STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN INDUSTRIAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PSY 430 - INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WEEK 3
A.
Definition of Stress Work:
Problems are closely related to the lives of every individual. These problems can then
become a source of stress for individuals. Each individual has different stress-inducing
situations as well as individual ways of coping with stress. In a sense, some situations can
trigger stress for some individuals but not others and ways of coping with stress can be
effective for some individuals but ineffective for others. Situations, events, or actions that can
potentially interfere or can cause stress are called stressors (Triatna, 2015).
Stress is a term derived from the Latin stingere which means "hard" (stricus). This term
has changed along with the development of studies that continue from time to time from
straise, strest, stressce, and stress (Nasrudin, 2010). Understanding related to stress can be
started from the definition of stress according to Anoraga (1992; Triatna, 2015), saying that
stress is a form of a person's response, both physical and mental, to a change in the
environment that is felt to interfere and cause him to be threatened. This response to
environmental changes is in the form of tension, so it is not an ordinary response. Stress is a
condition in which a person experiences tension due to conditions that affect him (Nasrudin,
2010).
Surya (1994; Triatna, 2015), states that stress is a condition in which a person experiences
tension due to conditions that affect him. The same thing was also conveyed by Handoko
(1994; Triatna, 2015), who said that stress is a condition of tension that affects emotions,
thought processes and one's condition. As for Gibson et al (1993; Triatna, 2015), defines
stress as an adaptable response that is influenced by individual differences and or
psychological processes, It is a consequence of any external action (environment), situation or
event that places too many psychological and/or physical demands on a person.
Another opinion from Hamali (2016) defines stress as a psychological and physical
reaction to extended internal or environmental conditions, and the adaptive skills of
overworked individuals. Stress is an adaptive response to a realized or unconscious threat.
The amount of stress generated through a situation depends on one's perception of the
situation, not the situation itself, or in other words, stress is a relative phenomenon. Some
stress is good, a low to moderate amount of stress will allow many people to carry out their
work with more better by increasing their work intensity, alertness, and ability to react. This is
especially true if stress arises in connection with challenges on the job and not obstacles that
prevent employees from doing their jobs effectively (Robbins and Judge, 2015). However, too
much stress places unattainable demands on a person, which can result in lower performance
(Robbins and Judge, 2015). According to Beehr and Newman (1978; Wijono, 2015) work
stress can be defined as a condition that arises in the interaction between humans and work. In
general, stress is defined as an external stimulus that disrupts the psychological, physical, and
chemical functions in an individual's body (Nykodym and George, 1989; Wijono, 2015). In
addition, stress is also a form of role vagueness, role conflict, and excessive workload. This
will interfere with the ability and work results of individuals at work (Keenan and Newton,
1984; Wijono, 2015)
The influence of the social environment may be one of the causes of work stress so that it
can have an impact on work motivation. Individuals tend to respond and act according to the
demands of their social environment which is influenced by community members in other
social environments (Korman, 1977; Wijono, 2015). People who want success for members in
their social environment will provide support for their work and motivation for its members to
achieve this success. Therefore, it can be concluded that what affects individual motivation in
achieving success is the stress in the social environment, not work stress.
From the above opinions, it can be concluded that work stress is a psychological and
physical reaction to internal conditions or a change in the environment that is felt to interfere
and have an impact on individual work results.
B.
Dimensions of Job Stress:
According to Theorell (2001; Deniz et al, 2015) job stress is divided into 3 dimensions,
namely:
1.
Social support:
The social support in question is support in the form of either labor assistance or
motivation and understanding from coworkers. The level of social support that each
worker gets has an influence on the potential for work stress. If the work environment
provides positive support by working together at work, as well as providing attention and
understanding can increase one's motivation to work. It will automatically avoid work
stress, because its obligations are immediately resolved with high productivity.
Conversely, if the provision of social support is only a little or can be negative such as
conflict and misunderstanding, there is no cooperation, mutual understanding and mutual
attention, it will reduce work productivity. Obligations cannot be quickly resolved so that
they continue to accumulate and become pressure which leads to work stress.
2.
Control:
When working, control becomes important to manage both mental, energy, and time.
In an agency or organization there are many tasks, obstacles, and demands that must be
controlled. In order for employees to fulfill all their obligations, they must control
themselves.
Mental control is related to good emotional regulation in dealing with work-related
and non-work-related problems. Sometimes there are some workers who link problems
outside of work into their work, thus creating unnecessary problems. If emotions cannot
be controlled, it will be difficult for people to think optimally as usual in problem solving
and finding ways to complete obligations.
The control of energy relates to how they manage their physical condition at work.
Finding an effective way to reduce the amount of energy expended in doing so. Avoiding
unnecessary activities, as they can be a waste of energy.
Time control relates to how to manage time properly. Every obligation in work has a
target and timeline that regulates the course of a job. There is time to work, and time to
rest. In order for the target to be achieved according to the timeline, it must really utilize
the time available. Of course, if you are late or early, both have their own consequences.
However, tardiness has the potential to cause work stress in employees.
3.
Workload:
Workload is related to the obligations they must complete, and the time that
determines it. The obligations or what can be called the dependents of each worker are
different. Adjusting to the position, ability, and time utilization. All three play a role in
determining how heavy the workload borne by each worker is. Each position has its own
duties in an agency, of course, the division is adjusted to its capabilities. The demands
given must be completed immediately by employees according to the scheduled time, if it
is late or not completed, there will be a buildup of demands so that it can lead to various
problems later, including work stress.
C.
Causes of Stress Work:
There are several sources of job stress in individuals. The sources stress or usually called
with A stressor is a situation or event that triggers stress. Stress can be caused by several
factors, including those from work factors, non-work factors, and factors from a person's
personality (Triatna, 2015). There are several factors that cause employees who experience
job stress but still feel satisfied with their work. The factor is that the task at hand has a
challenge and creates a sense of pleasure if it is able to complete it well. The next factor is the
existence of effective communication between members and conducive cooperation between
superiors and employees. The last factor is the extent to which employees perceive that
management gives great flexibility to its employees (McGee, Goodson, and Cashman, 1984;
Wijono, 2015). Besides that also there is factors internal individual that There are internal
individual factors that also affect job satisfaction and employee job stress, namely the
personality and nature of the employee. In the sense that employees who are able to manage
their personality and nature well and are given clear task specifications, these employees will
be motivated to complete their work even though it is difficult to complete their work even
though it is difficult. Therefore, it can be concluded that job stress may not necessarily affect
employee motivation (McGee et al., 2014), 1984; Wijono, 2015)
Basically, the source of stress is the result of reciprocity between an individual and their
environment. There are two factors from an individual's environment that are sources of
stress, namely work factors and factors outside of work.
1)
Work factors:
The identification of sources of work stress was researched by Soewondo (1993;
Wijono, 2015) and resulted in, among other things, sources of stress can be related to:
a.
Workplace, which is a place where an employee carries out his work activities feels
uncomfortable, such as the temperature of the workspace is too hot or too cold,
cramped, noisy or poorly lit workspace;
b.
The content of work, i.e. things related to work such as work time limits, workload,
time pressure, complexity of work, accumulated work, new work that is not yet
known can also be a source of stress.
c.
Job conditions that do not support career development such as unclear career,
delayed promotion, not promoted, unclear employment status, not getting rewasd are
things that can also be stressors at work;
d.
Interpersonal relationships at work, such as unbalanced relationships such as bosses
who are too demanding, annoying bosses, lack of appreciation from the leadership,
capricious boss decisions, unpleasant attitudes of colleagues, feeling incompatible
with coworkers, lack of openness between superiors and subordinates, subordinates
who need instructions at any time in completing routine work can also be a source of
stress for someone.
2)
Factors outside of work:
There are several factors outside of work that have the potential to become triggers or
sources of stress (Tosi et al, 1990; Wijono, 2015), such as:
a.
Changes in Life Structure
In the face of changes in life, a person needs self-adjustment to be able to see the
relationship between self-development and the different views that occur from personal
life which are reflected in life changes. There are three dimensions of life structure that
can cause stress, namely:
(1)
The social culture dimension is a change in the structure of life related to activities
carried out with family, religious, hereditary, occupational structures, and other
broad social factors.
(2)
There is a change in the status of relationships with others in the world of social
culture, such as a person taking on the role of husband or wife, as coworkers, as
parents, and as citizens of a country.
(3)
The aspect of the individual himself is the change in the Individual because some
individuals have a tendency to have characteristics that are not resistant to pressure,
threats, easy, and anxious.
b.
Social Support received:
One of the factors outside of work that is a source of stress is the lack of social
support that a person receives. Social support is a way of communication that is positive,
because it contains feelings of like, belief, appreciation, self-acceptance, support and
confidence in the interests of others (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Wijono, 2015).
c.
Locus of Control:
Some individuals believe that they can influence their work environment through
what they do and how they do it. Individuals who have an internal locus of control will
deal with potential stress, by first studying events that are considered potentially
threatening to themselves, then determining certain attitudes rationally in dealing with the
work stress.
Meanwhile, individuals who have an external locus of control consider that all events
that occur in their work environment can affect them. In that sense, the attitude to life he
takes is controlled by the environmental factors around him. Individuals who have
feelings of anxiety, easy stress, depression, neurosis, work and life are always determined
by the fate that controls them (Parkes, 1984; Munandar. 2014).
d.
Type A and B Personality:
Each individual has personality traits that are different from one another. According
to Friedman and Rosenman (1974; Wijono, 2015) categorize personality into two types
There are two different personality types, type A and type B. Both personality types will
differ in coping with changes that occur in the surrounding environment. Some of the
characteristics that can be seen from these two types are that individuals are able to do
tasks quickly, have a high competitive attitude, want to immediately achieve their desired
goals at any cost or complete tasks faster than the specified time period, want to achieve
better achievements, are ambitious, aggressive, easily feel stressed, easily depressed,
hasty, easily agitated, often experience tension, and speak excitedly (explosive).
The opposite of this type is the type B personality which
He is relaxed, calm, does not like difficulties, rarely shows anger, spends a lot of time
doing his hobbies, is not easily stressed, is not easily envious, works continuously, has
plenty of time, and speaks in a low tone of voice and his work speed is slow.
e.
Self-esteem:
Self-esteem is how much a person accepts and attempts to evaluate themselves or it
can also be called a self-concept. If individuals have a positive self-concept, their self-
esteem is also high so that they will be able to develop themselves in dealing with various
conditions, situations or events that disturb, suppress or threaten them, thus, the work
stress experienced will be low. Conversely, someone who has low self-esteem in dealing
with various conditions, situations or events that interfere, suppress or threaten in their
work, will make them experience high work stress because of their low self-confidence
(Tosi, et al., 1986; Wijono, 2015).
f.
Flexibility and rigidity:
People who have flexible tendencies are people who can adjust to demands or
pressures, because they are better at cooperating with others compared to rigid people
(Kahn et al., 1964; Wijono, 2015).
Meanwhile, rigid people are people who show a closed attitude to their surroundings,
are oriented towards general things, tend to want to look neat, are intolerant and like to
criticize others, and easily experience pressures or stress in their work. People who are
rigid when facing work stress will have a tendency to respond:
(1)
Denying or resisting the pressure or not reacting to the role pressure or even ignoring
it.
(2)
Rejecting people who put pressure on them.
(3)
Becoming increasingly dependent on their superiors when they are under pressure
related to the role burden they receive, conflicts that arise or role vagueness in their
work.
(4)
When under pressure, a rigid person will respond hard, work more than others in
general, care about the views of others by continuing to try to perfect the task /
complete the task so that it has more value in the organization where he works.
g.
Ability:
Ability is one aspect that can influence individual responses to stressful conditions,
situations, or events. Individuals who have high abilities tend to have more control over
conditions, situations or events that cause stress than individuals who have low abilities
in dealing with stress (Beer and Newman, 1978; Wijono, 2015). There are three reasons
that high ability individuals may be better at dealing with stress.
(1)
With his higher abilities than others, he can perform his role-laden tasks
quantitatively and qualitatively.
(2)
People who have high abilities tend to know the limits of their ability to carry out
their tasks. He will be better able to assess his success in dealing with stressful
situations than a person with low ability.
(3)
People who have high abilities in their work tend to have more self-control over
conditions, situations, or events that cause job stress than people who have lower
abilities in responding to job stress (Wijono, 2015).
D.
The Impact of Work Stress :
As it is known that work stress arises because of environmental demands and the response
of each individual in dealing with it can be different. The problem of work stress in corporate
organizations is an important symptom observed since the emergence of demands for
efficiency in work (Marliani, 2015). Job stress has consequences, both physical and mental to
the dynamics of a person's behavior depending on how he faces or responds to the conditions
that cause stress itself. The consequences of this stress vary. There are positive consequences,
which can motivate a person, stimulate creativity, encourage to work diligently, or can even
provide inspiration to live better. But many also have negative consequences, which are
destructive and dangerous (Triatna, 2015).
Thus stress can cause impacts or consequences in psychological, physical, behavioral and
environmental aspects (Muhammad Surya, 1994; Triatna, 2015).
1)
Psychological aspects (irritability, frustration, anxiety, aggression, nervousness, panic,
boredom, apathy, depression, lack of enthusiasm, loss of confidence).
2)
Physical aspects (hormonal changes, high blood pressure, increased heart rate, difficulty
breathing, digestive disorders, nervous disorders).
3)
Behavioral aspects (less able to make decisions, forgetful, sensitive, passive, less
responsible).
4)
Environmental aspects (less harmonious household atmosphere, less productive work
environment, unsettled society).
A person experiencing high levels of stress has been implicated as a contributing factor in
heart disease, stroke, cancer, respiratory disorders, bone loss, gastric disorders, insomnia,
psychological disorders (depression, suicide), psychosomatic illnesses, skin disorders, chronic
diseases, and pain (Kaswan, 2017).
Another opinion according to Cox (1978; Gibson et al., 1993; Triatna, 2015), in general,
the consequences or effects of stress are in several categories, including:
1)
Subjective Effects: anxiety, aggression, indifference, boredom, depression, fatigue,
frustration, loss of patience, low self-esteem, nervousness, and feelings of isolation.
2)
Behavioral Consequences: alcoholism, emotional outbursts, excessive eating or drinking,
acting on impulses that are sometimes irrational and nervous laughter.
3)
Cognitive Effects: inability to make healthy decisions, dry mouth, profuse sweating,
intermittent hot flashes.
4)
Organizational consequences: absenteeism, low productivity, alienation, decreased
commitment and loyalty to the work organization.
E.
Stress Management Work:
Occupational stress needs to be managed in order to reduce the negative impact it can
have. Stress management means trying to prevent the onset of stress, increase the stress
threshold of the individual and accommodate the physiological consequences of stress. Stress
management aims to prevent the development of short-term stress into long-term stress or
chronic stress (Munandar, 2014). Stress in organizations and management is a phenomenon
that cannot be avoided by every leader or manager. Under certain conditions stress becomes
something beneficial but in other conditions, stress becomes a detrimental condition (Triatna,
2015).
The usual reaction to stress is flight or fight, 'escaping', physically or psychologically,
from the stressful situation or 'fighting' the stress. Physical escape is leaving the stressful
workspace, resigning from job duties, transferring jobs, working for another company.
Psychological escape is escaping from the real world into an imaginary world, trying to forget
stressful situations that cause frustration by drinking alcohol, smoking marijuana, repressing
(Munandar, 2014). According to Gibson (1993; Triatna 2015), in all likelihood stress is not on
the list of problems that may arise. So, the first step in any program to manage acceptable
stress is to acknowledge that it exists.
Any program to deal with stress should start with
determine whether stress exists and what is causing the stress. Countermeasures for this stress
can be organizational programs and or individual programs. The interactive view says that
stress is determined by factors in the environment and factors from the individual.
Stress management can be done in the following ways (Munandar, 2014):
1)
Change factors in the environment so that they do not become stressors.
2)
Change factors within the individual in order:
a.
Increased stress threshold, not quickly perceiving the situation at hand as stressful.
b.
Increased stress tolerance, can withstand stressful situations longer, and does not show
the damaging effects of stress on the body as quickly. Can maintain their health.
According to Robbins and Judge (2015), there are two approaches to stress, namely the
individual approach and the organizational approach. The individual approach explains that
an employee can assume personal responsibility for reducing their stress levels. Individual
strategies that have proven effective include implementing time management techniques,
increasing physical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding social support networks. The
organizational approach explains that there are several factors that cause stress, mainly task
and role demands, organizational structure controlled by management. As such, these factors
can be modified or changed. Strategies that management may wish to consider include
improved personnel selection and job placement, use of realistic goal setting, job redesign,
increased employee involvement, improved organizational communication, and enforcement
of corporate welfare programs.
Job design can also reduce work overload, time pressures and role confusion.
Furthermore, communication can be improved to provide feedback on work performance, and
participation can be increased. Better communication can improve employees' understanding
of stressful situations, and training programs can be organized to develop skills and attitudes
in handling stress. Counseling services are the most effective way to help employees deal with
stress (Handoko, 2014).
The definition of counseling or guidance and counseling is the discussion of a problem
with an employee, with the intention of helping the employee to handle the problem properly.
Counseling aims to make people more effective in solving their problems (Handoko, 2014).
Based on the amount of direction given in the counseling process, there are three types of
counseling, namely (Handoko, 2014):
1)
Directive Counseling:
Directive counseling is the process of listening to the employee's emotional problems,
deciding with the employee what should be done, and then informing and motivating the
employee to carry it out.
2)
Non-directive counseling:
Nondirective, or client-centered, counseling is a process of listening attentively and
encouraging employees to explain problems that trouble them, understand them and
determine appropriate solutions. Thus, nondirective counseling centers on the employee
(counselee) rather than the counselor.
3)
Cooperative counseling:
Cooperative counseling is a reciprocal relationship between the counselor and the
employee that develops a cooperative exchange of ideas to help solve employee
problems. This type is not entirely centered on the employee and the counselor alone, but
integrates the various ideas, knowledge, views and values of both participants in the
counseling relationship (Handoko, 2014).
Mangkunegara (2007; Hamali, 2016) also revealed how to overcome work stress with
three patterns, namely,
1)
Healthy Pattern, which is the best pattern of dealing with stress with the ability to
manage behavior and actions so that stress does not cause disruption, but becomes
healthier and develops.
2)
The pattern of balance (harmony), which is a pattern of dealing with stress by
managing time and activities in a balanced (harmonious) manner and not causing
busyness and opposition, by managing time regularly.
3)
Pathological Pattern (damage), which is a pattern of coping with stress that has
negative consequences such as physical and socio-psychological disorders.
JOB SATISFACTION
A.
Definition of Job Satisfaction :
Job satisfaction has several definitions. Job satisfaction is the way an individual feels
about their job. Job satisfaction is the process of evaluating job characteristics so as to
produce positive emotions towards their work (Robbins and Judge, 2015). Blum and Naylor
(1986; Wijoyo, 2015) explain that job satisfaction is the result of various attitudes shown by
an employee. Attitudes are closely related to individual jobs which include factors such as
salary, supervision, situations, opportunities for advancement, rewards, abilities, and fair job
assessments from the company.
As for Handoko (2014) defines job satisfaction as a pleasant or unpleasant emotional state
with which employees view the work done. Job satisfaction reflects a person's feelings
towards their job. According to Spector (1997; Baliartati, 2016), job satisfaction is defined as
a person's feelings towards work and aspects of his job. This feeling towards his job can be
seen through two approaches, namely the general approach (global approach) and specific
(based on aspects). The general approach is used when someone wants to know the level of
satisfaction of a person in his job and its influence on other variables. In this case, the general
approach sees job satisfaction as a whole and the employee's feelings on his job as a whole.
The benchmark for satisfaction at work for each individual is different. Certain treatments
may satisfy one individual but not the other and vice versa. Marliani (2015) reveals that job
satisfaction is a (positive) attitude of the workforce towards their work, which arises based on
an assessment of the work situation. This assessment can be made of one of his jobs as a sense
of appreciation in the workplace achieves one of the most important values in work. Satisfied
employees like their work situation more than they dislike it.
Locke (1976; Wijoyo 2015) defines job satisfaction as the level of positive and pleasant
emotions felt by individuals towards their work. It is further argued that feelings related to job
satisfaction or dissatisfaction tend to reflect more the appraisal of employees related to current
and past work experiences rather than expectations for the future.
The limitations provided by Locke indicate two important elements in job satisfaction,
namely job values and basic needs. Job values are the goals to be achieved in performing job
duties. The desires achieved are job values that are considered important by the individual.
Furthermore, job values must match or help fulfill basic needs (Munandar, 2014).
Based on the various opinions that have been expressed about job satisfaction, it can be
concluded that job satisfaction is the attitude shown by individuals towards the work they do
in accordance with the assessment of the work situation.
B.
Job Satisfaction Theory:
1.
Discrepancy Theory:
In the mismatch theory, Locke (1976; Wijono, 2015) revealed that satisfaction or
dissatisfaction from some aspects of work uses the basis of consideration of two values,
namely (a) the perceived mismatch between what the individual wants and what he
receives in reality; and (b) what is the importance of the work desired by the individual.
Overall job satisfaction for an individual is the sum of job satisfaction from each aspect of
the job multiplied by the degree of importance of that aspect of the individual's job.
The feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that individuals have is very personal
because these feelings arise depending on how individuals perceive the discrepancy or
conflict between their desires and the results they have achieved Locke (1976; Wijono,
2015). The essence of the discrepancy theory is that a person will feel satisfied if the
desired conditions match the existing conditions. The greater the discrepancy between
existing conditions and desired conditions, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
(Marliani, 2015).
2.
Model Theory of Facet Satisfaction The model theory of facet satisfaction according
to Lawler's model (1977);
Wijono, 2015) with Adams' theory of justice. Lawler's model says that individuals will feel
satisfied with certain areas of their work (for example, relationships between coworkers,
superiors and subordinates, and/or salary). Individuals can accept and carry out their work
happily in the areas they perceive, then the results will be equal to the amount they
perceive from what they actually receive.
Lawler's theory (Marliani, 2015) asserts that (1) the number of fields that people
perceive to be appropriate depends on how people perceive job inputs; (2) the
characteristics of the job and the way of perceiving inputs and outputs from others are used
as a comparison for the person concerned; (3) the number of fields perceived by others
from things that are actually received depends on the perceived output of others compared
to themselves. The essence of this theory is that a person will be satisfied with a particular
aspect of his or her job, be it salary, boss, and coworkers and other things. If the amount of
perceived special aspects is the same as what should be received, then the individual will
feel job satisfaction (Marliani, 2015).
3.
Opponent-Process Theory
In conflict process theory, Landy views job satisfaction from a fundamentally different
perspective than other approaches. This theory emphasizes that everyone wants maintain
an emotional equilibrium (Munandar, 2014).
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction creates a physiological mechanism in the central
nervous system that activates opposing emotions. This theory explains that if individuals
gain success in their work, then individuals will feel happy as well as fear of failure or
unhappy. After a while the feelings of pleasure and pride gradually decrease and weaken
so that individuals will feel fear of failure or sadness before returning to normal conditions.
This happens because the emotion of displeasure (the opposite emotion) lasts a long time
(Wijono, 2015).
C.
Aspects of Job Satisfaction :
Job satisfaction consists of several aspects. According to Spector (1997; Baliartati, 2016)
there are several aspects of an employee's job satisfaction, namely:
1)
Salary:
Salary is a reward that an employee receives in return for all the things they do for the
company. Fair salary distribution to managers and the perception of salary in accordance
with the input provided by employees will increase job satisfaction (Spector, Dwyer &
Jex, 1988; Baliartati, 2014).
2)
Promotion opportunities:
The opportunity to get a promotion is an opportunity given to employees by the company,
which aims to move up the ranks in their work. Research shows that a person will be
more satisfied if the opportunity for promotion is given to him in accordance with what
has been done for the company (McKenna, 2000; Baliartati, 2016).
3)
Additional Allowance:
Additional benefits are additional income beyond the basic salary, such as health benefits
and recreation benefits. Research from McKenna (2000; Baliartati, 2016) shows that that
a person will be more satisfied to receive additional benefits if the benefits are
appropriate because they are in accordance with what has been done for the company.
4)
Bosses:
This aspect measures the extent to which employees are satisfied with their supervisor's
leadership style. According to McKenna (2000; Baliartati, 2016), employee job
satisfaction can be determined by the leadership style of their superiors.
5)
Awards from the Company:
Awards from the company are rewards given by the company as a sign of appreciation
for everything that employees have given to the company, which includes annual
bonuses, salary increases, or promotions. If the company gives awards that are in
accordance with the achievements or work of employees, these employees will be more
satisfied with their work.
6)
Work rules and procedures:
Work rules and procedures are related to the bureaucratic system where employees work.
If the company has regulations that are too complicated, employees tend to feel
dissatisfied with their work. Conversely, employees will feel more satisfied if the
company's bureaucratic system is considered easy and straightforward.
7)
Coworkers:
Coworkers are people who are in the same work environment as the employee concerned.
Employees can have high job satisfaction if they get coworkers who are supportive and
pleasant, and accompanied by harmony (McKenna, 2000; Baliartati, 2016).
8)
Nature of Work:
The job includes job description, variety of tasks, roles in the job, and work schedule.
Employees have high job satisfaction if the nature of their current job matches their
expectations.
9)
Communication within the company:
Communication within the company is the movement of information flow between
employees. If communication within the company is smooth If communication is smooth
and there are no problems, then employees will feel satisfied with their work. Vice versa,
if communication at work is not smooth, employees will tend to experience job
dissatisfaction.
Forms of job satisfaction can be reflected in certain behaviors. Job satisfaction can have
several forms or categories. Colquitt, Lepine, Wesson (2011) suggests that there are several
categories of job satisfaction:
1)
Pay Satisfaction:
Reflects workers' feelings about their pay, including how much they are entitled to,
securely earned, and sufficient for expenses. Pay satisfaction is based on a comparison
between the pay workers want and what they receive.
2)
Promotion Satisfaction
Reflects workers' feelings about the company's promotion policy and its implementation,
including whether promotions are frequent, honest, and merit-based. There are times
when many workers may not like more frequent promotions because they bring more
responsibility, and increase working hours. However, there are also workers who value
promotions because they provide opportunities for greater personal growth, better pay,
and more prestige.
3)
Supervision Satisfaction
Reflects workers' feelings about their supervisor, including whether their supervisor is
competent, courteous and a good communicator. Most workers expect bosses to help
them get what they value. This depends on whether their supervisor rewards
performance, helps workers obtain necessary resources, and protects workers from
unnecessary confusion. In addition, workers expect a boss they like. This depends on
whether the supervisor has a good personality, as well as whether the supervisor is a good
person whether they share the same values and beliefs as the workers.
4)
Coworker Satisfaction:
Reflects workers' feelings about their coworkers, including whether their coworkers are
intelligent, responsible, helpful, pleasant, and interesting. Workers expect their coworkers
to be helpful on the job. This is important because to some extent, they will be able to
rely on their coworkers in performing job tasks.
5)
Satisfaction with the work itself:
Reflects workers' feelings about their actual job tasks, including if they are challenging,
interesting, respected, and utilize important skills rather than the drudgery, repetitive and
uncomfortable nature of the job. This aspect focuses on what workers actually do.
6)
Altruism:
Altruism is the trait of helping others and is a moral cause. This trait is shown, among
others, by people's willingness to help coworkers when they are facing many tasks.
7)
Status:
Status involves prestige, having power over others, or feeling popular. A promotion on
the one hand indicates an increase in status, on the other hand it will provide satisfaction
because his achievements are appreciated.
8)
Environment:
The environment indicates a feeling of comfort and security. A good work environment
can create quality of worklife at work. However, there is a view that these values are less
important because they are not relevant in all jobs, unlike pay, promotion, and so on.
Job satisfaction has observable behavioral characteristics. According to Coquitt, LePine
and Wesson (2011), there are two elements contained in job satisfaction, namely value
fulfillment and satisfaction with the work itself on the job itself. The following is an
explanation of each element of job satisfaction.
1)
Value Fulfillment:
A worker will feel satisfied if their work gives them something they value. Something
that is valuable or has value is anything that people consciously or unconsciously want to
seek or obtain. Job satisfaction will occur if workers feel that the value they want is
fulfilled, obtained value fulfillment. But different people can value different things and
that value can change over the course of working life. The theory concerned with value
fulfillment is called Value-percept theory.
2)
Satisfaction with the work itself:
Research shows that critical psychological states make work satisfying. There are
three kinds of psychological states, namely (Coquitt, LePine and Wesson, 2011):
a.
Meaning fulnes of work. The meaningfulness of work reflects the degree to which
job tasks are seen as something that counts in the worker's philosophy and belief
system.
b.
Responsibility for outcomes. Responsibility for outcomes captures the degree to
which workers feel that they are the primary driver of the quality of the unit's work.
Sometimes workers feel like their efforts don't matter, because the outcome of the
work is governed by effective procedures, or more influential coworkers.
c.
Knowledge of results. Knowledge of results reflects the degree to which workers
know how well, or how poorly, they are doing. Many workers work in jobs where
they never discover their mistakes or notice when they are doing well.
D.
Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction :
A worker's job satisfaction is influenced by several things as stated by Kreitner and
Kinicki (2010), namely;
1)
Need Fulfillment:
According to this model, satisfaction is determined by the degree to which job
characteristics enable individuals to fulfill their needs.
2)
Discrepancies:
This model proposes that satisfaction is the result of met expectations, which reflect
the difference between what individuals expect to receive from work, such as good pay
and promotion opportunities, and what is actually received.
3)
Value Attainment:
The idea that underpins value attainment is that satisfaction results from the
perception that the job allows for the fulfillment of important individual work values.
4)
Equity or fairness:
In this model, satisfaction is a function of how fairly workers are treated on the job.
Satisfaction is the result of a person's perception that work outcomes relative to inputs are
more favorable than other significant outcomes or inputs.
5)
Dispositional/Genetic Components :
This model is based on the belief that job satisfaction is partly a function of personal
traits and genetic factors. Therefore, it can happen that some coworkers seem satisfied
with a wide variety of work situations, while others always seem dissatisfied.
Another opinion is expressed by Mullin (1993; Wijono, 2015) which explains the factors
that can affect job satisfaction, including personal, socio-cultural, organizational, and
environmental factors.
1)
Personal factors include personality, education, intelligence and ability, age, marital
status, and work orientation.
2)
Social factors include relationships with co-workers, work groups and norms,
opportunities for interaction, and informal organizations.
3)
Cultural factors include underlying attitudes, beliefs and values.
4)
Organizational factors include nature and size, formal structure, personnel policies and
procedures, employee relations, supervisor and leadership styles, management systems,
and working conditions.
5)
Environmental factors include economic, social, technical and governmental influences.
E.
Impact of Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction at work can have a significant effect on workers and cause several impacts
that are likely to be detrimental to the company. The impact of job dissatisfaction is outlined
in a theoretical model called the EVLN-Model, which consists of Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and
Neglect. The framework of worker responses to job dissatisfaction can be divided into two
dimensions: constructive/destructive and active or passive, as illustrated below (Robbins and
Judge, 2011):
The four ways to express employee dissatisfaction according to Robbins (1998;
Munandar, 2014) are
1.
Exit, The exit response is job dissatisfaction behavior expressed by leaving work,
including looking for another job.
2.
Voice. Voice responses are job dissatisfaction behaviors that are expressed through active
and constructive efforts to improve conditions, including suggesting suggestions for
improvement, discussing problems with superiors.
3.
Loyalty. The loyalty response is a job dissatisfaction behavior expressed by passively
waiting until conditions get better, including defending the company against outside
criticism and believing that the company and management will do the right thing to
improve conditions.
4.
Neglect. The neglect response is a job dissatisfaction behavior expressed through letting
things get worse, including frequent absences or arriving late, making as many mistakes
as possible.
Exit and neglect behaviors include our performance variables: Productivity, absenteeism
and turnover. But this model expands worker responses to include voice and loyalty,
constructive behaviors that allow individuals to tolerate unpleasant situations or refresh
satisfactory working conditions (Wibowo, 2013). Union members often express
dissatisfaction through the process or through formal contract negotiations. This voice
mechanism allows union members to continue their work while convincing themselves that
their actions are to improve the situation (Robbins and Judge, 2015).
F.
Strategies to Increase Job Satisfaction :
Job satisfaction is a pleasant or unpleasant emotional state of employees in view of their
work. Increased job satisfaction is one aspect of company effectiveness. Effectiveness in a
organization or company can be achieved through a smooth communication process between
parties in the company which ultimately expedites the company (Marliani, 2015).
In improving employee job satisfaction and morale, the company creates and implements
various types of programs designed to make work more interesting. Programs carried out by
the company to increase the satisfaction and morale of employees, namely:
1)
Increase employee wages;
2)
Provide promotion promotion to employees who excel;
3)
Job security;
4)
Provide cash bonuses to employees who perform well in the company;
5)
Provide compensation to employees;
6)
Create a harmonious working environment.
