran 2009; Gallo and Owen 1999; Janković and Hebbert 2012b; Oke 1981). Studies on

the UHI in the U.S. have been conducted in large cities such as New York City, Seattle,

and Atlanta, among others (Debbage and Shepherd 2015; Kuras et al. 2015; Dierwechter

and Wessells 2013; Corburn 2009). Far fewer investigations of the UHI have been

performed for mid-sized cities. Mid-sized cities are defined by an urban core of at least

10,000 people (according to the 2010 U.S. Census) with at least 50,000 people in the

broader metropolitan statistical area (U.S. Census, 2010; Debbage and Shepherd 2015).

Determining the intensity and spatial extent of the UHI in mid-sized cities would

allow these municipalities to better understand how a changing climate may impact their

city and what adaptation and mitigation strategies could be adopted to reduce their UHI.

Additionally, an improved understanding of small-scale temperature variation across

these cities (i.e. at the scale of individual city blocks or neighborhoods) could help in

reducing the UHI through adoption of sustainable urban design choices and planning

practices (Kuras et al. 2015; Debbage and Shepherd 2015).

There are a variety of ways for sustainable urban design to be utilized within a

city. One way is in the choice of surface material. In much of the Southeast U.S., a

common paving surface for roads is asphalt, which absorbs energy effectively and

contributes to increased runoff of stormwater. The albedo of a surface is a measurement

of the amount of energy reflected from the surface and is based on the material type,

color, and other physical or biological properties (Lechner 2009; Debbage and Shepherd

2015). Albedo is one aspect of the urban form that plays an important role locally in the

surface energy budget (Figure A.3). Specifically, the albedo of the surface affects the

distribution of radiation that is absorbed and reflected by the surface, and therefore affects

local temperature patterns within the city and between the city and surrounding rural

areas (Mills 2013; Arnfield 2003). Generally speaking, darker surfaces such as asphalt

have a lower albedo than lighter surfaces, and therefore absorb more incoming shortwave

radiation, resulting in higher surface temperatures (Table A.1). In addition, most urban

materials have a lower albedo than natural (e.g. vegetated) landscapes.

Materials such as asphalt are characterized as impervious. In the context of

sustainable urban design, the use of pervious materials for things such as roads and

sidewalks could help reduce heat retention within the city (i.e. increase the albedo) and

allow for stormwater to infiltrate into the ground, reducing runoff and flooding potential

(Kuang et al. 2015; Drake et al. 2014). This type of surface can also help maintain the

quality of stormwater by naturally filtering pollutants and sediment, thereby reducing the

demand on water treatment plants. The infiltration of stormwater may also increase

groundwater levels, improve streamflow, and help recharge aquifers. Several types of

pervious surfaces have been employed in urban areas, including cobblestone, brick,

gravel, and even new forms of concrete (such as modular concrete blocks, porous asphalt,

and porous concrete) that allow for water to flow through them and infiltrate into the soil

and groundwater underneath.

The underlying soil type does play a role in determining the types of paving

surfaces that may be used. Around the Jackson Metro, several types of soil exist,

including sand, clay, and a clay/shale mix. Sandy soils composed of large granules allow

for water to infiltrate readily through the large pore spaces, resulting in efficient

recharging of groundwater and aquifers. Clay soils have a much finer granular

composition, allowing the soil to more effectively retain water, leading to much slower

rates of infiltration. These characteristics lead to a greater potential for flooding should

rainfall rates exceed the rate of infiltration in the soil. Clay/shale soils are a blend of the

two types, leading to lower risks for flooding than pure clay soil. Each of these soil types

poses limitations to the kinds of paving techniques and materials that can be used, such as

the expansion and contraction of soil as water is retained and drained (USGS 2016).

Recent research and technological advancements have provided new methods and

opportunities for adopting sustainable practices in urban surface design and

implementation. Scholz and Grabowiecki (2007) reviewed research done in porous

pavement and pervious pavement systems and found evidence of reductions in

stormwater runoff, improved groundwater infiltration rates, and improved filtration of

pollutants. Additionally, these surfaces have been shown to be highly durable and capable

of handling the traffic loads approved for traditional asphalt (Brattebo and Booth 2003).

The different types of porous pavement include porous asphalt (macadam pavement),

porous concrete (the omission of fine aggregates), modular interlocking concrete blocks,

and polymer-modified porous concrete. While pore clogging can occur over time, it is

largely preventable with proper maintenance. In general, permeable pavement systems

have performed better than porous surfaces without proper maintenance in terms of pore

clogging (Scholz and Grabowiecki 2007).

Among permeable pavement systems, there are several commercial types:

Grasspave2s is a flexible plastic grid system with virtually no impervious area, filled with

sand and planted with grass. Gravelpave2s is an equivalent plastic grid, filled with gravel.

Turfstones is a concrete block lattice with about 60% impervious coverage, filled with

soil and planted with grass. Finally, UNI Eco-Stones are small concrete blocks with about

90% impervious coverage, with the spaces between blocks filled with gravel. Each of

these were studied by Brattebo and Booth with results that were encouraging in

comparing each of these systems to traditional asphalt. These surfaces were able to

withstand the loads expected for traditional asphalt, yet they also were better at reducing

stormwater runoff, improving groundwater infiltration rates, and better at the filtration of

pollutants from stormwater (Brattebo and Booth 2003).

Another area of research in sustainable pavements is being conducted by a

company called Solar Roadways. Solar Roadways are solar panels with a tempered glass

on top, allowing for the roadway to generate electricity as well as heat the surface in the

winter (Figure A.4). Additionally, the system has built in filtration and storage capacity

for stormwater, and LED screens can light up to give information and signals to vehicles

and individuals on the roadway (Transportation 2014). The U.S. Department of

Transportation has encouraged research to be performed with this company to determine

the feasibility for U.S. roadways. These forms of paving could be utilized in various ways

around the city, increasing the diversity of the city’s appearance and improve the

aforementioned issues related to temperature and water resources as well as energy use

(Tanguay et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2009; Lyle 1996)

Improving the physical structure of the paved surface is a useful form of

sustainable urban design; however this process could be time-consuming and expensive,

particularly if improving paved surfaces requires full replacement of existing surfaces.

Another option in sustainable urban design is street shading. Exposure to solar radiation

and extreme temperatures can become a health issue, especially during the summer

months and in places like cities where the UHI effect increases heat vulnerability locally.

Without options for shading, particularly on sidewalks, roads, open spaces, and buildings

within the city, the temperature experienced by individuals could be even higher than the

measurements recorded at official weather stations. Buildings will consume more energy

to maintain thermal comfort within the building without shading options (Lyle 1996).

Street shading can be accomplished through several different means. Awnings and

overhangs from the buildings along the sidewalks can be especially useful in certain areas

of the city where there is not enough room to plant trees. In many areas of Jackson, there

are wide streets and roads that have a median between the opposing lanes of traffic,

which could be filled with vegetation. While there could be issues with traffic flow by

inappropriately sited vegetation, the option for planting deciduous trees to increase

shading would be another viable option for reducing the temperature for pedestrians and

cutting building energy usage during the warmer months by shading the building from

excessive heating (Golany 1996; Lyle 1996).

There are many benefits of utilizing deciduous trees to shade buildings in urban

areas, including a reduction in energy consumption to maintain the interior temperatures

of the buildings, as well as the ability to cool the air through evapotranspiration.

Additionally, as deciduous trees lose their foliage in winter, the resulting reduction in

shading would allow buildings to warm more naturally during the colder months and take

advantage of the lower sun angle (Golany 1996; Lyle 1996; Lechner 2009). The increased

vegetation would also help clean the air and reduce pollutants in the city, as well as

remove carbon dioxide and add oxygen to improve air quality within the city (Golany

1996). Increased tree coverage can also improve air flow and increase ventilation (Golany

1996). The evapotranspiration of the vegetation cools the air directly around the building.

This has a two-fold effect, by shading the building to reduce energy consumption and

cooling the atmosphere around the building. Ultimately, street shading could be a

relatively cost-effective method to begin the process of improving the urban landscape in

the Jackson Metro.

Another way to increase vegetation in the city is through green roofs. The lower

albedo of the city results in greater absorption of solar radiation during the day and slower

emittance (cooling) at night (Oke et al. 1991b). Green roofs afford property owners the

ability to add a thin layer of soil onto the roof to grow vegetation. Not only does this

increase the albedo of the urban surface, this vegetation has other benefits, similar to the

benefits that are offered by deciduous trees (i.e. improving air quality, increased oxygen

to atmosphere, and reducing energy consumption for buildings). Additionally, a green

roof can reduce stormwater runoff, filter the water, and improve water supply in urban

areas by collecting and storing rainwater for various uses (Lyle

1996; Shaviv 2008; Ong 2003; Merem et al. 2011; Tanguay et al. 2010).

The urban density, or number of people per unit area, has been shown to

contribute to the UHI, as it is closely related to the amount of surface area which is

developed for human habitation, recreation, and industry. Increasing the urban density in

Jackson could improve the traffic flow of the city, inflate property values through higher

demand, as well as improve the city’s transportation infrastructure and provide feasible

options for enhancing the human fitness of the city via increased forms of human

movement (Williams 2000; While and Whitehead 2013; Revi, A. et al. 2014). Traffic flow

might be improved with greater density as people are located closer to the good and

services they need. Higher urban densities also encourage the creation of public

transportation infrastructure since there is less area to be included in the system resulting

in shorter distances to be covered. However, without proper guidelines and use of public

transportation, traffic flow could become more congested (Williams 2000a). Overall

population health could be improved as human-powered modes of transportation become

feasible due to shorter commutes to work, entertainment, and commercial districts (Xu

and Wang 2015). Finally, if the urban density increases, the property values will rise as

more revenue may be obtained from those locations with a higher demand for residency

in the area and more tenants in one building. Whether land is zoned for residential,

commercial, or industrial use, an increase in nearby human populations may result in

more desirable living areas and lead to a rise in property values. A current trend in urban

planning is multi-use zoning. This helps integrate and diversify land use in urban areas by

allowing a building to be used in multiple ways. A building in a multi-use zone could be

used as a commercial or retail space at the ground floor with apartments in the spaces

above. As such, multi-use zoning integrates the different types of urban land-use and

reduces commuting distance for goods and services people need.

A final form of sustainable urban design and energy usage is the heating,

ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for buildings in urban areas. Like most

other places, Mississippi has greatly benefited from the use of air conditioning; however,

the architectural designs of houses and buildings before this luxury have largely been

forgotten in many parts of Jackson. Dogtrot houses (Figure A.5) and vaulted ceilings were

common designs in the Deep South aimed to reduce the impact of excessive heat and

humidity on the daily routines of people’s lives (Sherman-Morris et al. 2012; Lechner

2009). A return to these non-mechanical forms of HVAC would greatly reduce energy

consumption, maintain adequate levels of human comfort, and reduce urban air

temperature in the summer (Lyle 1996; Shaviv 2008; Oke 1984). While these

architectural designs may not be trendy, or even feasible for some parts of the country, a

commitment to building design with the local climate in mind is essential to improving

energy efficiency and reducing energy costs. Each of the aforementioned sustainable

urban design aspects is summarized in Table A.2.

Ultimately, urban climatology and urban planning depend on one another to help

develop resilient and sustainable cities for the future. Research has begun to be pursued at

the intersection of the two disciplines through one of two means. First, there is the

remotely-sensed method of determining low-level atmospheric variables as well as land

use practices. The second approach involves the collection of in situ data. There are

several examples of research performed around Atlanta, GA that utilize remotely sensed

methods including the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and the

Parameterelevation Regression on an Independent Slopes Model (PRISM) (Debbage and

Shepherd 2015; Stone Jr. and Rodgers 2001). Brian Stone and colleagues studied the

density of the urban form on land parcels throughout Atlanta, and found that higher

densities of buildings do in fact have lower thermal efficiency of reflecting radiation.

Thus, urban areas develop higher surface temperatures than low density areas (Stone Jr.

and Rodgers 2001).

Debbage and Shepherd (2015) also examined the density of urban areas and its

effect on the magnitude of the UHI. They focused on cities in the U.S. with the 50 largest

metropolitan statistical areas and used high-resolution land cover and meteorological data

to relate urban density to the UHI. Their study found that cities having areas of the same

land use type, specifically high-density urban development, clustered together (i.e. greater

urban contiguity) would increase the magnitude of the UHI. This work suggests that by

intermingling residential, commercial, industrial, and green space across the metropolitan

area, and thereby reducing the spatial contiguity of high-density urban development, the

UHI can be reduced. In particular, the addition of green space provides a cooling

influence via evapotranspiration that can offset some of the additional heat absorption by

urban materials.

Another recent approach involves personal monitoring and the measurement of

individually-experienced temperatures (Kuras et al. 2015). This approach involves

equipping individuals with hand-held or personal monitoring devices and recording the

atmospheric variables in their immediate environment as they go about their daily routine,

moving through various landscapes and microclimates on short time and space scales.

This approach was used by Kuras and Hondula to identify differences in individually-

experienced temperatures and how they compared to official weather observations during

a heat wave in Boston, MA. One of the main advantages of this approach is that it allows

for meteorological observations to be taken at locations where deployment of standard

meteorological equipment are not possible or practical. The spatial and temporal

resolution of these personal or individual-level observations also allows for examination

of more local-scale effects on the urban climate, such as street shading, changes in surface

type, building geometry, “waste heat” sources, and cloud cover. Therefore, the personal

monitoring approach was used in this thesis project to examine small-scale variations in

the urban climatology of Jackson. Specifically, this research seeks to determine how

meteorological variations across the Jackson Metro area are related to the character of the

built environment and local architecture. In this sense, it is hypothesized that fine-scaled

variations in the local climate do in fact coincide with different forms of urban design.

These results are further examined in the context of sustainable, regenerative, and carbon

neutral designs and how such approaches could help mitigate the effects of climate

change in urban areas such as Jackson. In particular, it is hypothesized that the differences

in climate across the urban landscape could be mitigated through certain types of

sustainable urban design.

CHAPTER III

DATA AND METHODS

This section describes the locations in Jackson selected for analysis, including

their land cover characteristics, and the instrumentation and procedures used to assess the

temperatures and moisture variability at each location.

3.1 Site Selection

Six locations were selected to represent spatial variations in climate and urban

design across the Jackson Metro: Fondren, Lakeland Drive, Renaissance at Colony Park,

State Capitol Building, Governor’s Mansion, and Clinton Nature Center (Figure B.1).

Fondren is one of the most established neighborhoods in the Jackson area, approximately

three miles north of downtown. The area has been undergoing much revitalization in

recent years and includes a mix of old and new development with much green space.

Meteorological data for Fondren were collected in the asphalt parking lot of a small

shopping center at the intersection of Lakeland Drive and Old Canton Road (Figure B.2).

The site is also near a large asphalt parking lot adjacent to the Mississippi Veterans

Memorial Stadium and the University of Mississippi Medical Center complex (Figure

B.3). The developed land uses make up over 98 percent of the land use around Fondren

according to the USGS National Land Cover Database (2011) (Figure B.4). While there

are a few areas that are considered forested, the rest of the area is developed, with nearly

70 percent of the land being used as developed space with some sort of use intensity

(over one-third medium to high intensity).

Lakeland Drive is the location of an outdoor mall that straddles Highway 25

(locally Lakeland Drive) in Flowood, called the Dogwood Shopping Center. There are

four sections to this mall, with each section having its own anchor box store, asphalt

parking lot, and chain restaurants along the periphery. The NLCD denotes nearly 60

percent of the area as comprised of developed space, with another 20 percent composed

of forested areas. The other 20 percent is a variety of vegetation, farmland, and water land

uses (Figure B.7). Meteorological data for Lakeland Drive were collected in the oldest

parking lot of the Dogwood Shopping Center (Figure B.5). The asphalt parking lot is

fully exposed to direct sunlight, though a few small shaded berms are found along each

row of parking spaces (Figure B.6). There is some green space between the main parking

lot and Lakeland Drive (MS Highway 25), as well as two small detention ponds. Three

other sections to the shopping center have equally sized asphalt parking lots and are

located to the south and west (i.e. upwind) of the Lakeland Drive site.

The Renaissance at Colony Park, located in the town of Ridgeland, is a relatively

new outdoor mall setting, completed in 2008 with its own set of codes and ordinances

established through a partnership with the town and developed to help attract business

(Figure B.8). There is an intended European, particularly Italian influence, with brick and

cobblestone used through the main thoroughfares and a boulevard of trees and parking

spaces with larger parking lots along the periphery. There are wide sidewalks with

abundant tree shading, especially near the center of the mall. The combination of light

colored building and paved materials, ample street shading, green space, and ponds

provide a cooling effect across much of the property. In terms of land use, there is a

marked increase in vegetation and cultivation around the mall (compared with other

sites), making up over a fifth of the land use (Figure B.10). Additionally, only 5 percent is

considered developed, high intensity land use, while the rest of the area is either low

intensity (~25 percent), or open space (>30 percent). Meteorological data at the

Renaissance were collected near the center of the mall with varying shade and direct

sunlight depending on time of day (Figure B.9). The mall is flanked by two small asphalt

parking lots with several shaded grass berms and is within several hundred feet of two

landscaped retention ponds to the south as well as large office and hotel buildings to the

north.

The first of two downtown locations is the Mississippi State Capitol Building

(Figure B.11). The Capitol Building has an asphalt parking lot on the north side of the

property with heavily landscaped grounds on the south side. The large trees and an

expansive grassy, irrigated surface on the south side of the building provide a cool,

tranquil respite from the rest of the downtown area (Figure B.12). The south side of the

property is where the meteorological data were collected. Around the Capitol Building,

10 land use types are found, though the majority (over 60 percent) consist of medium to

high intensity developed space (Figure B.13). Only about nine percent is comprised of

developed open space, part of which is likely is the grounds of the Capitol Building with

much grass and a large tree canopy. The rest of the city is surrounding it, resulting in over

60 percent of the land being developed at a medium to high intensity.

The second location in downtown Jackson is the Governor’s Mansion, just two

blocks south of the Capitol Building (Figure B.14). When compared to the Capitol

Building, there is less shading and green space around the Governor’s Mansion, though a

mixed-surface with much shading sits across the street on the northern end of the

property. Meteorological data at the Governor’s Mansion were collected at the southwest

corner of the block that the mansion sits on (Figure B.15). There is a moderate amount of

street shading from the trees and tall buildings, but the area has recently been redesigned

with roundabouts; thus opening the street view and reducing the street shading. The

roadway is paved with black asphalt and the sidewalks are white concrete. The

roundabouts do improve traffic flow, but there is an increase in solar radiation as there is

less shading at the intersection. The Governor’s Mansion consists of 11 land use types

from the NLCD and over 90 percent of that being developed space (Figure B.16). Over a

quarter of the land use is considered high intensity developed space, while 35 percent is

medium intensity land use. There are also some small percentages of undeveloped forest,

farmland, wetlands, and water within the 1-mile radius.

Approximately 10 miles west is the city of Clinton. This Jackson suburb has

created a green space along a portion of the Natchez Trace Parkway and National Park

that is a community nature center (Figure B.17). The nature center is a large greenway

with many trees, wooden structures, and walking trails through the greenway. The center

is almost entirely unpaved, aside from the dark gravel paths throughout the nature center

and the same colored parking lot (Figure B.18). Generally speaking, the parking lot is the

least shaded part of the nature center and the most urbanized as cars are parked there to

access the nature center. The Clinton Community Nature Center has 12 NLCD land use

types. Despite being a nature center, much of the area around it is developed, albeit

mainly open space or low intensity (Figure B.19). Only about 5 percent of the radius is

forested, with nearly 40 percent of the space being developed open space. Developed

spaces with some sort of use intensity account for just over 50 percent of the radius.

Meteorological data were collected at this site from the parking lot of the nature center.

3.2 Data Collection

Meteorological observations were made at each location using a WeatherHawk

SM-28 SkyMaster hand-held weather meter. The SkyMaster is a portable weather meter

that measures and displays various meteorological variables. In particular, the jackknife

design allows the user to hold the device in such a way that the heat and moisture from

the user is unlikely to influence the environmental sensors (Figure B.20). For the

purposes of this research, the only variables measured and recorded were air temperature

(i.e. dry-bulb temperature) and dew point temperature. The accuracy of the device is

limited to +/- 2˚ F for temperature, and +/- 3˚ F for dewpoint. The device was calibrated

for several minutes on-site prior to use. The calibration involved allowing the device to

record measurements for several minutes to ensure the device was measuring reasonable

values for the atmosphere. If a device was not able to measure the variables in use, the

device was not used. For example, one of the SkyMasters had problems measuring

moisture content in the air. Therefore, this device was not used for moisture or for

temperature variables, and documented as needing technical repairs before being used for

this purpose. Another device was missing an anemometer, this device was recording the

other atmospheric variables properly; however since it was not able to measure wind

speeds, the wind speeds were measured from a device that had an anemometer, but could

not properly measure other atmospheric variables (i.e., temperature and moisture

variables). The missing anemometer was also noted as needing repair. These tools were

compared with the observations from the ASOS and AWAS sites, which have a much

higher precision, and a longer calibration. A third variable, apparent temperature, was

calculated using the equation from Steadman (1979), which incorporates both air and dew

point temperature and is used by the National Weather Service to calculate the operational

heat index. All measurements were taken between 5.5 and 6.5 feet above the ground.

In addition, local surface temperatures were recorded using an infrared

thermometer. This device uses infrared radiation to determine the energy emission of a

surface. As previously discussed, variations in surface material across the urban landscape

play a key role in the thermal characteristics of the city. Indeed, the locations chosen for

this research include a variety of surfaces, including grass, gravel, cobblestone, asphalt,

and concrete. All of these types of surfaces will have different thermal emissions. The

relationship between energy emission and temperature is described in the Stefan-

Boltzmann equation:

𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇4 3.1

Where E = emission (Wm-2), T = temperature (K), and σ = Stefan-Boltzmann

constant (5.67*10-8 Wm-2 K-1). For convenience, the infrared thermometer automatically

solves a form of this equation and displays the resulting temperature. This device has a

fixed emissivity of 0.95, where emissivity is a number quantifying an object’s ability to

emit thermal energy. Emissivity is ranked on a scale from 0 to 1, with a blackbody

(perfect absorption) object having a value of 1. This emissivity value changes with every

object. Since the emissivity value is fixed at 0.95 for the IR gun, this could lead to

measurements being skewed for the sake of simplicity in measuring. However, since all

skin temperature measurements were made using these guns, this bias is controlled for,

with an accuracy of about +/- 2 ˚ F. Surface temperatures measured with the infrared

thermometer were taken at approximately the same time as the air temperature and dew

point measurements from a height of 6-12 inches above the ground (Figure B.21).

Air temperature, dew point, and surface temperature data were collected at five of

the six locations on August 28, 2015 (Day 1) and October 18, 2015 (Day 2). Only five

individuals were available to collect data on Day 1 and so the decision was made to

remove Fondren from analysis on that day. On Day 2, security personnel at the Dogwood

Shopping Center prohibited the collection of data on the property and so no data were

collected there on that day. These days were chosen for this research because they were

characterized as having weak synoptic flow whereby temperature variability across

Jackson would be influenced primarily by local-scale processes and not large-scale

weather features such as fronts. Both days selected for this research met the criteria for

weak synoptic flow as defined by Dixon and Mote (2003): no synoptic-scale forcing

mechanism within 500km and average surface wind speeds less than 10 knots (Figure

B.22, Figure B.23). GPS units were used to mark the measurement site at each location

on Day 1 to ensure that the same site was used on Day 2.

One of the objectives of this research is to compare the temperature and moisture

characteristics at each location to official observations. Automated weather observations

are made 10 minutes prior to each hour at three airports in the Jackson area: Jackson

Medgar-Evers International Airport (KJAN), Bruce Campbell Airport (KMBO), and

Hawkins Airport (KHKS) (Figure B.1). Therefore, comparisons of air temperature and

dew point between each airport and study locations were made at the following times

(CDT) on both days: 11:50, 12:50, 13:50, 14:50, and 15:50. Surface temperatures for

each location were also recorded at these times with the infrared thermometer; however,

because this variable is not measured at the airport locations, comparisons could not be

made. Air temperature and dew point observations from each airport were obtained

within 24 hours of each collection period:

• KJAN: http://w1.weather.gov/data/obhistory/KJAN.html

• KMBO: http://w1.weather.gov/data/obhistory/KMBO.html

• KHKS: http://w1.weather.gov/data/obhistory/KHKS.html

The corresponding observations at each location were calculated from an average

of measurements taken at 30 second intervals beginning 5 minutes before and ending 5

minutes after the official airport observation times. The instruments were calibrated each

morning prior to the beginning of the research itself. The calibration was limited to

ensuring proper battery function and life, and then 1-2 minutes of cycling through the

measured variables to ensuring they were recording reasonable values.

3.3 Land Cover

Another goal of the research was to determine the role urban form has on its local

climate. Land use practices were recorded by the United States Geological Survey

(USGS) Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) in 2011 with the

latest version of the National Land Cover Database (NLCD). The NLCD is a database of

land use and land cover that is based on classifications of LandSAT data by the MRLC.

The specific categories are modifications of the Anderson Land Cover Classification

System. Spatial resolution is set at 30 meters with 20 distinct categories within the 2011

NLCD (USGS 2011). The NLCD was used in this study to determine the land use type

around the Jackson Metro and in the vicinity of each observation site (Figure B.24). The

20 land cover categories range from four types of urban development and three distinct

categories of forestation, to a variety of wetlands and cultivated land cover types.

3.4 Statistical Methodology

Statistical analysis of the data was necessary to analyze the significance of the

data. The resampling method of bootstrapping was selected due to small sample sizes and

the unusual distribution of the data. The data at each site were combined into site specific

lists of air temperature and apparent temperature, then statistically resampled through the

bootstrapping method. This method resamples the data with replacement a set number of

times (in this case 10000) to get a bootstrapped statistic with a normal distribution when

using the mean as the bootstrapped statistic. Confidence intervals of 2.5% and 97.5%

were then taken of the data to gain an understanding of the spread about the mean of the

bootstrapped data. The choice of these intervals is to limit the type II error that lead to

misdiagnosing a statistically insignificant value as significant (failure to reject when the

null should be rejected).

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

4.1 Air Temperature

Air temperatures Day 1 (August) ranged from the mid 80’s to the upper 90’s (˚ F).

Some sites, such as the Governor’s Mansion and Lakeland Drive, were consistently

warmer than KJAN during all observation times (Table C.1). The only site to remain

consistently cooler was the Capitol Building. The median values for Lakeland Drive, the

Governor’s Mansion, and the Clinton Nature Center recorded warmer temperatures than

KJAN on Day 1, while Hawkins Field (KHKS), Bruce Campbell (KMBO), the

Renaissance, and the Capitol Building were measured with cooler median air

temperatures. The median air temperature differences show Lakeland Drive and the

Nature Center to be warmer than all of the airports, but the Capitol Building to be cooler

(Table C.2).

On Day 2 (October), air temperatures ranged from the low 60’s into the mid 70’s

(˚ F). The Governor’s Mansion was much warmer than the rest of the observation values

at the first observation time, but as the day progressed, the observations became more

homogenized with the rest of the observations (Table C.3). Temperatures at the

Renaissance and the Nature Center were consistently warmer than KJAN, while the

Capitol Building, and the two other airports were consistently cooler than KJAN. Median

temperature differences between the observation sites and the airports show nearly all

observation sites to be warmer than the airports. The only exception is the Capitol

Building, which is cooler than KJAN and KHKS, though still warmer than KMBO (Table

C.4).

The only site through bootstrapping analysis that could be considered statistically

significantly cooler than KJAN was the Capitol Building (~1˚ F cooler at the 97.5% CI),

and some of the site distributions (such as Lakeland, Fondren, and the Renaissance Mall)

straddle KJAN and therefore cannot be considered statistically different from KJAN. The

Governor’s Mansion is about 1˚ F warmer at the 2.5% CI and the Clinton Nature Center

is also warmer at the 2.5% CI (0.33˚ F) (Table C.9), therefore both can be considered

statistically significantly higher than KJAN. The 97.5 percentile was considered for the

Capitol as this would determine if the extreme high end of the Capitol’s distribution

would be below that of KJAN. The 2.5 percentile was considered when studying the

Mansion and the Nature Center to determine if the extreme low end of their distributions

was indeed warmer than KJAN.

4.2 Apparent Temperature

Heat index values on Day 1 were generally in the mid 80’s to upper 90’s (Table

C.5). The differences in apparent temperature between observation sites and KJAN were

highly variable. Most of the median heat index values at each observation site were

higher than KJAN, though the two regional airports reported lower median heat indices.

Day 2 saw lower heat indices, remaining in the 70’s throughout the day (Table C.6). All

of the observation sites consistently measured higher heat indices than KJAN at the initial

observation period, with most sites recording heat indices 5+˚ F higher than KJAN. Once

again, the median apparent temperatures across all observation locations were higher than

what was recorded at KJAN. The two other airports did record lower heat indices at

various times throughout the day.

When bootstrapping the apparent temperatures, the method indicates that all of the

observation locations have statistically higher heat indices than KJAN. The Lakeland

Drive site was the closest to the airport, negligibly warmer at the 2.5% CI (0.02˚ F). The

Governor’s mansion was also the warmest again, over 1.5˚ F warmer at the 2.5% CI

(Table C.10). These confidence intervals suggest that the normal data for these locations

would be warmer than KJAN. For values to be statistically higher than KJAN, the 2.5 %

CI is considered to ensure that the lower end of the normal distribution is above KJAN.

4.3 Surface “Skin” Temperature

Aside from the shaded grassy surface at the Capitol Building, every site had

surface skin temperatures above 100˚ F on Day 1 (Table C.7). The asphalt surfaces at the

Governor’s Mansion and the Lakeland Drive sites recorded the warmest values, both in

excess of 140˚ F during the day. Generally speaking, there was more consistency in the

values at a given location than at a given time. The shaded Capitol Building grounds had

the least variation, with the nearby Governor’s Mansion having the most variability (as

indicated by higher standard deviations). Day 2 skin temperatures were lower, with some

locations have skin temperatures as low as 63˚ F (Table C.8). Even so, in mid-October,

many of the locations saw skin temperatures above 80˚ F, with the nature center

experiencing skin temperatures over 100˚ F. Unlike Day 1, variation in skin temperatures

on Day 2 was greater by time period than by location.

4.4 Land Cover

If the urban form influences its local climate, then a relationship should exist

between land use type and climate. Using the NLCD data on developed space near each

location, the six locations were compared based on their percentage of total developed

space, high intensity developed space, and medium intensity developed space (Figure

C.1). Median temperature difference at each location were then compared with the

percentage of total developed space (Figure C.2). The trend in the correlation is a

negative one, more developed space is correlated with lower median temperature

differences. This trend is also found when studying high intensity and medium intensity

developed space (though the slope of these lines vary significantly) (Figure C.3, C.4).

Overall, there is a negative linear correlation between developed space (all, high intensity,

and medium intensity) and median temperature difference. Additionally, Spearman rank

correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the non-parametric dependence of

the variables (Table C.12). Aside from August temperature differences and all developed

space, the Spearman correlations were negative (-0.6 to -0.9). Both the linear and

Spearman correlations would imply that more developed space reduces the difference

between the site observations and the observations at KJAN.

The two downtown locations were the most dissimilar in median temperature

difference, yet they have similar percentages of developed space, and the two largest

percentages of high intensity developed space. These two locations also have the highest

percentage of medium intensity developed space, showing the same disparity (Figure

C.4). The large difference between the Governor’s Mansion and the Capitol Building in

terms of median temperature difference may hint that the urban form’s influence on its

climate may be at a finer scale than a one mile radius around a point.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary of Results

A goal within this research is to determine the thermal differences across the city

of Jackson, and to offer a potential explanation as to why the individually experienced

temperature in a given location is different from what is officially recorded. The results

showed discontinuity between the airfields and the rest of the locations. The airfields

were typically cooler than the observation sites. This suggests that during the summer and

autumn months, adjustments to the warning thresholds and the creation of more specific

heat warnings may need to be considered for certain events. Specifically, these events

would include when the airfields approach dangerous atmospheric thresholds of high

humidity and temperature, while the rest of the city may have already exceeded these

values.

The results suggest that there is both thermal and moisture variation among the

airports and the observed locations. These could be indicative of micro-scale processes

being influenced by the urban environment. Urban form could be a contributing factor in

the noticeable increase in temperature and heat indices at the observed sites compared

with the airports. If the airfields are several degrees cooler as in the case of heat indices

(Table C.3, C.4), then heat warning thresholds used by the National Weather Service

could be reconsidered. Although the heat indices do not approach these thresholds in

October, it is still important to note that large temperature differences still exist across the

Jackson Metro during other times of the year (Table C.4). Heat response plans and

warning procedures should consider intra-city temperature and moisture variability.

The distance between the Capitol and the Governor’s Mansion is only 2 city

blocks, yet some of the largest differences between observation sites are found between

these two (Table C.4, C.9). Air temperature at the Capitol is statistically significantly

cooler than KJAN (per the bootstrapping method), while the Mansion is statistically

significantly warmer (Table C.9). The apparent temperature for both sites were

statistically significantly warmer (Table C.10). Intra-city comparisons do reveal some

interesting pieces of information about land use, urban heating/cooling, and urban design

in Jackson. The Capitol Building, with plenty of green space around it, consistently

experienced cooler, more humid, and tranquil conditions. Although the land uses are

similar, and some of the NLCD types overlap, the two sites are distinctly different in their

meteorological observations. These differences may be attributed to the vegetation at the

Capitol building, which would shade the area, but also increase the moisture level in the

atmosphere. This combination could lead to the change in the Capitol’s measurements

relative to KJAN. Despite the Governor’s Mansion site being a mere two blocks away,

this site saw some of the warmest weather conditions in the experiment (Figure B.8).

Therefore, the land use influences are likely at a finer scale than one mile and the

immediate surroundings are key to the experienced thermal environment at the Capitol

Building. This falls in line with what was observed in a study of individual-level thermal

variation in a Boston neighborhood (Kuras et al. 2015). Thus, the urban form could have

a significant role in these differences and the variations could become amplified in the

future as urbanization grows and the median temperature increases.

There are noticeable differences across the observation sites when studying the

land use alongside the meteorological data. At the Lakeland Drive site, the developed

space is closest to the observation site, and of note, medium and high intensity developed

land uses make up over a third of the developed areas around the site (Figure B.7).

Through bootstrapping, this site is statistically warmer than KJAN in apparent

temperature, though not in air temperature (Table C.9, C.10). Fondren also experienced

statistically significantly warmer apparent temperatures, however it is not statistically

significantly different from KJAN when looking at air temperature (Table C.9, C.10).

Fondren is heavily developed; although much of this developed area is composed of low

intensity and open development (Figure B.4). Specifically, the observation site is

surrounded by an older, well established neighborhood with plenty of trees lining the

streets and covering the lawns. The vegetation may be aiding in the increased heat indices

adding moisture to the air. Therefore, even for areas that are older, with more developed

open space and street shading (Figure B.4), the airports may not always be representative

of the environment people are experiencing.

The Renaissance location is just as diverse in land use as the Lakeland Drive site,

and the immediate surroundings are developed space, with a variety of land uses outside

of the immediate area (Figure B.10). The Renaissance also has no statistical significant

differences in temperature from KJAN; however the site is statistically significantly

warmer in apparent temperature (Table C.9, C.10). Some differences that change the

albedo at the Renaissance relative to Lakeland include trees, light colored buildings, as

well as the pavement in the center of the mall, which is either white cement, brick, or

cobblestone. Even at the Nature Center, the site observations suggest that the immediate

surroundings play a more important role than land use a mile away (Figure B.19). The

nature center itself is secluded from the nearby neighborhood and roadways. The forested

area reduces airflow, trapping heat and moisture, and keeping the nature center warmer

than what would be anticipated in a less urban area. The nature center was one of the only

two sites to be statistically significantly warmer than KJAN in both air temperature and

apparent temperature (Table C.9, C.10).

Finally, linear and Spearman correlations weakly suggest that the two variables

(temperature and developed space) are negatively correlated, implying that increasing

developed space leads to lower air temperatures. This is intriguing as this is counter to

what is normally thought of in regard to the UHI. The overall small sample size of the

data could easily be limiting these correlation methods from gaining a full perspective, as

the R-squared values for the linear trends were low. But even within this trend, there is a

difference between measurements at the Capitol and the Mansion despite having very

similar land uses surrounding them. These differences may point to variability at a finer

scale than what was being measured.

5.2 Discussion of Urban Form Improvements

With these results in mind, there are numerous ways of re-designing the urban

environment of the Jackson Metro to be more sustainable, with reduced energy usage and

more efficiency in the thermoregulation of the urban form. By utilizing some of these

urban design methods, there are ways of reducing the impact of the UHI in Jackson

through landscape architecture. Even as the local climate changes, these methods can

help prevent stress on the urban form from climate change. Increased stress from

weathering and atmospheric changes can lead to shorter structure life and decrease the

ability of the building to be efficiently heated and cooled (Hamin and Gurran 2009;

Eliasson 2000a). This discussion highlights some of the short-term solutions and

longterm changes to the urban planning and design of Jackson that can produce a more

resilient mid-sized city to climate change. Ultimately, Jackson must choose for itself to

pursue opportunities to become a more resilient city. While scientific evidence can

support the decision to become more resilient, the populace of Jackson must want change

and willingly act upon results of urban planning research to produce resiliency.

More specifically, a city-wide change in urban design would not be the best

approach. Each site discussed has unique aspects of it that would determine what

improvements can be made (Table D.1). At the Clinton Community Nature Center, there

are opportunities to combat the rather stagnant air mass within the nature center. One

option to accomplish this is in thinning the trees to allow more wind flow to reach the

ground, potentially cooler the air temperature as the air flow would provide be able to

advect cooler air to the area and remove some of the heat and moisture as well. This is not

an urban design, but may help in cooling the atmosphere at the nature center. The nature

center is limited in its urbanization with only one building and two small concrete slabs

for handicapped parking. The lack of urbanization would reduce the number of options in

terms of urban design despite the data that indicate the site is statistically significantly

warmer in both air temperature and apparent temperature.

In Fondren, with an established community and mature trees for street shading in

the residential areas, a push could be made for more street shading and canopy cover in

the small shopping centers of the neighborhood. The canopy and street shading could

reduce the air temperature and provide more shading to reduce the UHI. Fondren only

experienced statistically significantly warmer apparent temperatures, yet increasing

shading could still reduce the heat indices around the location. Additionally, the parking

lots and streets in Fondren could be used as a testing bed for the feasibility of pervious

pavements in the city of Jackson. Despite the shaded streets, there is not a lot of green

space in this neighborhood, which could be another opportunity for mitigation. However,

the density of this neighborhood and its commercial areas may limit the opportunity to

expand the green space. With a varied mix of land-use in Fondren, including adding more

green space, Debbage and Shepherd (2015) have suggested that this would decrease the

UHI in Fondren. Parks and other types of green spaces also provide areas of recreation

and relaxation in the neighborhood, and encourage more outdoor human activity in the

vicinity of the green space. Placing green spaces into Fondren could provide another

incentive to bring more residents back into the core of the city, helping combat the urban

sprawl that is a contributing factor to the UHI (Williams 2000b).

Further north at the Renaissance Mall, the central part of the mall is fairly

welldesigned with street shading from trees and some pervious pavements. The addition

of tress to the asphalt parking lots on the periphery would be useful to mitigate the heat

island; although the moisture levels may increase some due to the added vegetation. A

study on the HVAC system use and management could help reduce energy consumption

at the mall, and limit the amount of heat being expelled from the buildings into the

surrounding environment. Each added sustainable design could help reduce the apparent

temperatures experienced at the center of the Renaissance Mall.

The Dogwood Shopping Center on Lakeland Drive is another location that could

benefit from a study in sustainable urban design. Redesigning the large stores and their

HVAC systems as well as the addition of street shading and green space could aid in

lowering the apparent temperature relative to KJAN. The large asphalt parking lots and

stores could be shaded through either awnings or trees, additionally, pervious pavements

would help as well due to the expansive amounts of paved surfaces at the site. The vast

expanses of paved surface could be a major contributor to the warmer conditions there

relative to the airport.

Street shading via trees would take some thought and planning at the Dogwood

Shopping Center and in other parts of the city. Strategic placement of deciduous trees

would improve the number of shaded areas around the city, improve air quality, reduce

the canyon geometry of the city (i.e. windiness), and lower the UHI. The selection of

deciduous trees is a choice that could help cool the air during the warm summer months,

as well as reduce the skin temperature of surface materials by blocking some direct

sunlight from reaching the ground. During the winter months, these trees become

dormant, losing their leaves and allowing more incoming solar radiation to reach the

surface, moderating the temperatures at the surface. The moderation of temperature

would warm the surface during the heat of the day, which would improve thermal comfort

during the winter. Another benefit to increased tree canopy would be the reduction of soil

erosion and stormwater runoff around the Dogwood Shopping Center (Golany 1996). A

trade-off with more solar radiation is that the wind reduction the trees provide would be

reduced during the months with bare limbs during the dormant season.

The Capitol Building is another site like the nature center where urban design

adaptation and mitigation strategies may not work as well. The landscaping of the

grounds do use more water resources, and so a consideration for water recycling might be

relevant, but in terms of mitigating for the UHI, this location might consider adding more

trees, or redesigning the HVAC systems of the Capitol itself. The statistically cooler site

(in terms of air temperature) does suggest that the added green space and tree canopy

does help in cooling the air at the Capitol Building, and reducing the UHI. The apparent

temperature remains statistically higher than KJAN, but this likely due to increased

moisture levels from the vegetation and irrigated landscaping.

The Governor’s Mansion site is more commercial in nature and would benefit

from HVAC system considerations, additional street shading from deciduous trees, as

well as planning for pervious pavements in the future. Each of these would help reduce

the air temperature at the Governor’s Mansion and the UHI of the downtown area. These

would be helpful at this site as the data indicate that the Governor’s Mansion experiences

statistically warmer air and apparent temperatures. The addition of green roofs in

downtown Jackson could lead to decreased expense of HVAC. This could free up

businesses to expand their company and make more sustainable improvements to their

business and the buildings themselves. Should Jackson consider sustainable urban design

for downtown buildings, then strategies to decrease the need or dependency on HVAC

systems would be created to minimize the UHI and adapt to a changing climate. This can

be done through using alternative energies, such as solar and hydro-electric energy, as

well as improving airflow through the building by designing buildings to bring in outdoor

air through vents and send it out the other side of the building (Lyle 1996; Mills 2006;

Ndubisi 2008; Egger 2006; Petrova et al. 2013).

The extensive paved network of roadways increases solar radiation absorption and

stormwater runoff. Both of these are common to urban areas but could be mitigated

through the use of porous pavements as previously discussed. While some of these trends

in road networks and urbanization are common to many other urban areas around the

country, Jackson’s urban growth has also been influenced by the rivers, lakes, and the

national park that are located around and throughout the city, leaving some gaps in the

urbanization process. These gaps provide opportunities for more study into the

importance of green space in a metropolitan area and the quantification of their impact.

5.3 Limitations and Future Research

While efforts were made to prevent any biases in the data collected, biases and

errors still exist in this thesis. First, the data were collected through the work of eight

different student volunteers going out to the sites and collecting data. There would be

copy and rounding differences, exact timing of measurement, and strategic selection of

the specific location at the sites which cannot be fully accounted for. Additionally, these

instruments are relatively poor quality when compared with the ASOS and AWAS

stations that are located at the three airports. The automated stations have been calibrated

over several years to ensure they are functioning properly, whereas these instruments

were calibrated for a just few minutes.

The lack of multiple observations around one location limits the ability of the

research to robustly conclude definite differences between the sites; however, future

research should take into consideration how the observations may change as data is

gathered from around the sites. For example, moving a few feet from shaded to full

sunshine should have a noticeable impact on the observations. Additionally, the wide

variety of land use around the locations may all be impacting the observations, creating a

lot of “noise” in the data as to what are the main contributors and influencers to the

observations. It is difficult to determine what land uses are affecting the location’s

observations, and at what distance away do the impacts become negligible. This is

something that would require more research and study to accomplish, but could studied in

future research.

The number of locations and observations in this study were not large enough to

draw major statistical conclusions about the thermal variations across Jackson, although

the data were bootstrapped, the number of repetitions was very high to reach a normal

distribution. The high number of repetitions limits how reliable this statistical measure of

significance is. The bootstrapped data do suggest that many of the locations may be

warmer, but, more research to confirm this is needed. Most of the statistical differences

still fall within the 4-6˚ F window of error associated with the instrument. This also

detracts from the significance of the data. Additionally, the lack of heat flux information

prevents significant results in UHI quantification for Jackson.

The results of this thesis provide several avenues for future research. The

methodology could be the groundwork for more extensive studies in Jackson, possibly

using personal temperature sensors such as iButtons (Kuras et al. 2015) or other forms of

data collection. However, future research should consider the heat flux at the locations to

aid in quantifying the UHI. This research did not calculate the heat flux due in part to

unreliable means of measuring atmospheric pressure and wind. The continuous

observation of meteorological data within the city would be another next step in

measuring the thermal fingerprint of the Jackson Metro and provide better understanding

of the UHI during the winter months and overnight when the UHI is most prominent.

Continuous measurement would also allow for more statistical analyses of the data to

generalize and assess the information. This data would also improve the temporal scale of

the research, allowing for a seasonal study of the urban climate of Jackson.

In landscape architecture, studies to show the feasibility and cost effectiveness of

sustainable urban design in the city of Jackson and these neighborhoods are needed.

Architectural sketches and designs tailored to mitigate for the UHI in these locations as

discussed in this research could be done and offered to the city as a means of encouraging

more discussion of how the urban form can be manipulated to mitigate for a changing

climate. Strategies to renovate and retro-fit current structures in Jackson can be used to

lower the HVAC needs of the city. Jackson has a diverse urban architecture as the city has

grown, developed, and expanded over a period of time with multiple architecture patterns

and motifs used across the city.

5.4 Conclusions

Studies in urban climatology have been ongoing for over 150 years, and there are

clear indications that there does exist an urban heat island effect in many cities.

Additionally, landscape architects have determined that building material and design of

buildings and cities can be manipulated to reduce the energy usage and pollution from a

building or city. When considering and studying the atmospheric environment of the city

of Jackson, there is a discernible difference in both temperature and moisture levels

around the city. The variations may well be related to the types of urban form found in the

neighborhoods and suburbs of the Jackson Metro. Land use and land cover data suggest

that influences by the urban form occur at a very fine scale (<30 m). Further research is

needed to confirm this; however, this research suggests that some effort to mitigate and

adapt for the changing climate (i.e. reducing the UHI) would help improve the resiliency

of the city of Jackson.

Beyond the city of Jackson, the urban centers of the world must consider ways of

using landscape architecture to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. An

international push toward considering the climate has been the catalyst for many

considerations of urban climatology, landscape architecture, and sustainable urban design.

If smaller municipalities are willing and able to adopt these strategies, they can make

faster and more efficient decisions to create a more resilient society in the face of a

different future climate. Opportunity for increased resiliency in an area anticipated to be

highly impacted by a changing climate would be beneficial to the United States as a

whole in determining ways of improving national resiliency in light of global climate

fluctuations.

The goal of this research was to determine if there is any thermal variation

throughout Jackson, and if these variations could be connected to the built environment.

With limited statistical support, there is evidence that there is variation and that this

variation is at a very fine scale. While there is no hard evidence to support the hypothesis

that the built environment is contributing to the thermal variability around the city, the

fine scale variations require closer investigation of the built environment around them to

confirm or deny this hypothesis.

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LITERATURE REVIEW TABLES AND FIGURES  

Figure A.1 Fish-eye lens example

Example photograph of a sky-view using a fish-eye lens. Taken from research performed

by Grimmond et al. (2001), where a Nikon CoolPix 950 was fitted with a Nikon FC-E8

fisheye lens.

Figure A.2 Urban heat island

World Meteorological Organization’s Diagram of the urban heat island effect. This

diagram details the change in airflow and precipitation patterns around the urban areas.

http://www.wmo.int/pages/publications/bulletin_en/archive/57_4_en/57_4_tang_en.html

Accessed: 2/24/2016

Figure A.3 Global Energy Budget

Global Energy Budget diagram from NASA.

http://esteem.larc.nasa.gov/resources/ and

http://science-edu.larc.nasa.gov/energy_budget/

Accessed: 2/24/2016.

Figure A.4 Solar Roadways Panel

A panel designed for the Solar Roadways Company. This hexagonal panel includes the

tempered glass, LED lighting, and solar panels. The interlocking grid of these panels

creates the road surface, with drainage and stormwater storage underneath.

http://www.solarroadways.com/Home/Specifics

Accessed: 3/1/2016

Figure A.5 Dogtrot House

A dogtrot house has a breezeway through the middle of the structure, allowing wind to

flow through, cooling the upper floor with air flow underneath it. Additionally, this

creates more shaded outdoors space for individuals to utilize as a means to staying cool.

http://livingvintageco.com/2013/08/our-home-is-an-old-dogtrot/ Accessed: 2/24/2016

Table A.1 Albedo Values

Surface

Albedo

Water

5-10

Snow

75-95

Sand

25-45

Soil

5-20

Concrete

15-30

Asphalt

5-10

Deciduous

Forest

10-20

Coniferous

Forest

5-15

Clouds

50-90

Examples of surfaces and their associated albedo. Low values indicate high absorption

rates, high values indicate low absorption (high reflectance). Developed from information

provided by Iowa State University.

http://www.meteor.iastate.edu/gccourse/forcing/images/image6.gif

Table A.2 Sustainable Urban Designs

Urban Design Feature

Meteorological Variable

Street Shading

Cool surface “skin” temperature and air

temperature; reduce windiness.

Green Space

Cool air temperature; improve air quality;

reduce windiness.

Green Roofs

Improve air quality; decrease albedo and

heat absorption of buildings.

Pervious Surfaces

Reduce stormwater runoff; improve water

infiltration; reduce drought underneath the

city.

Sustainable HVAC System

Reduces amount of energy consumption in

the city; decreasing the air temperature

around the building.

Urban Density

Higher densities may reduce traffic

congestion and fossil fuel consumption,

leading to lower air temperature and

improved air quality.

Recycling

Reduces amount of waste produced by the

city, leading to lower energy consumption;

water recycling can improve infiltration

rates and water resource demand.

Multi-Use Zoning

Mixes traditionally separated land uses to

improve the diversity of the city, may

decrease the UHI.

Summarization of sustainable urban design methods and their impacts on the UHI and

meteorological variables in a city.

DATA AND METHODS TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure B.1 Jackson Metro Map

Google Earth map Jackson Metro Area. Map pinpoints each of the observation sites and

the airports. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.2 Fondren

Google Earth Map of Fondren with roads labeled. Tack indicates the location of the

collection site. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.3 On-site photograph of Fondren

Photo taken of the observation site in Fondren. Photo looks east across the central

intersection of the shopping center. Photo credit: Peter Crank (August 28, 2015).

Figure B.5 Lakeland Drive Map

Google Earth Map of the Dogwood Shopping Center on Lakeland Drive with roads

labeled. Tack indicates the location of the collection site. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.6 On-site photograph of Lakeland Drive

Photo of the Lakeland Drive collection site. Photo looks north across the expansive

asphalt parking lot. Photo Credit: Google Street View (January 26, 2016).

Figure B.8 Renaissance Mall Map

Google Earth map of Renaissance at Colony Park with road labels. Tack indicates the

location where observations were measured. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.9 On-site photograph of the Renaissance Mall.

Photo taken of the observation site in the Renaissance at Colony Park. Photo looks east

across the central intersection of the shopping center. Photo credit: Peter Crank (August

28, 2015).

Figure B.11 Capitol Building Map

Google Earth map of downtown Jackson and the Mississippi State Capitol Building.

Roads and major neighborhoods are labeled. The tack indicates the site where

observations were measured. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.12 On-site photograph of the Capitol Building.

The Mississippi Capitol Building is in the center of photograph. The photo was taken

from the southeastern edge of the grounds looking northwest. The landscaped grounds in

the foreground are where the Capitol Building site observations were taken. Photo credit:

Peter Crank (June 16, 2015).

Figure B.14 Governor’s Mansion Map

Google Earth map of downtown Jackson and the Governor’s Mansion. The city and its

roads are labeled on the map. The tack indicates the intersection where the Mansion

observations were measured. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.15 On-site photograph beside the Governor’s Mansion.

Photo of the intersection on the southwest side of the Governor’s Mansion property.

Photo looks north across the intersection. Photo credit: Holly Lussenden (August 28,

2015).

Figure B.17 Clinton Community Nature Center

Google Earth map of the Clinton Community Nature Center. Roads as well as city names

are labeled on the map. The tack indicates the location where the Nature Center’s

observations were measured. Created: March 7, 2016.

Figure B.18 On-site photograph of the Nature Center

Photo of the Clinton Community Nature Center parking lot. The parking lot is where the

observations were collected. The photo looks north-northwest from the nature center.

Photo credits: Peter Crank (June 16, 2015).

Figure B.20 SkyMaster Instrument

Photo of the SkyMaster instrument in use. The photo displays an appropriate height of

device. Photo credit: Katie Martin (March 8, 2016).

Figure B.21 Infrared Thermometer

Photo of the Infrared Thermometer instrument in use. Photo shows appropriate technique

when using the instrument. Photo credit: Katie Martin (March 8, 2016).

Figure B.22 August surface weather map

August 28, 2015 surface map from the Weather Prediction Center. The surface map shows

surface weather features across the Continental U.S. This surface map shows the weak

synoptic flow needed for a synoptically benign day over Jackson, MS as defined by

Dixon and Mote (2003).

Figure B.23 October surface weather map

October 18, 2015 surface map from the Weather Prediction Center. The surface map

shows surface weather features across the Continental U.S. This surface map shows

generally weak synoptic flow, which is needed for a synoptically benign day over

Jackson, MS as defined by Dixon and Mote (2003).

Figure B.24 NLCD Map

A 2011 National Land Cover Database map of Jackson. The various shading of the map is

determined by land use type defined by the 2011 NLCD by the USGS. The legend in map

defines which icons are used. Each of the airports as well as the observation sites and

their associated one mile radii are labeled. Created: February 5, 2016.

APPENDIX

RESULTS TABLES AND FIGURES

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