UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION:
STRENGTHENING NATIONAL SECURITY IN CYBERSECURITY
Introduction
The international world has now reached a new era where non-traditional issues are
getting more attention from international relations actors. The development of global issues is
a consequence of globalization where there are no definite limits to the spread of information
in the world. This situation leads to changes in the interaction patterns of international
relations actors that not only occur between states and states, but also states with non-state
actors. The existing changes are followed by the discovery and development of increasingly
advanced technology, one of which is the invention of the internet as a medium for
disseminating information and communication.
Since it first appeared, the internet has more or less brought changes to various aspects
of human life. These changes do not only have a positive impact such as facilitating
interaction and dissemination of information between international relations actors who were
originally The internet is not only hampered by distance and territory, but also has a negative
impact on the spread of information itself on the internet. Furthermore, the negative impact of
the internet is the emergence of cyber crime. Cyber crime involves internet networks that are
connected to almost all computers around the world. In addition, this crime can cause
insecurity of data and documents connected through internet servers. Thus, in a broader
context, this crime can disrupt the security of a country.
Cybercrime can disrupt and threaten a country's national security because many
countries have connected their data and control over several sectors through the internet or
online. Due to the wide range of cybercrimes that can occur on the internet, there is no
definitive classification and definition of cybercrime. However, cybercrime has gained
international attention as one of the transnational crimes. This can be seen from the
identification of cybercrime as one of the New Emerging Crimes at the UN Conference of
States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) in 2010. In line with this UN
designation, Julian Droogan stated that cybercrime has evolved into one of the main threats to
the well-being of societies around the world1. Thus, this proves that security aimed at
preventing and dealing with cybercrime needs to be developed and become a new focus of the
country's national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
United States is a country with very high internet usage. This is evident from the
results of a study in collaboration with the Association of United Statesn Internet Service
Providers (APJII) in 2019 which shows that out of a total of 264 million United Statesns,
there are 171.17 million people or 64.8 percent of the population who have connected to the
internet.2 With such high internet usage from the public, the threat of cybercrime will
certainly also be very high. Therefore, it is necessary for the Government of United States to
improve cybersecurity as part of maintaining national security.
United States is an active member in various UN forums, including in the UN Member
Conference on Transnational Organized Crime which has established five new crimes that
must receive attention, including cyber crimes that can occur across national borders. United
States itself is vulnerable to these crimes due to its strategic location and society which are
many and varied. Thus, the Government of United States makes prevention efforts by paying
special attention to new and emerging transnational crimes that have been established, as well
as intensifying international cooperation to protect United States national interests and
sovereignty.3 In this case, United States seeks to improve cyber security by cooperating with
other countries, both through bilateral and regional cooperation.
Based on the background description of the questions raised, the author formulates a
statement of the problem faced in this study, namely How is cooperation carried out by
United States in the field of cyber security with other countries to strengthen national security.
In this study, the authors conducted a literature review of several sources of literature
and previous research that supported and related to this research. The first journal related to
this research is a journal written by Bambang Supriyadi entitled, "United States-Australia
Joint Perception in the Grant of Funds and Cyber Crime Investigation Equipment from
Australia to United States" published in 2017 and published in the Journal of International
Relations Diponegoro University, Volume 3, Number 1, Year 2017, pp. 140-149. 140-149 .
This journal discusses the factors that influence the policies taken by Australia in providing
financing and crime investigation equipment to United States, which are analyzed with the
concept of collective identity constructivism theory based on the perception of threats in
explaining state behavior. In this journal, the author has concluded that collective cooperation
is carried out by United States and Australia in improving cybersecurity and handling
cybercrime because of the similarity of perceptions as countries that both face cyber threats
regardless of diplomatic relations between United States and Australia experiencing ups and
downs. This journal is important for my research because the author explains that common
interests and perceptions of threats can trigger cooperation even in the field of security with
rival countries. Thus, this is in line with the concept I will use in my research.
The second journal related to my research is a journal written by Hidayat Chusnul
Chotimah entitled, "The Governance of United States Cybersecurity and Cyber Diplomacy
Under the Institutionalization of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency" published in 2019 and
published in Politica Journal Vol. 10 No. 2 November 2019. This journal discusses the
establishment of the State Cyber and Crypto Agency as a party that focuses on aspects of
cyber security and cyber diplomacy of the country by considering the high use of the internet
and its strategic position. United States in the perception of major power countries in the
cyber field analyzed by the concept of cyber security and cyber diplomacy. In his journal, the
author also explained the role of BSSN in establishing cooperation in the cyber field such as
cooperation with Australia, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United
States, and establishing cooperation at the regional level through ASEAN's Cooperation on
Cyber Security and Against Cyber crime and also the ASEAN Cyber Capacity Program
(ACCP). Thus, this journal is important for my research because of the explanation of the
cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security which is carried out to
maintain United States cyber security and sovereignty so that it can strengthen the data for my
research.
The third journal related to my research is a journal written by Bima Yudha Wibawa
Manopo and Diah Apriani Atika Sari entitled, "ASEAN Regional Forum: Realizing Regional
Cyber Security in ASEAN Region" published in 2015 and published in the journal Belli ac
Pacis. Vol. 1. No.1 June 2015. This journal discusses the role of the ASEAN Regional Forum
in realizing regional cyber security and also the handling of cyber crime in ASEAN which is
analyzed using the concept of regional security. In this journal, the author concludes that the
handling of cyber crime in the ASEAN Regional Forum is through Confidence Building
Measures, Preventive Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolutions. The steps of cooperation in
improving regional cyber security are carried out by taking into account the principles of
ASEAN. This journal also discusses the existence of bilateral cooperation mechanisms related
to cybersecurity within the ASEAN regional forum that can be carried out with developed
countries outside ASEAN members to improve each country's cybersecurity and participate in
developing. This is certainly important for my research, because it can be a reinforcement that
there is cooperation carried out by countries in ASEAN with other countries in terms of
improving cybersecurity as part of national security.
Research Methods
International relations scholars in various literatures agree that security is a "Contested
Concept". This security is a condition that is free from military threats or in other words
means the ability of a country to protect its nation-state from military attacks originating from
the external environment.4 National security is a basic need for a nation to protect and
maintain national interests.
The main factor underlying a nation's concept of national security is the need to fulfill
national interests. Security The concept of security emphasizes the role of the government in
protecting the territorial integrity of the state from threats coming from outside and from
within the country.5 In contemporary international relations, national security that seeks to
protect national interests no longer only covers traditional issues. This is as stated by
international security expert Barry Buzan that, "Security does not only include military
aspects and state actors alone but will include non-military aspects and involve the activities
of non-state actors as well.
Furthermore, Buzan wrote an article related to the dimensions of national security
which includes five aspects, namely; (1) Political security which concerns the guarantee to
maintain political rights and freedom to maintain political regimes, (2) Military security
which concerns freedom from the threat of external military intervention, (3) Economic
security which concerns guaranteed access to all resources and global market activities to
achieve social welfare, (4) Community security which concerns freedom from all forms of
horizontal conflict both for reasons of identity and resources and economics, (5)
Environmental security which concerns the guarantee of freedom from environmental damage
that can lead to various humanitarian disasters.7 Thus, based on this approach, the military
sector in the concept of national security is not the only aspect. Meanwhile, national security
will also broadly and comprehensively cover the political, economic, community and
environmental sectors from the individual level within the state, national, regional and
international.
Based on the concepts described above, it shows that there has been an expansion of
meaning from traditional security issues to non-traditional security issues. Thus, the study of
national security needs to be developed to the realm of analyzing interactions between actors
related to the security sector. This is due to the existence of a gray area, which is defined as a
threat to national and international security and stability that arises due to the interaction
process of state and non-state actors. Thus, more and more diverse global phenomena are
emerging and these include national security threats by utilizing advances in information
technology. Thus, there has also been a widespread change in the behavior of international
actors in responding to global phenomena, which was originally always a military approach,
then changed to a non-military approach in maintaining national security.
Kaspersky resource center defines cybersecurity as the practice of protecting
computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, internet networks, and data from
damaging attacks. It is also known as information technology security or electronic
information security. The term applies to various contexts and can be divided into several
categories.9 Cybersecurity itself consists of various aspects, such as a collection of tools,
policies, security protections, implementation guidelines, risk management approaches,
actions, and training that are then used to protect cyberspace which is basically built on legal
certainty, procedural actions, organizational structure, capacity building, and international
cooperation10. Furthermore, cybersecurity is part of the security mechanisms implemented to
protect and minimize disruptions to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
information, which in this case is specifically through cyberspace.
Efforts to improve cyber security carried out by the state are one of the efforts related
to the goal of maintaining national security. This is because state defense and security policies
and strategies are dynamic and can change following the development of global phenomena
and issues that have the potential to become national threats. Specifically, cyber security has
now begun to become the concern and security strategy of countries in the world. Changes in
state security strategies that penetrate cyberspace are due to the development and spread of
cyber crime by utilizing the development of information and communication technology
today. This is also because in some sectors, the state has used the internet network as the basis
of its control so that it will become a weakness if there is no policy related to cybersecurity
that protects.
Cybercrime has many varieties, both at the individual level, small groups, and
organized crime groups that attack and commit their crimes systematically. Here are some
examples of cybercrimes that are of concern in cybersecurity; (1) Unauthorized Access to
Computer System and Service This crime is committed by illegally entering the computer
network system. This mode of operation is usually carried out with the intention of stealing
important and confidential information, (2) Illegal Contents namely (3) Data Forgery, which
is falsifying data on important documents stored on the internet. This crime is aimed at
documents owned by institutions whose services are based on web data, (4) Cyber Sabotage
and Extortion is a crime with the aim of making interference, damage or destruction of data,
computer programs to computer network systems connected to the internet, (5) Cyber
Espionage is spying on other parties through internet network facilities as a medium of crime.
In general, this is done to obtain important documents or data of certain parties stored in a
system connected to the computer, (6) Offense against Intellectual Property, which is a crime
against intellectual property rights owned by other parties on the internet, (7) Carding, which
is the act of stealing important card numbers belonging to other people and used for trade
transactions on the internet, (8) Cracking Crimes on the internet that have a broader scope,
ranging from acts of revenge against certain agencies to piracy of intellectual property rights
and data loss through the internet network.
The concept of cooperative security has evolved over the past few decades. In line
with this development, cooperative security can be interpreted as a strategic principle
intended to achieve an objective through institutional awareness rather than through material
or physical threats.11 In another sense, cooperative security is said to have the main objective
of preventing war and in order to achieve this, it requires a shift in state security planning.
Security planning is changed from being prepared to stop or deal with threats, to efforts to
prevent such threats from arising. Thus, the concept of cooperative security can be said to be
different from the concept of collective security.
The difference in concept with collective security can again be interpreted as a change
in security policy that was originally based on coercion and confrontation towards a strategy
intended to find solutions to security problems through cooperation even with parties that
have the potential to become enemies. Thus, a truly cooperative security strategy should not
have any element of coercion. Such security strategies and cooperation are not aimed at
resolving conflicts but more likely at preventing threats and potential conflicts from arising.
The concept of cooperative security is a security concept that should be taken into
account for many reasons. The main reason is that in this era of global development, many
problems are beyond the reach and capacity of a single state to solve. The obvious
contemporary challenges that need attention are transnational issues such as the threat of
terrorism, environmental problems, migration, organized crime and drug trafficking.
However, even traditional security issues have become so complex that it seems impossible
for a country to protect its national interests without cooperation with other countries. For this
reason, many countries are cooperating based on the concept of cooperative security,
provided that all cooperating parties have a common interest in maintaining mutual security.
Discussion
Cybersecurity developed in United States was initially initiated in 2007. The
development of cybersecurity capacity was realized in a policy that provides legal certainty.
The policy was the issuance of Minister of Communication and Information Technology
Regulation No.26/PER/M.Kominfo/5/2007/21 on Securing the Utilization of Internet
Protocol-Based Telecommunication Network. The regulation then underwent several revision
processes which finally resulted in the enactment of the Minister of Communication and
Information Technology Regulation No.29/PER/M.KOMINFO/12/2010. The regulation also
regulates the establishment of the United States Security Incident Response Team on Internet
Infrastructure (ID-SIRTII), which is a team tasked with assisting in monitoring the security of
internet protocol-based telecommunications networks.15 In addition to the Ministerial
Regulations that have been issued, according to Hasyim Gautama, the Law on Electronic
Information and Transactions No. 11 of 2008 and Government Regulation on the
Implementation of Electronic Systems and Transactions No. 82 of 2008, also regulate the use
of Internet-based telecommunications networks The year 2012 was also the initial foundation
for the establishment of cybersecurity in United States.
Based on data analysis of the traffic monitoring system that was later conducted by
ID-SIRTII, it was recorded that the incidence of attacks in cyberspace reached one million
incidents due to unknown system and application weaknesses. In this case, government
institutions are also not spared from cyber attacks where in the period 1998-2009 as many as
2,138 attacks have been addressed to website domains belonging to the United Statesn
government. At the global level, there have also been many Cyber Wars and even in 2017
there was a cyber attack WanaCrypt0r 2.0 or Wanna Cry virus that spread and infected
quickly to all countries in the world.17 This certainly makes United States inevitably have to
be more aware of cyber security issues because it is related to national security.
The events that occurred then led United States to establish the National Cyber and
Crypto Agency as an implementing institution for cyber diplomacy that handles cyber
security issues in United States. As a national cyber institution, BSSN plays a role in
establishing coordination and cooperation between institutions and stakeholders in the cyber
field in United States. These institutions include the United Statesn National Police in cyber
crime, TNI/Ministry of Defense in cyber defense, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cyber
diplomacy and also other institutions in relation to cyber.
In the field of cyber diplomacy, BSSN synergizes with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. This is because the internet is transnational and there is a possibility of clashing
interests between countries. Furthermore, the internet has created a new dimension to
information security that ultimately has implications for international relations, where
anything circulating on the internet has the potential to spread freely and states must adapt and
adjust internet flows to state policy making.19 Therefore, to create an effective improvement
in United States cybersecurity, the Government must carry out the following cyber
diplomacy; (1) international partnerships or cooperation with other countries due to the
existence of cyber threats that have complexity and cross-country, (2) cooperation involving
various elements at the national level both from the community and the private sector, (3)
affirmation of the orientation of United States foreign policy and diplomacy through strategies
at the national level cyber sector through BSSN as the implementer of cyber diplomacy and
cyber security functions in an effort to achieve cyber resilience, public service security, cyber
law enforcement, cyber security culture, and cyber security in the digital economy.
In strengthening national security through effective cyber security, United States
cooperates both in the bilateral and multilateral realms. In the bilateral realm, United States
collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
in 2018 which included information sharing in the fields of law, legislation, national policies,
and management policy strategies in the cyber realm, capacity building and institutional
assistance and technology development in the field of cyber security through networking and
training and education programs, and elaboration of joint efforts in building resilience to
cyber attacks and protection of vital assets in the cyber realm as well as technical matters that
support cooperation. In the same year, United States also cooperated on broader cyber and
digital concepts with Australia on the digital economy, as well as with the United States.
These partnerships aim to advance cooperation and capacity building in cyberspace in areas
such as discussions on the development of a national cyberspace strategy, national incident
management capabilities, capacity and cooperation on countering cybercrime.
In the multilateral realm, United States together with ASEAN through the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) have an
agreement to increase cooperation in terms of non-traditional threats, which specifically
focuses on the issue of transnational and cross-border crime. Then, in 2006 the ARF
established ARF on cybersecurity initiatives related to the discussion of cybercrime in
ASEAN as outlined in ASEAN's Cooperation on Cybersecurity and against Cybercrime.
United States participation in the ARF can provide benefits in the form of points of contact
with countries outside members who cooperate through the ARF framework. Which in turn
can facilitate United States cyber diplomacy process, including in handling cyber incidents.
The cooperation carried out by United States in the field of cyber security both in the
bilateral and multilateral realms can be categorized as a form of cooperative security. This is
because none of the parties to the cooperation are under coercion and form cooperation based
on the same goals in realizing the security of their country. In addition, there is the same
perception between the parties in the cooperation that occurs there is no zero-sum condition.
As in game theory, if one party benefits, then the other party does not benefit (zero). This is
because all parties involved in cooperative security in the field of cybersecurity both benefit
in the form of information, equipment assistance, and other benefits in efforts to deal with
threats to national security that are equally faced, namely cyber crime.
Conclusion
Since the invention and global use of the internet around the world, a new non-
traditional threat to national security has emerged, namely cyber crime. Because of this threat,
which in 2010 was designated by the United Nations as one of the new emerging crimes in the
UN Conference of States Parties on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), countries
around the world began to pay attention and develop cyber security.
United States, as a country with high internet usage and several government service
sectors controlled online, has also developed its cybersecurity. Cybersecurity in United States
began to be developed in 2007, and was later strengthened by the establishment of BSSN
which became the spearhead in the cyber domain in United States. In addition to coordinating
its efforts with other government agencies within the country, United States also conducts
cyber diplomacy outward. This diplomacy involves cooperation with other countries related
to improving cyber security as part of national security. United States conducts cooperation
both in the bilateral and multilateral realms, which can be categorized under the concept of
cooperative security based on the same goal of preventing threats to national security.
