ROMAN CULTURE AND SOCIETY
After they conquered Greece, the Romans adopted many aspects of Greek
culture and society. As the Roman poet Horace said, “Captive Greece took captive her
rude conqueror.”
Roman Arts and Literature
As part of their plunder, Roman military commanders shipped Greek manuscripts
and artworks back to Rome. By adapting Greek styles, the Romans spread Greco-
Roman civilization throughout their empire.
Art and Architecture
During the third and second centuries b.c., the Romans adopted many features
of the Greek style of art. They developed a taste for Greek statues, which they placed
in public buildings and in their houses. Reproductions of Greek statues became
popular once the supply of original works ran low. While Greek sculptors aimed for an
ideal appearance in their figures, Roman sculptors produced more realistic works that
included even unattractive physical details. They painted portraits and landscapes on
the walls of villas. The Romans excelled in architecture, a highly practical art. Although
they continued to use Greek styles such as colonnades and rectangular buildings, the
Romans also used curved forms: the arch, the vault, and the dome. The Romans were
the first people in antiquity to use concrete on a massive scale. Using concrete along
with the new architectural forms made it possible for the Romans to construct huge
buildings undreamed of by the Greeks. The Romans were superb builders. Their
remarkable engineering skills were put to use constructing roads, bridges, and
aqueducts. The Romans built a network of some 50,000 miles (80,450 km) of roads
throughout the empire. In Rome, almost a dozen aqueducts kept a population of one
million supplied with water.
Literature
Although there were many talented writers, the high point of Latin literature was
reached in the Age of Augustus. Indeed, the Augustan Age has been called the golden
age of Latin literature. The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was Virgil.
The son of a small landholder in northern Italy near Mantua, he welcomed the rule of
Augustus and wrote his masterpiece, the Aeneid (ih•NEE•uhd), in honor of Rome.
Virgil’s epic poem was meant to rival the work of Homer. The character Aeneas is the
ideal Roman whose virtues are duty, piety, and faithfulness. Aeneas fulfilled his
purpose by establishing the Romans in Italy and starting Rome on its mission to rule
the world. The poem was also meant to express that Rome’s gift was the art of ruling.
Another prominent Augustan poet was Horace, a friend of Virgil’s. He was a
sophisticated writer who enjoyed pointing out to his fellow Romans the “follies and
vices of his age.” Horace mostly laughs at the weaknesses of humans. In the Satires,
Horace directs attacks against job dissatisfaction and greed. “How does it happen,
Maecenas, that no man alone is content with his lot?” The most famous Latin prose
work of the golden age was written by the historian Livy, whose masterpiece was The
Early History of Rome. In 142 books, of which only 35 survive, Livy traced Roman
history to 9 b.c. Livy saw history in terms of moral lessons.
His stories revealed the character of the chief figures and demonstrated the
virtues that had made Rome great. Livy had a serious weakness as a historian: he
was not always concerned about the factual accuracy of his stories. He did tell a good
tale, and his work became the standard history of Rome for a long time. One such tale
is about a simple farmer, Cincinnatus, whom the Senate names dictator to save Rome.
Life in Ancient Rome
At the heart of the Roman social structure stood the family, headed by the
paterfamilias—the dominant male. The household also included the wife, sons with
their wives and children, unmarried daughters, and slaves.
Family Life and Women’s Roles
Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their children at home. All Roman
upperclass children—boys and girls—were expected to learn to read. The father was
the chief figure in providing for the education of his children. He decided whether to
teach his children himself, acquire a teacher for them, or send them to school.
Teachers were often Greek slaves because upperclass Romans had to learn Greek to
prosper in the empire. Roman boys learned reading and writing, moral principles and
family values, law, and physical training to prepare them to be soldiers. At age 16,
childhood ended for Roman males. At a special ceremony, a young Roman exchanged
his purple-edged toga for a plain white toga—the toga of manhood.
Some parents in upper-class families provided education for their daughters by
hiring private tutors or sending the girls to primary schools. However, at the age when
boys were entering secondary schools, girls were entering into marriage. Like the
Greeks, Roman males believed that the weakness of females made it necessary for
women to have male guardians. The paterfamilias had that responsibility. When he
died, his sons or nearest male relatives assumed the role of guardian. Fathers also
arranged the marriages of their daughters. For females, the legal minimum age for
marriage was 12, although 14 was a more common age. For males, the legal minimum
age was 14, although most men married later. Traditionally, Roman marriages were
meant to be for life, but divorce was introduced in the third century b.c. and became
fairly easy to obtain. Either husband or wife could ask for a divorce. By the 100s a.d.,
changes were occurring in the Roman family. The paterfamilias no longer had absolute
authority over his children. He could not sell his children into slavery or have them put
to death. The husband’s absolute authority over his wife also disappeared. Women
were no longer required to have guardians. Upper-class Roman women in the Early
Empire had considerable freedom and independence. They had the right to own,
inherit, and sell property. Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segregated from
males in the home. Outside their homes, upper-class women could attend races, the
theater, and the amphitheater; however, they had to sit in separate female sections.
When they went out, women of rank were still accompanied by maids and
companions. Women could not participate in politics but influenced politics through
their husbands.
Slavery and Slave Revolts
Slavery was common throughout the ancient world, but no people had more
slaves or relied so much on slave labor as the Romans did. Before the third century
b.c., a small Roman farmer might possess one or two slaves, who would help farm his
few acres and work in the house. These slaves would most likely be from Italy and be
regarded as a part of the family household. The very rich would have many slaves.
The Roman conquest of the Mediterranean brought a change in the use of slaves.
Large numbers of foreign peoples who had been captured in wars were brought back
to Italy as slaves. Greek slaves were in much demand as tutors, musicians, doctors,
and artists. Roman businessmen would employ them as shop assistants or
craftspeople. Slaves of all nationalities were used as household workers, such as
cooks, valets, waiters, cleaners, and gardeners. Slaves were used as farm laborers
on the large estates of the wealthy. Roads, aqueducts, and other public structures
were built by contractors using slave labor. The conditions under which these slaves
lived were often pitiful. One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper to work slaves
to death and then replace them than it was to treat them well. Some slaves revolted
against their owners and even murdered them, causing some Romans to live in great
fear of their slaves. The murder of a master by a slave might mean the execution of
all the other household slaves. The most famous slave revolt in Italy occurred in 73
b.c. Led by the gladiator Spartacus, the revolt broke out in southern Italy and involved
70,000 slaves. Spartacus managed to defeat several Roman armies before being
trapped and killed in 71 b.c. The Romans crucified—put to death by nailing to a cross—
6,000 of Spartacus’s followers.
Living Conditions in Rome
At the center of the colossal Roman Empire was Rome. Truly a capital city, Rome
had the largest population of any city in the empire—close to one million by the time
of Augustus. People from all over the empire resided there. Rome was the place to be.
Rome boasted public buildings unequaled anywhere in the empire. Its temples,
markets, baths, theaters, governmental buildings, and amphitheaters gave parts of the
city an appearance of grandeur and magnificence. On the other hand, Rome was an
overcrowded and noisy city. Because of the congestion, cart and wagon traffic was
banned from the streets during the day. However, the noise from the traffic at night
often made sleep difficult. Walking in Rome at night was also dangerous. Although
Augustus had organized a police force, people were assaulted or robbed. They could
also be soaked by filth thrown out of the upper story windows of Rome’s massive
apartment buildings. A large gulf existed between rich and poor. The rich had
comfortable villas, while the poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae, which might
be six stories high. Constructed of concrete walls with wooden beam floors, these
buildings were usually poorly built and often collapsed.
Fire was a constant threat in the insulae where stoves, torches, candles, and
lamps were used for heat and light. Once started, fires were extremely difficult to put
out. The famous fire of a.d. 64, which Nero was falsely accused of starting, destroyed
a large part of the city. High rents forced entire families to live in one room. There was
no plumbing or central heating. These conditions made homes uncomfortable so many
poor Romans spent most of their time outdoors in the streets. Although it was the
center of a great empire, Rome had serious problems. Beginning with Augustus, the
emperors provided food for the city poor. About two hundred thousand people received
free grain. Even so, conditions remained grim for the poor. Large-scale entertainment
was provided for the inhabitants of Rome. The poet Juvenal said of the Roman
masses, “But nowadays, with no vote . . . , their motto is ‘Couldn’t care less.’ Time was
when their vote elected generals, heads of state, commanders of legions: but now . .
. there’s only two things that concern them: Bread and Circuses.” Public spectacles
were provided by the emperor as part of the great religious festivals celebrated by the
state. The festivals included three major types of entertainment. At the Circus
Maximus, horse and chariot races attracted hundreds of thousands. Dramatic
performances were held in theaters. The most famous of all the public spectacles,
however, were the gladiatorial shows.
