BILINGUALISM
Bilinguals are people who are fluent in two languages. It is not particularly
necessary for bilinguals to be equally fluent in both languages. Fluency need not to be
a binary classification but rather a continuum. While people often speak of first
language or mother tongue and second language, psycholinguists refer to the
language learned first as L1 and the language learned after that as L2. Sometimes the
language learned second may become the primary language of use in everyday life
and the language learned first may become the secondary language in later life.
Bilingualism can also be categorised as follows:
• Simultaneous bilingualism: L1 and L2 learned simultaneously
• Early sequential bilingualism: L1 is learned first and L2 is learned in childhood
• Late sequential bilingualism: L1 is learned first and L2 is learned in adolescence or
later
Bilingualism is not always a matter of choice. Some societies have a history of
attempting to impose a language on others. In others, one language may be held as
having higher prestige or allowing for better opportunities. On the other hand,
bilingualism (or multilingualism) was the norm throughout most of human history until
the rise of linguistically and ethnically divided states in Europe. Most human beings
lived in multilingual societies or used one language in common use while learning
another as a language of higher education (as with Latin in Europe, Sanskrit in India,
Classical Chinese in China and English in the modern world).
1. The Advantages of Bilingualism
Bilingualism doesn’t appear to have any linguistic disadvantages (Snow, 1993).
There have be cases of initial delay in vocabulary acquisition in one language but this
soon passes. Bilinguals tend to have a slight deficit in working memory tasks in L2.
However, they have greater metalinguistic awareness and verbal fluency (Ben-Zeev,
1977; Bialystock, 2001; Cook, 1997). For example, children in Canadian French
immersion programs tended to score highly on creativity tests than monolinguals
(Lambert, Tucker & d’Anglejan, 1973). Being a bilingual gives you the awareness that
words are arbitrary symbols for things. There are some researchers who have found
interference between L1 and L2 (Harley & Wang, 1997). However, there is evidence
to suggest that bilingualism provides a general cognitive advantage. There is even
some data that indicates that bilingualism protects individuals from the development
of Alzheimer’s disease by slowing down cognitive aging (Bialystok, Craik, & Luk,
2012).
2. Bilingual Language Processing
The issue of how we switch between two languages is an interesting topic for
bilingual research. Kroll and Stewart (1994) proposed a model of asymmetric
translation between L1 and L2. The Word Association Model (see Figure 6.1) has the
L1 word directly associated with its L2 equivalent. In order to access the concept of a
word, L2 words must first activate their L1 equivalent. In contrast to this, the Concept
Mediation Model has words in L1 and L2 directly associated with the concepts.
However, there are no direct links between the words in L1 and L2. Potter et al. (1984)
tested these models by comparing the time it took bilinguals to translate between L1
and L2 and L2 picture-naming. The assumption is that picture naming requires
conceptual processing. The Word Association Model predicts that picture-naming in
L2 should take longer than translation as it has two steps (link to L1 and then link to
the concept). The Concept Mediation Model on the other hand predicts that both tasks
should take more or less the same amount of time as the concept is linked to the words
in L1 and L2. The results favoured the Concept Mediation Model. Kroll and Curley
(1988) and Chen and Leung (1989) replicated the results of Potter et al. (1984) using
participants of lower proficiency in L2. They found that learners at an earlier stage of
acquisition were quicker in translation from L1 to L2 than L2 picture-naming. This
supported the Word Association Model. While Kroll and Curley (1988) and Chen and
Leung (1989) did replicate the findings of Potter et al. (1984) for highly proficient
bilinguals, they did identify a transition phase which relied on translating between L1
and L2 with possible mediation of the concept. Therefore, Kroll and Stewart (1994)
proposed the Revised Hierarchical Model (see Figure 6.3) which integrated the
connections from the Word Association Model and the Concept Mediation Model.
The Revised Hierarchical Model make two assumptions:
1. L1 words are more strongly connected to concepts than L2 words, and
2. L2 words are more strongly connected to their translations in L1 than vice
versa. As learners become more proficient in L2, they begin to develop the
ability to process L2 words directly. However, the connections for L1 remain
stronger than for L2.
3. Models of Bilingualism
The most influential model of bilingualism is the Bilingual Interactive Activation
Plus (BIA+) model (Dijkstra & van Heuven, 2002; Dijkstra, van Heuven, & Grainger,
1998). The model tries to bring together evidence from bilingual orthographic
processing as well as the recognition of words that look the same in two languages
(cognates). The model is composed of a network of nodes at every level of
representation from segmental (orthographic/phonemic), sub-lexical, to lexical. The
model is bottom-up. Word recognition isn’t affected by whether the task is naming or
reading. The model assumes a distinction between word identification and task-based
sub-systems. The lexicon is integrated with parallel access as well as temporal decay
of L2. This decay is based on the assumption that word frequency affects the resting
potential of the nodes for particular words. The model is supported by neuroimaging
studies. The Semantic, Orthographic, Phonological Interactive Activation (SOPHIA)
model is the implemented version of the BIA+ model. It adds phonology and semantics
with layers for letters/phonemes, clusters/ syllables/words and semantics. In SOPHIA,
the language nodes no longer inhibit the non-target language. The model still uses
orthographic information as input.
4. Second Language Acquisition
Second language acquisition is the attempt to acquire a language while already
competent in another. There is a distinction between a child being naturally exposed
to two languages and a child or adult learning in a classroom setting. In terms of
second language acquisition itself, linguistic structures such as syntax may be harder
to grasp after a critical period. People also have less time and motivation to pursue
language learning in earnest. In addition, the contrasts between L1 and L2 may aid or
hinder acquisition. Generally, the more different L2 is from L1 in some feature, the
more difficult it will be to learn. Initial learning of L2 is good and then declines before
the learner becomes more proficient (McLaughlin & Heredia, 1996). This decline is
explained by the substitution of less complex internal representations with more
complex ones. For example, the learner acquires the use of syntactic rules as opposed
to repeating sentences by rote. The traditional method for second language teaching
is based on translating from one language into another. On the other hand, direct
learning involves learning conversational skills in L2. Some methods prefer speaking
and listening over reading and writing. Immersive learning is a technique where all
learning is conducted in L2. In addition to various teaching methods, the
characteristics of the individual learner also play a role in second language acquisition.
Carroll (1981) identified four sources of variations:
• Phonetic coding ability: the ability to identify new phonemes in L2
• Grammatical sensitivity: the ability to recognise words in terms of their grammatical
function
• Rote learning ability: the ability to learn through memorization and recall
• Inductive leaning ability: the ability to infer linguistic rules from the language
Pidgins and Creoles of Canada
a. Michif
The language of the Métis people of Canada and the United States. The
Métis people are descendants of European fur traders (mainly French and
Scottish) and First Nations women (mainly Cree, Nakota, and Ojibwe). It emerged
in the 19th century as a mixed language. Michif is a mixture of Cree and French
with additional borrowings from English, Ojibwe and Assiniboine. It has the noun
phrase phonology, lexicon, morphology, and syntax of French and the verb phrase
phonology, lexicon, morphology, and syntax of Plains Cree.
• Native to ◦ Canada
• Region ◦ Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Northwestern Ontario, Turtle
Mountain Indian Reservation in North Dakota
• Native speakers ◦ 730
• Language family ◦ Mixed Cree–Métis French
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: crg ◦ Glottolog: mich1243 ◦ ELP: Michif
b. Labrador Inuit Pidgin French
A French Pidgin spoken by Breton and Basque fisherman and the Inuit of
Labrador.
• Native to ◦ Canada
• Region ◦ Straits of Belle Isle
• Native speakers ◦ Extinct
• Language family ◦ French Pidgin
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: None ◦ Glottolog bell: 1264 ◦ ELP: None
c. Chiac
A variety of Acadian French noted for its code-mixing with English, archaic
phrases from Middle French and loan words from the Eastern Algonquian
languages.
• Native to ◦ Canada
• Region ◦ Maritime provinces, mainly in southeastern New-Brunswick
• Native speakers ◦ Unknown
• Language family ◦ Indo-European
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: None ◦ Glottolog bell: none ◦ ELP: None ◦
Linguasphere: 51-AAA-am
d. Bungi dialect
A dialect of English influenced by Scottish English, the Orcadian dialect of
Scots, Norn, Scottish Gaelic, French, Cree, and Ojibwe. Spoken in modern-day
Manitoba. In 1870, about 5,000 Métis were native speakers of Bungi but it has
diminished to only a few speakers today making it potentially extinct.
• Native to ◦ Canada • Region ◦ Red River Colony and Assiniboia, present-day
Manitoba
• Native speakers ◦ approximately 5,000 in 1870; estimated less than 200 in 1993;
possibly extinct • Language family ◦ Indo-European
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: None ◦ Glottolog: None ◦ ELP: Non
e. Slavey Jargon
A traders language used in the Yukon region. This pidgin is based on the
Slavey language with elements from French, Cree as well as aspects of English.
The nouns generally consist of English, Chipewyan, and Slavey and the verbs and
pronouns are from French.
• Native to ◦ Canada
• Region ◦ Yukon (Liard and Mackenzie rivers)
• Native speakers ◦ Extinct • Language family ◦ Slavey-based pidgin
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: None ◦ Glottolog: brok1250 ◦ ELP: None
f. Algonquian–Basque pidgin
A pidgin based on Basque and Algonquin spoken around the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence. It was last recored in the early 18th century.
• Native to ◦ Canada
• Region ◦ Gulf of Saint Lawrence
• Native speakers ◦ Extinct since the 18th century
• Language family ◦ Basque-based pidgin
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: None ◦ Glottolog: basq1252 ◦ ELP: None
g. Chinook Jargon
A language originating from a pidgin trade language in the Pacific
Northwest. It is partially descended from Chinook with loan words from French and
English. British Columbian English and Pacific Northwest English have several
words still in current use which are loanwords from the Chinook Jargon.
• Native to ◦ Canada, United States
• Region ◦ Pacific Northwest (Interior and Coast): Alaska, British Columbia,
Washington State, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Northern California
• Native speakers ◦ More than 640 with at least 3 native speakers
• Language family ◦ Wakashan, Chinookan, and Indo-European
• Language codes ◦ ISO 639-3: chn ◦ Glottolog: pidg1254, chin1272 ◦ ELP: Chinook
Wawa
