Motivation & Goal Setting
In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic
factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time
(often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose
a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning
that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work.
Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser,
1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999).
According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic
reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy
leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that
same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these
reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For
example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun.
Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips
up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in
the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position
and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what
she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire
to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way
that changes her motivation to do it. What Odessa has experienced is called
the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when
extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic
motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued
performance (Deci et al., 1999).
Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so
vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact,
reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic
motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case,
Odessa’smotivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for
example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating
skills. These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be
understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement
(such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an
individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend
to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible
rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator
by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic
reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If,
however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is
presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist
(Deci et al., 1999).
In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in
collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members
because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group,
rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, &
Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that
takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior;
thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior
becomes more likely.
n educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic
motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the
classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of
the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise
some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing
students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a
rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic
motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-
year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal
Law. The Family Law professor has a ratherintimidating classroom: He likes
to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves
students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on
quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts results of each test on the
classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates
classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority
of the course grade is not exambased, but centers on a student-designed
research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests
that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course,
where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an
emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a
higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the
class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and
where students have more influence over their learning activities.
Goal Setting
Some people are goal-oriented and seem to easily make decisions that
lead to achieving their goals, while others seem just to “go with the flow” and
accept what life gives them. While the latter may sound pleasantly relaxed,
moving through life without goals may not lead anywhere at all. The fact that
you are taking a college course now shows you might be working toward
some goal. A goal is a result we intend to reach mostly through our own
actions. Things we do may move us closer to or farther away from that result.
Studying moves us closer to success in a difficult course, while sleeping
through the final exam may completely prevent reaching that goal. It is fairly
obvious in an extreme case, yet a lot of college students do not reach their
goal of graduating. The problem may be a lack of commitment to the goal,
but often students have conflicting goals. Let us look at some examples of
how students may experience conflicting goals.
To help his widowed mother, Juan went to work full time after high
school but now, a few years later, he is dissatisfied with the kinds of jobs he
has been able to get and has begun taking classes toward an Associate’s
Degree in Computer Science in the evenings. He is often tired after work and
his mother would like him to spend more time at home, and his girlfriend also
wants to spend more time with him. Sometimes he cuts class to visit his
mother or spend time with his girlfriend. In her senior year of college, Becky
has just been elected president of her sorority and is excited about planning
a major community service project. She knows she should be spending
more time on her senior thesis, but she feels her community project may
gain her contacts that can help her find a better job after graduation.
Besides, the sorority project is a lot more fun, and she is enjoying the esteem
of her position. Even if she does not do well on her thesis, she is sure she will
pass.
After an easy time in high school, Morgan is surprised their college
classes are so hard. They have enough time to study for their firstyear
courses, but they also have a lot of friends and fun things to do. Sometimes
they are surprised to look up from their computer to see it is midnight
already, and they have not even started reading that chapter yet. Where does
the time go? When they are stressed, however, they cannot study well, so
they tell themself they will get up early and read the chapter before class,
and then they turn back to their computer to see who is online. Sachito was
successful in cutting back her hours at work to give her more time for her
college classes, but it is difficult for her to get much studying done at home.
Her husband has been wonderful about taking care of their young daughter,
but he cannot do everything, and lately, he has been hinting more about
asking her sister to babysit so that the two of them can go out in the evening
the way they used to. Lately, when she has had to study on a weekend, he
leaves with his friends, and Sachito ends up spending the day with her
daughter—and not getting much studying done.
What do these very different students have in common? Each has goals
that conflict in one or more ways. Each needs to develop strategies to meet
their other goals without threatening their academic success. And all of
them have time management issues to work through, three because they
feel they do not have enough time to do everything they want or need to do,
and one because even though he has enough time, he needs to learn how to
manage it more effectively. For all four of them, motivation and attitude will
be important as they develop strategies to achieve their goals. One way to
prevent the problems that arise from conflicting goals is to think about all of
your goals and priorities and learn ways to manage your time, your studies,
and your social life to best reach your goals. Also, consider whether your
goals support your core values that you identified in the previous module.
You are more likely to achieve a goal that is aligned directly with your values.
Benefits of Goal Setting
Setting goals can turn your dreams into reality. You may have a dream
to one day graduate from college, buy a new car, own your own home, travel
abroad, etc. Any of these dreams can be broken down into a detailed goal
and personal action plan. For example, maybe you want to buy a home 20
years from now. You will need $40,000 as a down payment. That is a lot of
money and may not feel achievable. But, if you break that $40,000 into 20
years, that is $2,000 a year. That sounds more manageable. And if we break
it down even more, you can buy that house if you save about $165 a month,
or $42 a week, or $6 a day! Can you save $6 a day, maybe by packing your
lunch instead of the drivethru? Our big dream is now an achievable, realistic
goal.
Setting goals has many benefits. Goal setting allows you to create a
plan to focus on your goal, rather than dreaming about the future. It also
reduces anxiety and worry. It is much less anxiety-producing to focus
onsaving $6 a day than it is to save $40,000. It is also motivating because you
will be able to measure your progress and successes. At the end of one year,
you will have saved $2,000, which will motivate you to keep saving and
maybe even increase your saving goal. You will use your time and resources
more wisely, often leading to faster and increased results.
As you think about your own goals, think about more than just being a
student. You are also a person with your own values, individual needs,
desires, hopes, dreams, and plans. Your long-term goals likely include
graduation and a career but may also involve social relationships with
others, a romantic relationship, family, hobbies or other activities, where
and how you live, and so on. While you are a student you may not be actively
pursuing all your goals with the same fervor, but they remain goals and are
still important in your life. Think about what goals you would like to achieve
academically, vocationally (career), financially, personally, physically,
spiritually, and socially.
Types of Goals
There are different types of goals, based on time and topic. Below we
will discuss the major types of goals that you may set for yourself.
Long-term goals: Long-term goals may begin with graduating from
college and everything you want to happen thereafter. Often your long-term
goals (graduating with an associate’s degree) guide your mid-term goals
(transferring to a university), and your short-term goals (getting an A on your
upcoming exam) become steps for reaching those larger goals. Thinking
about your goals in this way helps you realize how even the little things you
do every day can keep you moving toward your most important long-term
goals. Common long-term goals include thingslike earning your college
degree, owning a home, getting a job in your career area, buying a new car,
etc.
Mid-term goals: Mid-term goals involve plans for this school year or your
time here at college or goals you want to achieve within the next six months
to two years. Mid-term goals are often stepping stones to your long-term
goals, but they can also be independent goals. For example, you may have a
goal of transferring to university, which is a midterm goal that brings you
closer to your long-term goal of getting your Bachelor’s degree. Or, you may
have a goal to pay off your credit card debt within the next 12 months or to
save for a car that you plan to buy next year. When making mid-term goals
related to your long-term goals, make a list of accomplishments that will
lead you to your final goal.
Short-term goals: Short-term goals focus on today and the next few
days and perhaps weeks. Short-term goals expect accomplishment in a
short period of time, such as trying to get a bill paid in the next few days or
getting an A on your upcoming exam. The definition of a short-term goal need
not relate to any specific length of time. In other words, one may achieve (or
fail to achieve) a short-term goal in a day, week, month, year, etc. The time
frame for a short-term goal relates to its context in the overall timeline that it
is being applied. For instance, one could measure a short-term goal for a
month-long project in days; whereas one might measure a short-term goal
for someone’s lifetime in months or in years. Often, people define short-term
goals in relation to their mid-term or long-term goals.
An example of how short-term and mid-term goals relate to long-
termgoals is wanting to earn your Bachelor’s degree. If you have a goal of
earning your Bachelor’s degree in four years, a mid-term goal is getting your
Associate’s Degree and getting accepted to your top choice University in two
years. This can be broken down into a series of shortterm goals such as your
GPA goal for this term, your goal grade on an upcoming exam, and the
amount of time you plan to study this weekend. Every long-term goal can be
broken down into smaller steps and eventually lead to the question, “what
do I have to do today to achieve my goal?” You will make goals in different
areas of life and at different times in your life. At this point in your life,
academic goals may take precedence but there are also other areas to
consider.
Academic – You clearly already have an academic goal and are actively
working on pursuing it. Academic goals may include things like a target GPA,
completing your Associate’s Degree or certificate, or transferring to a
university. It may also include short-term goals like completing your
homework before the weekend.
Career – At this point, your career goals may be closely linked to your
academic goals, such as getting a degree or certificate in your chosen career
field. You may also have career goals of gaining experience in your field
through internships and work experience.
Financial – Your financial goals are often tied to your career goals. You
may have a salary goal or you may have the goal of saving for a home, a car,
or a vacation. You may also have goals to reduce debt and manage your
budget.
Health/Physical – Almost all of us have worked on physical goals. Many
people have the goal to lose weight, increasing their exercise, or drinking
more water. Other health goals could include establishing a regular sleep
schedule, eating more fruits and vegetables, or seeing your doctor regularly.
Health goals can also include mental health such as meditating or working
to reduce stress and anxiety.
Social/Relationships – Even though it may feel like it sometimes, your
life is more than school and work. You should also establish goals for your
social relationships. For example, make a goal to stayin contact with a friend
who moved, visit your family every week, or to have a date with your
significant other once a week. Your social relationships are a vital part of
your life and deserve your attention and focus.
Spiritual – Many people have religious goals, such as attending church
regularly, practicing daily prayer, or joining a church group. Even if you are
not religious, you may have spiritual goals such as time alone to meditate.
Personal/Hobbies – In addition to work and school, you may have
hobbies or personal interests that you want to devote time and energy to.
Perhaps you have a goal of rebuilding a motorcycle or learning how to knit or
sew.
Smart Goals
SMART goals are commonly associated with Peter Drucker’s
management by objectives concept. It gives structure and organization to
the goal-setting process by establishing defined actions, milestones,
objectives and deadlines. Creating SMART goals helps with motivation and
focus and keeps you moving forward. Every goal can be made into a SMART
goal!
Putting Your Goals Into Action
Be certain you want to reach the goal. We are willing to work hard and
sacrifice to reach goals that we really care about, ones that support our core
values. But we are likely to give up when we encounter obstacles if we do not
feel strongly about a goal. If you are doing something only because your
parents or someone else wants you to, then it is not your own personal
goal—and you may not be motivated to accomplish said goal.
Writing down your goals helps you to organize your thoughts and be
clear with your goals, ensuring you meet the SMART goal criteria. When you
write your goals, state them positively, stating what you will do rather than
what you will not do. When you focus on doing something, that behavior
often increases. On the other hand, when you focus on not doing something,
that behavior also often increases. For example, if you have a goal to
increase your health, you may focus on increasing your water intake to at
least 64 ounces per day. This will lead you to think about and drink more
water. But, if you focus on not drinking soda, you are likely to think about
soda all day and end up drinking more.
After you have written down your goal, post it in a visible place to remind
you every day of what it is you are working toward. When you see your goal,
ask yourself, “Did my choices today help move more toward my goal? Are my
actions supporting my goals?” Being reminded of your goal can help you stay
motivated and focused. You should also consider sharing your goal with
friends, family or classmates. Sharing your goal with supportive people who
care about you will help you stay on track. Share your goal with people you
know will be encouraging and cheer you on as you work toward your goal. In
return, offer the same support for your friends’ goals and dreams.
