PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Chapter 1 : The Role of Demographics
Summary
Correctional officers face the difficult task of working in hostile, and often
traumatic, environments and are highly susceptible to developing mental health issues
(Constantini et al., 2010). While researchers have identified the psychological strain
associated with professionals who work with criminals (Gould, Watson, Price, & Valliant,
2013), these efforts have been deficient in identifying the roles of specific U.S. correctional
officers’ demographics (level of education, marital status, gender, and race/ethnicity) as
they pertain to this population’s psychological well-being (Andrews & Bonta, 2010).
Researchers have found factors associated with gender, race/ethnicity, level of
education, and marital status to influence the way individuals respond to and/or cope with
stressful intrusions on everyday life (Hamby & Grych, 2013; Masten, 2011; Rutter, 2012;
Xiu & Musad, 2009). This study’s topic was formulated to address a gap in the current
available literature and could provide much needed information pertaining to the role of
demographics as protective factors for scholars investigating correctional officers’
psychological resilience. In this study, I was concerned with identifying the positive role
of specific demographics as they may relate to correctional officers' psychological
resilience. This study's demographic questionnaire included gender and race/ethnicity for
the sole purpose of investigating their roles related to psychological resilience.
Correctional officers face many psychological challenges as a result of working in high
stress environments among dangerous inmates (Xanthakis, 2009). Many stressors that
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influence the mental health and well-being of correctional officers have been identified in
previous studies (Brough & Williams, 2007; Gould et al., 2013; Senol-Durak, Durak, &
Gencoz, 2006). Research has yielded valuable information pertaining to the neuro-
psychological activity that occurs when individuals face stressful encounters (Xiu &
Musad, 2009). The current minimal understanding of these factors, coupled with the
potential unique interplays that exist between them, prompted in large part this study’s
focus on individuals’ vulnerability to stress. Intensive research efforts have concluded that
trained psychologists in correctional institutions are much more susceptible to developing
psychological problems when compared to other psychologists working outside of
correctional facilities (Senter, Morgan, Serna-McDonald, & Bewley, 2010).
One can only speculate that if well-trained psychologists have been deemed higher risk for
developing psychological problems (Senter et al., 2010), correctional officers who are less
trained in recognizing the emergence of psychopathological symptoms are at even greater
risks of developing mental health issues. To provide insight into the role that demographics
play in correctional officers’ psychological resilience, further understanding of the
elements that contribute to healthy psychological functioning and the unique interplays
that may exist between them must be investigated (Masten, 2007).
Gould et al. (2013) suggested that correctional officers, because of their increased
face-to- face encounters with inmates, are among those most susceptible to psychological
problems. Previous findings have made it apparent that research efforts should be focused
on investigating the psychological well-being of correctional officers, as they serve an
important human service role in maintaining society’s safety and assisting in the
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rehabilitation of inmates (Andrews & Bonta, 2010; Constantini et al., 2010; Xanthakis,
2009).
The positive social implication for researching the role of demographics in
correctional officers’ psychological resilience affects everyone. Correctional officers’
contributions to society stretch far beyond the inmates they assist to rehabilitate. Insight
into the psychological resilience of correctional officers will improve understanding of
factors that affect their ability to perform vital services for all of society. Research has
validated the importance of identifying individuals considered clinical high risk for mental
health illnesses at the early phases of the diagnosis in order to develop and implement the
most effective treatment plans. Future researchers focused on targeting prevention
approaches for this population may use this study’s investigation of demographic factors
and the possible unique interplays that exist between them.
Ultimately, efforts such as this one are necessary to provide insight into demographics that
act as protective factors on psychological resilience and will provide a sturdier foundation
for future research efforts to build upon.
Problem Statement
Due in part to the rise of prison populations, it has become apparent that research
in effective coping strategies for correctional staff is needed (Andrews & Bonta, 2010).
Researchers have identified that psychological resilience among professionals who work
in high stress environments can help avoid burnout (Andrews & Bonta, 2010; Constantini
et al., 2010). I developed the present study in an effort to address the lack of information
regarding U.S. correctional officers’ psychological resilience and to provide a foundation
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
for future efforts concerned with investigating the coping strategies that correctional
officers employ on a daily basis.
Many studies have focused on various factors associated with correctional officer
burnout in countries outside of the United States (Gould et al., 2013). Studies have
explained the psychological strain that accompanies officers who work with criminals
(Constantini et al., 2010) and have investigated their reluctance towards accessing mental
health services (Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt, 2010). This study not only addressed the
growing concern associated with the high turnover rate that affects the 469,500
correctional officers working in U.S. prisons (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department
of Labor, n.d.; Constantini et al., 2010) and the inmates they help to rehabilitate, but also
the U.S. population they are tasked with protecting.
Purpose of the Study
Investigating the roles of gender, race/ethnicity, level of education, and marital
status on correctional officers’ psychological resilience allowed me to identify whether
one demographic factor (or a combination of demographic factors) can be considered more
protective against the onset and/or development of psychopathology than others. The
correctional officers’ descriptive demographic factors were collected simultaneously with
data pertinent to establishing their psychological resilience.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
RQ1: Are there differences in psychological resilience between levels of education
among correctional officers? [Dependent Variable (DV)- psychological resilience,
Independent Variable (IV)- educational level]
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H01 = There will be no difference in psychological resilience between levels of
education among correctional officers.
H11 = Correctional officers with higher levels of education will have higher
psychological resilience scores.
RQ2: Are there differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers? (DV-psychological resilience, IV- marital status)
H02 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers.
H12 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between different
marital statuses among correctional officers.
RQ3: Are there differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities among
correctional officers? (DV-psychological resilience, IV- race/ethnicity)
H03 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities
among correctional officers.
H13 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
races/ethnicities among correctional officers.
RQ4: Are there differences in psychological resilience between genders among
correctional officers? (DV-psychological resilience, IV- gender)
H04 = There will be no signification differences in psychological resilience
between genders among correctional officers.
H14 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
genders among correctional officers.
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Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that drove this research was the stress-vulnerability
model (Gibson et al., 2014) and the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) (2013)
definition of psychological resilience. Researchers have used the stress-vulnerability
model consistently to examine the point at which an individual’s ability to effectively
respond to stressors is exceeded, thus resulting in the emergence of psychopathological
symptoms. The APA explained that individuals who were resilient possessed the ability to
effectively respond and cope with adversity (APA, 2013). Serious mental health issues
have emerged among individuals exposed to high stress environments and include
negative symptoms such as the inability to feel pleasure (anhedonia), flat affect, and/or
social withdraw (Rutter, 2012). Correctional officers were among the individuals who
were exposed to high stress and often traumatic environments; however, their encounters
with such conditions were considered part of the job (Brough & Williams, 2007).
Research has identified the high stress and potential negative psychological
symptoms associated with correctional officers (Brough & Williams, 2007; Senol-Durak
et al., 2006). By utilizing the stress-vulnerability model as a basis for investigating the role
of demographics as they pertain to correctional officers’ psychological resilience, I was
able to identify whether specific demographic factors contributed to a correctional officer’s
ability to effectively respond to and cope with adversity. I employed the stress-
vulnerability model as the theoretical structure from which to formulate the investigation,
using positive psychology (Goh & Agius, 2010; Seligman, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2007).
Emphasizing positive psychology, I used the stress-vulnerability model to investigate not
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only the role of demographics, but also the manner in which they might strengthen
psychological resilience among correctional officers.
Nature of the Study
I conducted a survey-designed study, following Creswell’s (2014) definition, in
order to investigate the interaction between demographics (level of education, marital
status, gender, and race/ethnicity) and correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Quantitative research that investigates the relationship between multiple independent
variables and a single dependent variable is best suited for a factorial design (Creswell,
2014). I used a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) full factorial design in order to
examine the manner in which each individual demographic factor and the combination of
demographic factors potentially related to psychological resilience. Factorial two-way
ANOVA allowed me to determine if demographic factor(s) contributed to correctional
officers’ ability to effectively respond and cope with adversity.
Using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 10 (CD-RISC-10; Campbell-Sills &
Stein, 2007), I gained objective data that I utilized to determine a correctional officer’s
ability to respond to and/or cope with stress. The CD-RISC-10 survey has been used in
many research efforts in order to measure the psychological resilience of various
populations (Scali et al., 2012; Stephens, 2012) and entails 10 items, each consisting of a
five-response Likert scale. Responders who have higher total item scores are determined
to have higher psychological resilience. Participant data derived from the CD-RISC-10 and
a descriptive data questionnaire provided this study with the necessary information to
appropriately use a two-way ANOVA full factorial design.
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The dependent variable in this study was correctional officers’ psychological
resilience and the independent variables consisted of four demographic factors (i.e., level
of education, marital status, gender, and race/ethnicity). All information pertaining to
independent variables was collected via a descriptive data questionnaire inquiring about a
responder’s level of education, marital status, gender, and race/ethnicity. The descriptive
data questionnaire and CD-RISC-10 survey were offered to the responder simultaneously,
and participants were asked to return both data collection tools simultaneously as well.
Definitions
Coping strategies: Conscious efforts to address personal and interpersonal
problems.
Demographic factors: Statistical data relating to the characteristics of human
populations.
Gender: The physical and/or social condition of being male or female.
Intrinsic factors: Belonging to the essential nature of a person.
Level of education: Highest of education achieved from a recognized academic
institution.
Positive psychology: The study of strengths that contribute to an individual’s and/or
community’s psychological well-being.
Protective factors: Attributes or conditions that contribute to an individual’s ability
to respond to and cope with stressful events effectively.
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Psychological resilience: An individual’s ability to properly adapt to stress and
adversity.
Psychopathological symptoms: Symptom(s) that contribute to mental illness or
distress.
Race/ethnicity: The race or races that individuals most closely identify with related
to both biological and sociological factors.
Assumptions
Collection of survey data required an assumption that responders provided
information requested in a forthright and accurate manner. The present study involved the
assumption that the measure (CD-RISC-10) provided accurate data related to the construct
of psychological resilience. For this study, I also assumed that all participants were
employed as correctional officers at the time that they completed both the CD- RISC-10
and descriptive data questionnaire and that they were able to read at a fifth- grade level.
Scope and Delimitations
For the present study, I did not collect data beyond that of which is contained in
the CD-RISC-10 and the descriptive data questionnaire. This study did not include the
utilization of descriptive data that encompasses genders beyond that of male or female,
marital status beyond that of married or not married, and/or levels of education lower than
that of a high school diploma or general equivalency diploma (GED).
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Limitations
Because this study’s focus was on the psychological resilience of correctional
officers who work in the United States, data produced may not be applicable to
correctional officers working outside of the United States. Another limitation pertinent to
the utilization of information yielded from this study was that it may only be applicable to
correctional officers who work face-to-face with inmates and not those employed in
positions that do not require direct interaction with inmates. Correctional officers who do
not have the necessary access or the ability to gain access to an online medium utilized in
this study’s data collection (e.g., Facebook, Survey Monkey Audience, Yahoo Focus
Groups, LinkedIn) were able to participate via U.S. Postal Service mail correspondence.
Significance of the Study
Identifying factors that contribute to psychological resilience in correctional
officers will improve the ability to target prevention approaches. As correctional officers
struggle to protect themselves against the negative psychopathological symptoms that
result from working in a highly stressful and volatile environment (Andrews & Bonta,
2010), both their performance and mental health become highly susceptible to fatigue
(McCraty, Atkinson, & Tiller, 2003). It is necessary to first identify the crucial role of
protective factors that may contribute to the psychological resilience of correctional
officers in order to gain insight into appropriate treatment measures.
Research has validated the importance of identifying individuals who are
considered clinical high risk for mental health illnesses at the early phases of the diagnosis
in order to develop and implement the most effective treatment plans (Cannon
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et al., 2008). By identifying demographics that contribute to correctional officers’
psychological resilience, therapists may be able to determine those who are clinical high
risk earlier and target prevention approaches that are evidenced-based and in alignment
with the respective demographic factors.
While most studies seemingly focus on identifying the factors that negatively
contribute to the psychological resilience of individuals who are employed in high stress
and high risk positions, this study was aligned with positive psychology. The idea of
focusing on the factors that contribute to an individual’s well-being has become in recent
years the interest of many scholar practitioners who seek to build on the strength of their
clients (Drvaric et al., 2015). Should this study have identified demographic factors related
to correctional officers’ psychological resilience, therapists would be better equipped to
identify optimal prevention approaches. A method rooted deeply in the workings of
positive psychology is to make apparent what has gone right instead of what has gone
wrong (Seligman, 2000).
The significance of this study is directly associated with its goal to determine the
positive role that demographics play in the promotion of correctional officers’
psychological resilience. By first making apparent the role of demographics as they pertain
to psychological resilience in correctional officers, and then in the future examining these
strengths, my hope with this study was to provide insight into the factors that these
individuals rely on to mitigate the negative psychopathological symptoms that they face.
Therapists will have a better understanding of demographic factors that
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contribute to psychological resilience and the positive emotions they evoke when the
results of this study are disseminated.
A renowned expert in the area of positive psychology, Seligman (2000) wrote, “A
science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive
institutions promises to improve quality of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when
life is barren and meaningless” (p. 5). Positive emotions such as excitement, satisfaction,
and pride may be associated with race/ethnicity and/or gender and could potentially play
a role when therapists help their clients to develop or maintain a positive sense of well-
being.
Implications for Positive Social Change
In this study, I investigated the role of demographics that act as protective factors
against psychopathological symptoms and attempted to identify factors that could be
further built upon to improve mental health well-being. The results of this study increased
understanding of whether demographic factors are related to the psychological resilience
of individuals working in high stress environments. Gaining a better understanding of
psychological resilience allows mental health professionals to employ positive psychology
strategies to build on the strengths of their clients (Drvaric et al., 2015).
Mental health professionals working with correctional officers will be able to develop treatment
plans based on positive emotions, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishments
as they consider correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Therapists working with correctional officers may also benefit from this study’s inclusion
of race/ethnicity and gender. Correctional officers are tasked with ensuring the safety of
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both inmates and the public. Targeting prevention approaches that assist correctional
officers to maintain and/or strengthen their psychological resilience is vital to ensure their
well-being, the safety of the public, and the inmate population.
The U.S. population includes individuals who have been imprisoned at one point.
Efforts to rehabilitate prisoners carry significant social implications. The idea of self-care
plays a vital role in many professions; however, this study was developed on the
assumption that those who work in volatile professions are especially in need of
identifying their protective factors. Research has identified that correctional officers face
high stress working environments on a daily basis (Brough & Williams, 2007). The
information gained from this study could potentially contribute to the development of
programs that improve their psychological resilience and prevent the onset of
psychopathology. Demographic factors such as correctional officers’ race/ethnicity and
gender cannot be changed if a link between them and psychological resilience was made;
however, this study’s data serve to increase awareness of those considered to be at higher
risk.
Summary and Transition
Close to a half of a million correctional officers report to work in U.S. prisons
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.). U.S. correctional officers
have direct contact with large populations of inmates who are released into the general
public every day. It is to the benefit of society as a whole to ensure that those tasked with
protecting it are psychologically equipped. According to the Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Service Administration (2015), positive self-image is recognized as an individual-
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level protective factor that may contribute to psychological resilience. Determining
whether significant links between levels of genders and races/ethnicities and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience existed may have resulted in identifying individual- level
protective factors that may contribute to correctional officers’ self-image. The data may
assist in the development of therapeutic strategies that align with positive psychological
interventions for correctional officers who are at higher risks by focusing on building their
positive self-image.
Chapter 2 provides an in-depth review of this study’s data search strategy, an
explanation of the demographic factors investigated, and overview of research that has
contributed to the understanding of psychological resilience. Included in Chapter 3 are the
research design, participant information, the rationale for choosing the methods utilized
in this study’s design, and analyses.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
Correctional officers have reported the psychological strain that accompanies
working in high stress prison settings consistently over the last three decades (Andrews &
Bonta, 2010; Castle & Martin, 2006; Cheek & Miller, 1983; Cullen, Link, Wolfe, & Frank,
1985; Dowden & Tellier, 2004; Gould et al., 2013; Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007;
Lambert, 2001; Morgan, Van Haveren, & Pearson, 2002; Senol-Durak et al. 2006).
However, studies have yet to make apparent the positive role that specific demographics
play in a correctional officer’s psychological resilience. A long time ago researchers
identified that prison correctional officers face daunting working environments that entail
potential psychologically damaging work characteristics (Dollard & Winefield, 1995).
These work characteristics include highly stressful demands and low control that present
themselves in many scenarios. Approximately 469,500 correctional officers in the United
States are challenged with developing and maintaining psychological resilience as they
strive to meet the demands of working in a high stress environment (Constantini et al.,
2010; Gould, et al., 2013; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.).
While minimal studies have investigated the relationship between work characteristics
that are common in prison settings and psychological strain (Andrews & Bonta, 2010),
less insight has been shed into correctional officers’ effective coping strategies and the
role of demographics.
This study’s purpose was to investigate demographic factors that might contribute
to the psychological resilience of correctional officers, and I focused on trying to
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understand the roles that gender, educational levels, marital statuses, and race/ethnicities
occupy in promoting good mental health among this population.
The literature review included published research related to stress causing factors
found in prison settings, factors associated with psychological resilience, correctional
officers’ and their ability to identify the emergence of psychopathological symptoms, and
correctional officers’ susceptibility for developing psychological problems.
Literature Search Strategy
In order to ensure that the highest quality of data was compiled during the
formation of this study, many EBSCO databases were utilized. The EBSCO databases
included the following: Academic Search Complete, CINAHLPlus, PsychInfo,
PsychArticles, PsychExtra, Sage Premier, SocINDEX, and Thoreau. This study was
primarily focused on the most recent information published within the past 6 years;
however, data retrieved from articles published as early as 1995 were included in order to
explain the historical significance of the problem. Specific words and combination of
words were used in conducting the search for this study: psychological resilience;
correctional officers; stress; stress causing factors, stress and work characteristics; high
stress environments and conditions; psychological strain and officers; and work stressors.
Research was also retrieved from search engines and websites that included the
following: American Psychological Association; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor; Google Scholar; and National Institute of Mental Health.
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Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework utilized during the development of this study was the
stress-vulnerability model (Zubin et al., 1977), which details the APA’s (2013) definition
of resilience. Scholars historically have used the stress-vulnerability model the help
identify the point at which an individual displays difficulty responding to and/or coping
with adversity. This study was intended to provide insight into demographic factors that
might have contributed to a correctional officer’s ability to effectively respond to and/or
cope with high stress demands in alignment with the APA’s explanation of psychological
resilience.
According to recent research that used the stress-vulnerability model’s framework,
many individuals began to experience psychopathological symptoms when exposed to
stressful events and/or scenarios (Gibson et al., 2014). The stress-vulnerability model can
be used in identifying the point at which an individual has become susceptible to stress
because of deficient coping mechanisms (Gibson et al., 2014). Built on research that made
apparent the devastating negative symptoms that entail the inability to feel pleasure
(anhedonia), flat affect, and/or social withdraw (Ruhrmann, 2010), the stress- vulnerability
model provides a framework for research efforts that concern factors that affect
psychological resilience. Built on the theory that there may be certain factors that increase
the chances of psychopathological symptoms emerging and other protective factors that
decrease these chances, the stress-vulnerability model is suited perfectly for studies such
as this one.
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The high stress demands associated with correctional officers’ daily assigned work
duties may have damaging effects on their mental health states; however, by applying the
work of Gibson et al. (2014), it is possible to gain further insight into those elements that
contribute to an officer’s psychological resilience. By investigating demographic factors,
mental health professionals might gain the ability to gauge the risk of a correctional
officer’s susceptibility to stressful demands.
As the neurosciences continue to evolve with help of ever-emerging technology, it
has become clear that there indeed exists a unique interplay between stress and potential
factors that increase an individual’s susceptibility to stress. These factors exist both inside
and outside of the brain (Goh & Agius, 2010). By using the stress-vulnerability model and
integrating what researchers know currently about predisposition to mental illness, this
study had a strong foundation from which to investigate the role of demographic factors
on psychological resilience. The stress vulnerability model examines the unique interplay
between stress and an individual’s vulnerability to stress. The theory defines two primary
factors (stress and vulnerability) and focuses on their interaction. Earlier research explained
stress as an individual’s ability to adapt to or change to a life situation; however, in recent
research the terms adapt and change have been used interchangeably with respond and
coping (Gibson et al., 2014).
Stress Vulnerability Model: Intrinsic Vulnerability
Zubin and Spring (1977) focused on identifying and explaining the reason some
individuals were more or less vulnerable to stress and acknowledged the existence of
predisposition factors that affect susceptibility to stress. The model took into account the
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interaction between two elements, the first of which the authors referred to as intrinsic
vulnerability. Zubin and Spring (1977) explained intrinsic vulnerability as potential
abnormal brain functional organization and suggested that humans may have inherited
genetic predispositions to mental illness. Advances in neuro imaging have allowed
researchers to infer that stress is regulated by hypothalamic neurons through a process
called synaptic transmission (Xiu & Musad, 2009). The process entails the release of the
neuro transmitter orexin by the hypothalamic neuron resulting in elevated stress levels (Xiu
& Musad, 2009). Increased synapse activity involving orexin affects locomotor activity,
arousal, cardiovascular response, and has also been linked to increased activity in the
hypothalamus (Xiu & Musad, 2009). Zubin and Spring identified the potential for genetic
predisposition factors to affect an individual’s ability to adapt or respond to stress and is
often utilized as the foundation for current stress and vulnerability research (Goh & Agius,
2010). Ultimately, researchers have a better understanding of the influence stress has on
the brain because of Zubin and Spring’s (1977) work; however, their theory also made
apparent the potential influence that psychosocial stressors and mental illness have on
stress and coping. It is important to note that findings have established that neuro imaging
does not stand alone in diagnosing psychiatric illness and that in most cases a bio-
psychosocial approach is necessary.
Stress Vulnerability Model: Psychosocial Stressors
While there has been emergent information to substantiate the biological changes
that occur as a result of stress, the unique interplay between psychosocial stressors and
neuro activity has been the focus of much research. The stress vulnerability model
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explained psychosocial stressors may consist of interpersonal and occupational stressors
(Zubin, 1977). The model made apparent the importance of examining both vulnerability
and stressors in order to determine the potential for psychopathology (Goh & Agius,
2010). Psychosocial stressors have become the focus of much research in recent years,
and efforts have identified that stress has indeed contributed to the development of
psychosis (Ho, Andreasen, Dawson, & Wassink, 2007). Specifically, the stress
vulnerability model identified potential mental illnesses that may have resulted from the
interaction of intrinsic vulnerability and psychosocial stressors. Stressors in the
environment may have increased an individual’s respective biological vulnerability (Xiu
& Masud, 2009); however, many individuals have developed and maintained effective
coping mechanisms that contributed to their ability to ward off any potential
psychopathology. Zubin and Spring (1977) explained that the influence of psychosocial
stressors on an individual’s intrinsic vulnerability may have lessened if his or her
psychological resilience were strengthened. Current researchers have used the stress
vulnerability model to further investigate biological vulnerability (intrinsic vulnerability)
and concluded that improving psychological resilience can have a significant impact on
responding to and/or coping with psychosocial stressors (Stress Vulnerability Model of
Co-occurring Disorders, 2008).
Stress Vulnerability Model: Psychological Resilience
Authors of recent studies have explained psychological resilience as protective
factors and processes that affected an individual’s ability to cope with stress (Grych,
Hamby, & Banyard, 2015). Protective factors may be utilized to respond to a variety of
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diverse intrusions that presented themselves throughout life; however, most research
efforts investigated protective factors as they pertain to diverse forms of exposure to
violence (Houston & Grych, 2015). Masten (2011) posed that in order to gain the best
insight into psychological resilience it was necessary to have a thorough understanding of
the individual’s life and the protective factors that were present at the point when the
stressor(s) emerged. Three main factors were analyzed and included the type of stressor(s),
the individual’s perceived risk, and the individual’s protective factors at the time of the
intrusion (Masten, 2011; Rutter, 2012). Establishing individuals’ psychological resilience
entailed much more than merely investigating their reaction to the stressful event(s); it
entailed a thorough examination of the constellation of factors that contributed to the
process of adaptation. Particular attention was focused on identifying elements that
contributed to the maintenance of healthy functioning at the time the stressor was
occurring. These elements have unique interplays that emerged within various populations
after the intrusion (Masten, 2007). The elements that contributed to responding to and/or
coping with stress included a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, many of which began
to form during formative years (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Xiu & Masud, 2009).
The types of stressors may not be as important as the environmental contexts that
were present at the time of their occurrences (Hamby & Grych, 2013). The context during
the time the stressor occurred was examined as carefully as the incident itself (Grych et al.,
2015). Pertaining to the environmental context that exists at the time of the stressor, Grych
et al. (2015) stated the need for further understanding into psychological
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resilience. According to Park (2010), when the stressor was identified, the individual
immediately engaged in a common thought process that attempted to make sense of the
incident; however, Grych et al. stated “efforts to make meaning of stressful events do not
invariably improve wellbeing” (p. 347). The stressor excited the individuals’ desire to
determine how the intrusion would affected him or her. In alignment with the work of
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) social-ecological framework, the interruption of healthy
functioning after the stressor had occurred may be attributed to the interplay between
individuals and their relationships with family, peers, and community.
Psychological Resilience: Gender and Race/Ethnicity
Research studies have explained the importance of examining age as it pertains to
psychological resilience, and in recent years these studies focused on the crucial roles that
gender and race/ethnicity occupy during the maintenance of healthy psychological
functioning over a person’s life (Kwong, Du, & Xu, 2015). Psychological resilience was
affected by race/ethnic discrimination and may have contributed to the depletion of
psychological reserves due to chronic exposure or exposure to a major traumatic
discriminatory episode (Pascoe & Smart Richman, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009).
This current study was concerned with identifying the role of specific demographics as
they may have related to correctional officers' psychological resilience. This study's
demographic questionnaire included gender and race/ethnicity for the sole purpose of
investigating their potential roles related to psychological resilience. Understanding that it
is possible to achieve positive psychological growth resulting from a stressful event, should
the correct environmental context at the point of its emergence be present
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(Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004), may be the key in examining the role of gender and
race/ethnicity as they pertain to the stressor(s). Psychological resilience occurs when
mental health has been preserved despite the intrusion of the traumatic event (Zoellner &
Maercker, 2006). When discrimination between gender and race/ethnicity and
psychological resilience were investigated, the results showed prevalence in the
development of ineffective coping strategies that included unhealthy behaviors (substance
abuse and alcohol abuse; Borrell et al., 2010). Individuals’ psychological resilience has
been less capable of sustaining healthy functioning after a stressful event has occurred if
they have been exposed to chronic discrimination and/or a major discriminatory event
(Luo, Xu, Granberg, & Wentworth, 2012). It is important to note that individuals who
have endured such discrimination are also at greater risk for developing depressive
symptoms when compared to those who have not. These depressive symptoms may have
been compounded by the unhealthy coping strategies they employed (Luo et al., 2012).
Psychological Resilience: Marital Statues
The decision to include marital status in this study was made in an effort to gauge
the risk of a correctional officer’s susceptibility to stressful demands and possibly provide
insight into the role that this demographic plays in promoting psychological resilience.
Studies on psychological resilience and marital status have published conflicting results
because of the overwhelming factors that made up the social contexts that lead to the
decision to marry, divorce, or remain single (Nelson, 1994). Wang and Repetti (2014)
stated “there is relative lack of data on how depression is linked with support couple
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behavior” (p. 865); however, they also wrote “support from a romantic partner, in
particular, can play a critical role in how adults cope with stress and navigate the challenges
in everyday life” (p. 864). Research also examined the psychological “relief” that occurs
when individuals in unhealthy unions separate and/or divorce, (Gorlick, 1988; Mednick,
1987; Nelson, 1994) which has mitigated the assumption that divorce always results in
added stress and lessens psychological resilience. Other studies that have investigated the
interaction between married individuals and support processes suggested that job stress
definitely influenced support transaction between couples (Schulz, Cowan, Cowan, &
Brennan, 2004; Wang & Repetti, 2014).
The manner in which people responded to social interactions was in large part
because of their cognitive, affective, and interpersonal functioning (Wang & Repetti,
2014) and was closely linked to their ability to maintain interpersonal relationships
(Harvey & Pauwels, 2009). An investigation into the reciprocal nature of correctional
officers’ psychological resilience and interpersonal relationship functioning may have
provided added insight into the role of the marital status demographics (Snyder & Lopez,
2009). Correlations between correctional officers’ responses to social interactions,
interpersonal relationships, and their psychological resilience might have afforded
researchers the ability to identify additional protective factors that might be linked with
different marital statuses.
Recent work on the marital status demographic as it pertains to correlations
between relationship functioning and coping with employment-related stress showed
significant findings. Buck and Neff (2012) investigated the manner in which stress
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related to employment affected relationship functioning and found that work stress was
indeed often associated with deficiencies in interpersonal relationship functioning and
overall marital satisfaction. Individuals’ self-regulatory depletion or failing psychological
resiliency might overpower the desire to repair or salvage the marriage and may have
ultimately ended with the dissolution of the marriage (Buck & Neff, 2012). Furthermore,
the dissolution of marriages has historically been linked with external stressors, such as
work related stress (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Wethington, 1989; Repetti, 1989;
Schulz, et al., 2004). An investigation into the role of marital status and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience may have yielded significant findings. Specifically, this
study sought to provide further information into how a correctional officers’ marital status
might have correlated with psychological resilience by investigating their ability to
respond to and/or cope with work stress.
Psychological Resilience: Educational Levels
Research efforts have identified a significant correlation between academic
success and psychological resilience in first year university students (Allan, McKenna, &
Dominey, 2013). University students’ capacity to respond to and/or cope with stress was
a primary contributor to their psychological resilience (Allan et al., 2013). Inadequate
psychological resiliency may be directly related to deficiencies in academic performance
and/or a primary cause for limited or hindered academic progression (Yorke, 2000).
While there exists a significant correlation between academic success and psychological
resilience, many research efforts have identified significantly lower levels of
psychological deficiencies in university populations when compared to populations who
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have chosen not to attend higher level education (Monk, 2004; Roberts & Zelenyanski,
2002).
This study proposed the use of correctional officers’ educational levels in order to
potentially identify the role that this demographic plays in correctional officers’
psychological resilience. In alignment with other research efforts that have suggested the
types of stressors may not be as important as the environmental contexts that were present
at the time of their occurrences (Hamby & Grych, 2013), research on academic success
and progression as influenced by psychological resilience has identified the vital role of
personal adaptability (Jimerson, Egeland, & Teo, 1999). The ability to adequately function
while adapting to stressful environmental factors was directly linked to psychological
resilience; (Luthar, 2006; Masten, Burt, & Coatsworth, 2006) therefore, it may have been
possible that this demographic (educational level) might have an indicator of correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. Research has also explained the necessary role of
examining contextual factors present at the time of the intrusion, (Masten, 2011; Rutter,
2012; Wang & Repetti, 2014) making it necessary to include the role of other demographic
factors in an effort to gain insight into the unique interplays that may exist when examining
correctional officers’ psychological resilience. This study’s motivation for including
educational levels was geared towards identifying whether or not there were differences
among levels of education and correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
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Future Research
Many factors contribute to correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Investigations into the emergence of psychopathologies that result from correctional
officer trauma continue to be needed. Future investigative efforts that focus on
psychological trauma and specific psychopathologies could yield valuable information
about effective coping strategies (Luo et al., 2012). The various potential interplays
between trauma, contextual factors at the time of the intrusion, and psychopathology make
future multi-factorial research necessary.
Research is also needed to gain a better understanding of the roles that cultural
norms play in correctional officers’ utilization of coping strategies and their reluctance to
access mental health services following traumatic events (Grych et al., 2015). Literature
has yet to adequately explain cultural norms and their influences on acceptable forms of
expression pertaining to stress and coping (Grych et al., 2015). Factors such as allowable
expressions during the process of responding to and/or coping with stress, as they relate
to gender roles and the flexibility of these roles are in need of much more research (Grych
et al., 2015).
Summary and Conclusions
This literature review provided information pertaining to many factors that affected
psychological resilience and has made apparent protective factors and processes that
affected individuals’ ability to cope with stress (Grych et al, 2015; Houston & Grych,
2015). While previous research has identified possible protective factors that assist
researchers to respond to and cope with stress, gaining a deeper understanding of
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contextual factors (present at the time of the intrusion) and unique interplays between them
has yet to be sufficiently investigated (Hamby & Grych, 2013).
Research efforts have been successful in identifying the need to take into account
factors beyond the individual’s perceived risk and include not only the types of stress but
also protective factors that are in place at the time of the intrusion (Masten, 2011; Rutter,
2012). Zubin (1997) provided us the stress-vulnerability model that laid the foundation for
much research that followed and advancements in neuro-imaging have broadened our
understanding of factors associated with intrinsic vulnerabilities (Goh & Agius, 2010; Xiu
& Musad, 2009); however, the application of this model has yet to be utilized when
exploring correctional officers’ psychological resilience. Since neuro imaging does not
stand alone when identifying psychopathology, we are tasked with implementing a bio-
psychosocial approach in order to advance knowledge pertaining to psychological
resilience and/or stress and vulnerability (Myint, 2009). Zubin (1977) recognized the
importance of examining interpersonal and occupational stress when trying to determine
the point at which an individual is most susceptible to stress; however, it was very complex
to examine the manner in which stress contributed to psychopathology that may include
psychosis (Ho et al., 2007). While factors associated with psychosocial stressors may
increase individuals’ biological vulnerability (Xiu & Masud, 2009), an in-depth
exploration of demographics as protective factors have assisted to expand our knowledge
of psychological resilience. It was necessary to take into account a constellation of factors
that affect an individual’s psychological resilience (Rutter, 2012), the potential for unique
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interplays between these factors (Masten, 2011) and the context present at the time of the
intrusion (Hamby & Grych, 2013).
Researchers explained the importance of examining gender and race/ethnicity
when investigating psychological resilience and the depletion of psychological reserves
(Kwong et al., 2015; Smart Richman, 2009; Williams and Mohammed, 2009). As
correctional officers struggle to protect themselves against the negative
psychopathological symptoms that result from working in a highly stressful and volatile
environment, (Andrews & Bonta, 2010) both their performance and mental health become
highly susceptible to fatigue (McCraty et al., 2003). This study’s investigation provided
information associated with psychological resilience between races/ethnicities among
correctional officers and psychological resilience between genders among correctional
officers.
Wang and Repetti (2014) focused their efforts on investigating psychopathology
(primarily depressive symptoms) and the manner in which support between individuals in
relationships associated with stress and coping occurs; furthermore, they mention the
minimal amount of data that exists in this area of research. Marital status may have played
an important role in correctional officers’ psychological resilience, as research has
suggested that occupational stress and coping may be affected by the support found
between couples (Schulz et al., 2004). Research has also found that the dissolution of some
marriages might provide a sense of relief, (Gorlick, 1988; Mednick, 1987) and one can
posit that less support for occupational stress would be found in unions with high levels of
turmoil. The differences in psychological resilience between different marital
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statuses among correctional officers has yet to be included in research efforts and this
study’s goal was to provide added information into the role of this demographic.
Researchers identified a positive correlation between academic success and
psychological resilience, they established that university students’ ability to respond to
and cope with stress played a primary role in academic progress and achievement (Allen
et al., 2013; Jimerson et al., 1999). Other researchers used comparative analysis between
university students and individuals who were not attending higher level education,
concluding that there existed less psychological deficiencies among university students
(Monk, 2004; Robert & Zelenvanski, 2002). It has been suggested that the focus when
investigating psychological resilience might be more appropriately placed on
environmental factors at the time of the intrusion as opposed to the types of stress
themselves. Maintaining focus on the environmental factors at the time of the intrusion
when engaged in research efforts might allow researchers to gain a better understanding
of the individuals’ vulnerability to stress. Academic success and progression may be a
prime indicator of higher levels of psychological resilience as indicated by the university
student’s ability to maintain functioning when responding to and coping with academic
demands. Understanding that higher levels of educational achievement and progress may
be indicative of less vulnerability to stress, and that the type of stress is not as important
as the response and coping mechanisms in place, motivated this study to investigate the
differences in psychological resilience between levels of education among correctional
officers.
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This literature review drew from research and explained high stress and potential
negative psychological symptoms associated with correctional officers (Brough &
Williams, 2007; Senol-Durak et al., 2006). The stress-vulnerability model has been utilized
as a basis for investigating the role of demographics as they pertain to correctional officers’
psychological resilience, the researcher for this study identified specific demographic
factors that might have contributed to a correctional officer’s ability to effectively respond
to and cope with occupational adversity. Emphasizing positive psychology this study
employed the stress-vulnerability model while maintaining focus on the manner in which
demographic factors might strengthen psychological resilience among correctional
officers. In order to gain insight into the psychological
well-being of those tasked with keeping society safe both contextual and process factors
must be taken into account. Understanding the role that demographics play in correctional
officers’ psychological resilience is fundamental when determining the point at which they
begin to experience psychopathology.
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Chapter 3: Research Method
Introduction
This study's purpose was to investigate demographic factors that might have
contributed to the psychological resilience of correctional officers. The role of the
independent variables of marital statuses, levels of education, races and ethnicities, and
genders on the dependent variable of correctional officers' psychological resilience have
yet to be adequately researched. This study focused on identifying the role of specific
demographics as they may have related to correctional officers' psychological resilience.
This study's demographic questionnaire included gender and race/ethnicity for the sole
purpose of investigating their potential roles related to psychological resilience. This study
did not include any demographic factors that should be used for screening and/or profiling
purposes. This chapter entails a discussion of this study's research design, the methods
utilized for gaining appropriate samples, a detailed explanation of the validity and
reliability of the instruments utilized during analyses, and procedures for participant
recruitment and data collection. This chapter concludes with a thorough explanation of the
ethical procedures that were developed and maintained in order to ensure the well- being
of this study's participants.
Research Design
This study's implementation of a nonexperimental research design was appropriate
as it sought to investigate the potential relationship between more than two variables
(Creswell, 2014). I used a two-way ANOVA in order to make apparent any significant
differences between groups using four categorical demographic factors
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(marital statuses, levels of education, races/ethnicities, and genders). Implementation of a
two-way ANOVA was selected in order to identify if demographic factors and/or
combinations of demographic factors played significant roles in correctional officers'
psychological resilience (Creswell, 2014). Correctional officers' information gathered via
Internet and mail-in surveys showed the manner in which demographic factors were not
related to their psychological resilience.
Methodology
Population
Approximately 469,500 correctional officers working in U.S. prisons face
psychologically challenging environments on a daily basis (Constantini et al., 2010; U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Participants in this study consisted of men and women
employed as state prison correctional officers enduring such conditions. The CD-RISC-
10 and the demographic questionnaire were used as means to collect participant data via
the Internet and US Postal Service. The Walden University Internal Review Board
approval number for this study is 09-26-16-0233590.
Sampling and Sampling Procedures
This study employed maximum variation sampling in order to capture a wide range
of psychological resilience among correctional officers. This type of sampling is referred
to as purposive and is best suited for quantitative research intended to investigate specific
characteristics of a population (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).
Maximum variation sampling was used in this study to investigate the potential role(s) of
four demographic characteristics (marital status, gender, race/ethnicity, and level of
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education) on the psychological resilience of correctional officers. This type of sampling
allows researchers the opportunity to collect data from a wide range of characteristics
within a sample. Correctional officers were asked to participate in this study through
recruitment efforts that included online and in-person invitations (Appendix A).
Correctional officers were accessed through online community groups that allow members
of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) and the California Department of
Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) to interact with one another. As the researcher, I
was a member of the Region V TDCJ Facebook group, which had 1,048 correctional
officer members as the time of data collection.
Participants were only considered eligible once they expressed interest via phone,
text, e-mail, or written correspondence, and recruitment efforts took place before and after
their work shifts. TDCJ and CDCR correctional officers were also recruited online via
Facebook and were directed to complete the CD-RISC-10 online or request the
information be sent to them by mail. Eligible participants were employed as correctional
officers with the CDCR or the TDCJ. Participants were over the age of 18 and had
successfully completed any necessary training academy requirements prior to gainful
employment as a CDCR or TDCJ correctional officer. Potential participants were provided
a link to the survey and/or mailed the survey along with the demographic questionnaire.
Informed consent was included in the coversheet of the survey and explained the scope of
the study. Participants provided implied consent before completing the study. The
demographic questionnaire asked for the correctional officer’s
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marital status, level of education, race/ethnicity, and gender. Participants who were not eligible
to participate in the study were notified via mail and/or online.
Sample Size Analysis
This study involved a sample size calculation to determine the appropriate sample
size needed to ensure significant differences among correctional officers could be drawn
(Field, 2013). However, specific factors that entail statistical power, confidence intervals,
and effect size were taken into account before an appropriate sample size could be
calculated. I ran one analysis with multiple groups based on the levels of each variable,
and used the G*Power 3.1.9.2. application to calculate sample size. G*Power 3.1.9.2.
application was developed by Buchner, Erdfelder, Faul, and Lang in 1992. The application
allows researchers the ability to calculate general power analysis and determine
appropriate sample sizes (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). The specifications
used to determine sample size when conducting a two-way ANOVA with the G*Power
3.1.9.2 application were based on 80% power and an alpha level of .05.
Researchers have identified 80% power and an alpha level of .05 to be acceptable values
when conducting this type of sampling for quantitative research (Burkholder, n.d.). An
alpha level of .05 is indicative of the probability of committing a type I error (rejecting a
null hypothesis that is true), and if the null hypothesis is true an alpha level of .05 is the
probability of wrongly rejecting it (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008; Sheperis,
n.d.). A binary hypothesis test with a power level of 80% will allow for an acceptable
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis should the alternate hypothesis be true
(Burkholder, n.d.). An alpha level of .05 minimized this study’s probability of making an
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inaccurate decision when analyzing data (Burkholder, n.d.). The effect size in research
similar to this one represents the magnitude of the observed effect and is indicative of the
overall strength of the phenomenon as it pertains to the population (Field, 2013; Sheperis,
n.d.). In studies similar to this one a total effect size of medium = .040 has been used (Field,
2013; Sheperis, n.d.). This study involved conducting two separate two-way ANOVA tests
in order to investigate a total of four variables (marital status, gender, race/ethnicity, level
of education) and their potential relationship with correctional officers’ psychological
resilience. A two-way ANOVA was used to investigate races/ethnicities (Black, Latino, or
White), genders (male or female), and their potential relationship with psychological
resilience.
Using G*Power 3.1.9.2 analysis for conducting a two-way ANOVA (fixed effects,
special, main effects, and interactions with a statistical power of .80, Alpha of
.05, and a medium effect size of .40), a total sample size of 52 participants was determined
to be appropriate for drawing significant differences between two variables (race/ethnicity
and gender) and within a total of six levels (Black, Latino, or White; male or female;
Buchner, Faul, & Erdfelder, n.d.; Sheperis, n.d.).
A two-way ANOVA was also used to investigate marital statuses (married, not
married) and educational levels (GED or high school diploma, Associates of Arts [AA] or
Associates of Science [AS], bachelor’s degree or beyond) and their potential relationship
with correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Using G*Power 3.1.9.2 analysis for conducting a two-way ANOVA (fixed effects,
special, main effects and interactions with a statistical power of .80, Alpha of .05,
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and a medium effect size of .40), a total sample size of 52 participants was determined to
be appropriate for drawing significant differences between two variables (levels of
education and marital statuses) and within a total of six levels (GED or high school
diploma, AA or AS, bachelor’s degree or beyond; Buchner et al., n.d.; Sheperis, n.d.).
Instrumentation and Materials
The CD-RISC-10 (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007) was used to measure correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. Participants were also asked to complete a demographic
questionnaire consisting of marital status, gender, race/ethnicity, and level of education
(Appendix B).
The CD-RISC-10 was formulated using 10 items from the original Connor-
Davidson Resilience Scale 25 (CD-RISC-25; Connor & Davidson, 2003). The CD-RISC-
10 yielded very similar results as the CD-RISC-25 when measuring the psychological
resilience of various populations, and has been used in studies that include various forms
of trauma, Alzheimer’s caregivers, adolescents, elders, posttraumatic stress disorder
patients, university students, nurses, social workers, physicians, military medical
personnel, medical students, and missionaries. The CD-RISC-10 has also been used in
functional neuro imaging studies that included genotyping and neuro imaging to assess for
treatment outcomes and has been deemed to have valid psychometric properties
(Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). The CD-RISC-10 can be completed in approximately 5
minutes and requires participants possess the ability to read at a fifth-grade level and be at
least 10 years of age. The scale itself can screen individuals for high, intermediate, or low
psychological resilience and has been developed and tested as a predictor of outcome
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to treatment with medication or psychotherapy, stress management, and resilience building
(Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). The scale has also been used as a benchmark for measuring
resilience treatment and as a marker for biological changes in the brain (Campbell-Sills &
Stein, 2007).
Psychological resilience has been explained as a person’s ability to maintain
adequate levels of functioning, both emotionally and psychologically, as he or she
encounters and deals with stressful intrusions (Bonanno, 2004). Researchers have posited
that by investigating factors that influence risk and/or a person’s susceptibility to stressors,
it is possible to assess resilience quantifiably (Connor & Zhang, 2006). Using specific
scales that take into account determinants of resilience (e.g., available resources, support
systems, previous responses and/or coping with intrusions, etc.), it may be possible to
measure subjective factors that affect resilience in prospective fashion (how a person will
respond to future intrusion) and also a person’s current resilience (Scali et al., 2012). The
CD-RSIC-25 was developed in order to measure normal psychological resilience in
clinical and nonclinical populations (Connor & Davidson, 2003) and is considered a
multidimensional tool consisting of five distinct areas of measurement.
Further research and validation of the scales in CD-RISC-25 led to the formation of the
CD-RISC-10 (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). The CD-RISC-10 has been used in various
studies and has been deemed appropriate for a wide array of epidemiological work
(Notario-Pacheco et al., 2011).
Researchers have determined that the CD-RISC-10 is an instrument that can be
used to measure the psychological resilience as it pertains to a variety of response and
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coping styles. According to Campbell-Sills and Stein (2007), “Overall, the 10 item
CDRISC displays excellent psychometric properties and allows for efficient measurement
of resilience” (p. 1019). Using a calculated Chronbach’s alpha to measure the internal
consistency of the CD-RISC-10, researchers have concluded that an alpha value of .85
indicated acceptable reliability (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Validity analysis has
compared the Brief Symptoms Inventory (BSI) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-
Short Form (CTQ-SF) to the results of the CD-RISC-10 using a sample size of 131
participants (n = 131). Participants who completed the CTQ-SF yielded a mean of 34.4 (M
= 34.4), Standard Deviation of 11.3 (SD = 11.3), and an overall Range of 25 -79 (R = 25-
79). The same participants who completed the CTQ-SF completed the BSI and yielded a
Mean of 14.8 (M = 14.8), Standard Deviation of 11.9 (SD = 11.9), and an overall Range of
0-53 (R = 0-53). Confirmatory factor analysis concluded that the CD- RISC-10 could be
used to accurately moderate the relationship between the CTQ-SF and the BSI (Campbell-
Sills & Stein, 2007). Using hierarchical regression that included the CTQ-SF and CD-
RISC-10 on the first step and then the CTQ-SF x CD-RISC-10 on the second step,
researchers posited that while the main effects model indicated “significance” (p. 1025), R
= .51 R2 = .26 F (2, 127) = 22.76, P < .001, the regression model on the second step
produced results that were “superior” (p. 1025), R = .56 R2 =
.31 F (3, 126) = 19.00, P < .001 (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007).
Previous research efforts have used multivariate logistic regression in order to
investigate the relationship(s) between age, education, trauma history, cancer, current
psychiatric diagnosis, and psychological resilience by using the CD-RISC-10 (Scali et al.,
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2012). Studies focused on the psychometric properties of the CD-RISC-10 have explained
that there exists a negative association between having a psychiatric disorder and having
psychological resilience (Scali et al., 2012). Scali et al. (2012) were successful in showing
that lower levels of resilience were primarily due to heightened levels of anxiety and not
mood disorders; however, using the CD-RISC-10, they explained that a positive
association between resilience and a history of trauma existed.
Other studies that have investigated resilience using the CD-RISC and
confirmatory analysis identified higher order resilience factors (Yu et al., 2011).
Approximately one month after the devastating 2008 Sichuan earthquake, 2,914 Chinese
youth participants were recruited to complete the CD-RISC, Multidimensional Scale of
Perceived Social Support, Children’s Depression Inventory, and the Screen for Child
Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders. Yu et al. (2011) used a Cronbach alpha coefficient
to measure the internal consistency and successfully investigated the hypotheses that
higher social support would be associated with higher CD-RISC scores and higher levels
of anxiety and depression would be associated with lower CD-RISC scores. The scales
had the following reliabilities: positive correlation between “higher levels of social
support” and higher levels of resilience (0.44), a negative correlation between “higher
levels of anxiety” and resilience (-0.25), and a negative correlation between “depression”
and resilience (-0.38) (Ps < .001; Yu et al., 2011). The CD-RISC played a vital role in
assisting researchers to determine that differences between gender and age were to be
considered influential demographic factors when investigating resilience following trauma
(Yu et al., 2011).
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Goins, Gregg, and Fiske (2012) investigated the resilience properties of the CD-
RISC-10 as compared to the CD-RISC in a population of American Indians. Goins et al.
posited that there existed a unidimensional factor structure between both measurements
and that there were significant positive correlations between self-efficacy, self-mastery,
social support scales and CD-RISC scores (mean of 75.7 and SD 13.0), and a significant
negative correlation between depression and CD-RISC scores (mean of 83.0 and SD
13.4). Goins et al. reported that the CD-RISC scores and the CD-RISC-10 mean score of
33.5 (SD 6.2) resulted in an item correlation of 0.61 where Cronbach’s alpha ranged from
0.88 to 0.93.
Cosco, Kaushal, Richards, Kuh, and Stafford (2016) identified a total of 5,909
studies to be used in a systematic review of measurements pertaining to resilience and
concluded that 426 used resilience psychometrics, six of which were included in their final
analysis. Research investigating the psychometric properties of the CD-RISC-10 as they
pertain to older adults (i.e., > 60 years) determined that the scale possessed adequate levels
of internal consistency, convergent/discriminant validity, and theoretical construct validity
to be used in ongoing research endeavors (Cosco et al., 2016).
Data Collection and Analysis
This study utilized the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software
(v.23), with the alpha value set at .05, to analyze all data collected. Online participants
were administered the CD-RISC-10 and demographic questionnaire using Facebook,
LinkedIn, Yahoo Focus Groups, and Survey Money Audience. Participants were given the
option of taking part in this study via U.S. Postal Service and mailed the CD-RISC-10
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and descriptive data questionnaire after they had made contact and expressed interest via
phone, text, e-mail, or written correspondence. Participants opting to participate via U.S.
mail would have been provided free return mail services. This study utilized two separate
Two-way ANOVA measures to investigate any differences between group and/or levels
that may have existed (Field, 2013). The independent variables were the marital statuses,
levels of education, races/ethnicities, and genders of correctional officers, and the
dependent variable was correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
The first Two-way ANOVA was used to investigate a total of six levels between
both variables. The null hypothesis for this Two-way ANOVA was that there are no
differences between the independent variable levels (Black, Latino, or White; male or
female) and their relationship to correctional officers’ psychological resilience. The
alternative hypothesis for this Two-way ANOVA was that there are differences between
the independent variable levels (Black, Latino, or White; male or female) and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. In both the null and alternative hypotheses the
researcher used an alpha value of .05. The researcher used a Two-way ANOVA F-
Distribution in order to analyze the degrees of freedom to determine the critical value to
compare the test statistic to. The degrees of freedom between groups and within groups
were determined in order to identify the critical F-Value. In order to identify the degrees
of freedom between groups the researcher took the total number of variables in this Two-
way ANOVA (2) minus one which resulted in a degrees of freedom between groups equal
to one. In order to determine the degrees of freedom within groups the researcher
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
took the total number of levels (6) minus the total number of variables (2) which resulted
in a degree of freedom within equal to four.
To determine the total degrees of freedom for this Two-way ANOVA the researcher
added both the degrees of freedom between groups (1) and the degrees of freedom within
groups (4) and arrived at a total degrees of freedom for this Two-way ANOVA equal to
five. The researcher used the F-Distribution in order to determine F- Critical value where
the numerator was equal to the degrees of freedom between groups
(1) and denominator was equal to the degrees of freedom within groups (4) to arrive at a
F-Critical value equal to 4.05. In order to calculate the sum of squares deviation from the
mean for the total variability the researcher calculated the mean for each variable and then
calculated the grand mean (sum of all the scores in each variable divided by total scores).
Once the researcher calculated both the mean for each variable and the grand mean, the
researcher then calculated the total sum of squares by squaring the sum of each score minus
the grand mean. In order to calculate the sum of squares within groups the researcher
subtracted the sum of the squared deviations within each group from the mean of the
variable and added them. In order to find the sum of squares between groups the researcher
took the sum of squares total minus the sum of squares within. In order to calculate the
variance between groups (mean squared between groups) the researcher divided the sum
of squared between groups by the degrees of freedom between groups
(1). In order to calculate the variance within groups (mean squared within groups) the
researcher divided the sum of squares within groups by the degrees of freedom within
groups (4).
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
In order to calculate the F-Value for the data set the researcher divided the variance
between groups (mean squared between groups) by the variance within groups (mean
squared within groups). The researcher then compare the F-Value to the F-Critical value in
order to determine whether or not to reject the null hypothesis that stated that there were
no differences between the independent variable levels (Black, Latino, or White and male
or female) and their relationship to correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
This second Two-way ANOVA also investigated a total of six levels between two
variables. The null hypothesis for this Two-way ANOVA is that there were no differences
between the independent variable levels (GED or high school diploma, AA or AS,
Bachelors of Arts [BA] or bachelor’s degree or beyond) and their relationship to
correctional officers’ psychological resilience. The alternative hypothesis for this Two-
way ANOVA was that there were differences between the independent variable levels
(GED or high school diploma, AA or AS, bachelor’s degree or beyond, and married or not
married] and correctional officers’ psychological resilience. In both the null and alternative
hypotheses the researcher used an alpha value of .05. The researcher used a Two-way
ANOVA F- Distribution in order to analyze the degrees of freedom to determine the
critical value from which to compare the test statistic. The degrees of freedom between
groups and within groups were determined in order to identify the critical F-Value. In order
to identify the degrees of freedom between groups the researcher took the total number of
variables in this Two-way ANOVA (2) and subtracted one which results in a degrees of
freedom between groups equal to one. In
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
order to determine the degrees of freedom within groups the researcher took the total
number of levels (6) minus the total number of variables (2) which resulted in a degree of
freedom within equal to four. To determine the total degrees of freedom for this Two- way
ANOVA the researcher added both the degrees of freedom between groups (1) and the
degrees of freedom within groups (4) to arrive at a total degrees of freedom for this Two-
way ANOVA equal to 5. The researcher used the F-Distribution in order to determine F-
Critical value where the numerator was equal to the degrees of freedom between groups
(1) and denominator was equal to the degrees of freedom within groups
(4) to arrive at a F-Critical value equal to 4.05. In order to calculate the sum of squares
deviation from the mean for the total variability the researcher calculated the mean for
each variable and then calculated the grand mean (sum of all the scores in each variable
divided by total scores).
Once the researcher calculated both the mean for each variable and the grand mean
the researcher then calculated the total sum of squares by squaring the sum of each score
minus the grand mean. In order to calculate the sum of squares within groups the
researcher subtracted the sum of the squared deviations within each group from the mean
of the variable and added them. In order to find the sum of squares between groups the
researcher took the sum of squares total minus the sum of squares within. In order to
calculate the variance between groups (mean squared between groups) the researcher
divided the sum of squared between groups by the degrees of freedom between groups
(1). In order to calculate the variance within groups (mean squared within groups) the
researcher divided the sum of squares within groups by the degrees of freedom within
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
groups (4). In order to calculate the F-Value for the data set the researcher divided the
variance between groups (mean squared between groups) by the variance within groups
(mean squared within groups). The researcher then compared the F-Value to the F- Critical
value in order to determine whether or not to reject the null hypothesis that stated that there
were no differences between the independent variable levels (GED or high school diploma,
AA or AS, bachelor’s degree or beyond, and married or not married) and their relationship
to correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
RQ1- Are there differences in psychological resilience between levels of education
among correctional officers?
(DV-Psychological resilience, IV- Educational level)
H01 = There will be no difference in psychological resilience between levels of
education among correctional officers.
H11 = Correctional officers with higher levels of education will have higher
psychological resilience scores.
RQ2- Are there differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers?
(DV-Psychological resilience, IV- Marital status)
H02 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers.
H12 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between different
marital statuses among correctional officers.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
RQ3- Are there differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities among
correctional officers?
(DV-Psychological resilience, IV- Race/Ethnicity)
H03 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities
among correctional officers.
H13 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
races/ethnicities among correctional officers.
RQ4- Are there differences in psychological resilience between genders among
correctional officers?
H04 = There will be no significant differences in psychological resilience between
genders among correctional officers.
H14 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
genders among correctional officers.
Threats to Validity
Creswell (2014) explained two primary existent threats to validity that exist in
quantitative research; internal and/or external factors that may affect the validity of
analyses. Internal threats to this study consisted of the implementation of the CD-RISC-
10 measurement and the demographic factors that were being examined; specifically, it
would have been impossible to examine the extent to which one demographic factor solely
influences resilience. This study focused on four specific demographic factors; however,
because of the unique interplay that may have existed between these variables it was
difficult to assume that one was not acting simultaneously with another to influence
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
correctional officers’ psychological resilience. Internal threats to this study’s validity were
also present when examining the manner in which correctional officers were trained via
their respective programs. The TDCJ and the CDCR have independent and distinguished
training programs that are meant to prepare correctional officers for the scope of work
duties that they perform. Criminal activity among inmate populations are similar
systematic differences pertinent to responding to stressful situations may differ between
systems. Participant selection and instrumentation may have also threatened the validity
of this study due to unforeseeable factors that might have influenced a participant’s desire
and/or willingness to take part in this study.
In reviewing the potential external threats to validity (i.e. the generalizability of this
study’s results) it is apparent that information derived from this study will be applicable in
a general manner. Due to the volunteer bias associated with this type of quantitative
research and the two correctional systems (i.e. TDCJ and CDCR) where participants will
be drawn from results may not be applicable to all U.S. correctional officers.
Ethical Protection of Human Participants
Ethical Considerations
All participants used in any capacity during this study had the opportunity to
withdraw at any time. All participation was on a volunteer basis and ethical considerations
were a primary focus that were maintained throughout this study’s entirety. Informed
consent is necessary when conducting any research on human participants. All volunteers
taking part in this study were required to ensure their
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
understanding of how data collection would occur. Participants understood their right to
withdraw at any time during this study, the efforts that were taken to ensure their
confidentiality, and all the individuals who had access to participant information. At no
time did this study implement or utilize any participant information, any unapproved
method for analyses, and/or dissemination practices that were not fully approved by the
Walden University Internal Review Board prior to inception. The Walden University
Internal Review Board approval number for this study is 09-26-16-0233590.
All participation data was collected, stored, and protected in a confidential and
anonymous fashion in accordance with well-established practices (Creswell, 2014).
Participant information was stored online by utilizing a Survey Monkey password
protected website and all password protected files was stored on one primary device. All
participation data was stored online or in locked files. At no time was there be any
information stored that could have been used to identify volunteer participants. The only
individuals who had access to this study’s participant information were this writer, this
writer’s dissertation chair and committee member.
Summary
This study was designed in order to investigate the potential relationships between
demographic factors and correctional officers’ psychological resilience. Online
participants were administered the CD-RISC-10 and demographic questionnaire using
Facebook, LinkedIn, Yahoo Focus Groups, and Survey Money Audience. Participants had
the option of taking part in this study via U.S. Postal Service and would have been mailed
the CD-RISC-10 and demographic questionnaire after they had made contact and
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
expressed interest via phone, text, e-mail, or written correspondence and provided implied
informed consent. This study utilized two separate two-way ANOVAs to investigate any
differences between groups and levels that may have existed. Independent variables
investigated in this study were the marital statuses, levels of education, races/ethnicities,
and genders of correctional officers, and the dependent variable was correctional officers’
psychological resilience. Included in this chapter were the research design, rationale for
using the design, data collection instruments used in the study, methods for conducting
data analyses, internal and external threats to validity, and ethical considerations. Chapter
4 includes the data analyses results.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether or not there was a relationship
between correctional officers’ psychological resilience and four specific demographic
factors. Quantitative methodology was used to investigate the independent variables of
marital statuses, levels of education, races/ethnicities, and genders of correctional officers,
and the dependent variable of correctional officers’ psychological resilience. Two separate
two-way ANOVAs were used to investigate between and within levels. The first two-way
ANOVA was used to investigate a total of six levels between both variables. The null
hypothesis for the first two-way ANOVA was that there were no differences between the
independent variable levels (Black, Latino, or White; male or female) and their
relationship to correctional officers’ psychological resilience. The alternative hypothesis
for the first two-way ANOVA was that there were differences between the independent
variable levels (Black, Latino, or White; male or female) and correctional officers’
psychological resilience. The second two-way ANOVA also investigated a total of six
levels between two variables. The null hypothesis for the second two-way ANOVA was
that there were no differences between the independent variable levels (GED or high
school diploma, AA or AS, BA or bachelor’s degree or beyond; married or not married)
and their relationship to correctional officers’ psychological resilience. The alternative
hypothesis for the second two-way ANOVA was that there were differences between the
independent variable levels (GED or high school diploma, AA or AS, bachelor’s degree or
beyond, and married or not married) and
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
correctional officers’ psychological resilience. SPSS software (v.23) was used for analyses
and computation. This chapter includes the descriptive characteristics of the sample, a
discussion on data collection methods used, data analyses, and the results of the study as
they relate to the research questions and hypotheses.
Descriptive Characteristics
All responses included in this research study were checked for consent, survey
completion, and demographic questionnaire completion. A time frame of approximately 3
weeks was necessary to gain a sufficient number of participants to conduct this study. A
total of 59 participants attempted to complete the CD-RISC-10 and demographic
questionnaire; however, six participants did not respond to all 10 items on CD-RISC-10
and one participant did not respond to all items on the demographic questionnaire. All
seven participants who failed to respond either to all items included in the CD-RISC-10 or
to all questions included on the demographic questionnaire were excluded from this study.
A total of 52 participants completed all items on both the CD-RISC-10 and
demographic questionnaire, and their responses where used during analysis. The overall
sample that was used for this study consisted of 27 (51.92%) men and 25 (48.08%) women
(Table 1). The sample for this study included 31 (59.62%) participants who identified
themselves as married and 21 (40.38%) participants who identified as not married. Data
related to races/ethnicities were derived from 16 (30.77%) participants who identified as
Latino, 13 (25.00%) who identified as Black, and 23 (44.23%) participants who identified
as White. Data related to levels of education were collected from 31
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
(59.62%) participants who reported that their highest level of education was a GED or high
school diploma, 14 (26.92%) participants who reported their highest level of education was
an AA or AS, and seven (13.46%) participants who reported t that their highest level of
education was a BA or Bachelors of Science (BS) or beyond.
Table 1
Summary of Sample Characteristics (n = 52)
Characteristics
N
Percentage*
Gender
Male
27
51.92%
Female
25
48.08%
Marital Status
Married
31
59.62%
Not Married
21
40.38%
Education Level
GED or High School Diploma
31
59.62%
Associates of Arts (A.A.) or
Associates of Science (A.S.)
14
26.92%
Bachelors and Arts (B.A.) or
Bachelors of Science (B.S.)
or beyond
7
13.46%
Race/Ethnicity
Latino
16
30.77%
Black
13
25.00%
White
23
44.23%
Data Collection
All data for this study were collected via the Internet with the use of Facebook,
Yahoo Focus Groups, Survey Monkey Audience, and LinkedIn. No participants requested
any information be sent to them via U.S. Postal Services. The CD-RISC-10 (Campbell-
Sills & Stein, 2007) was the instrument used to collect data pertinent to correctional
officers’ psychological resilience, and a demographic questionnaire was used
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
to collect data pertinent to correctional officers’ marital statuses, educational levels,
races/ethnicities, and genders. Prior to data collection, all participants who completed the
CD-RISC-10 and demographic questionnaire were provided information about the types
of questions, the approximate time it would take to respond to CD-RISC-10 and
questionnaire prompts, and the purpose for conducting this research.
Data Analysis
Prior to examining whether there were any significant relationship(s) between
demographic factors and correctional officers’ psychological resilience, the mean scores
associated with each demographic variable were calculated. Univariate tests were used to
identify any significant differences in psychological resilience mean scores that existed
between independent variable levels and are represented in Table 1 and Table 2. The
independent variable gender yielded no significant differences between the psychological
resilience mean scores of males and females. Overall, male correctional officers reported
a slightly higher level of psychological resilience (M = 30.421) than female correctional
officers (M = 28.770). Examining the resiliency means of male and female correctional
officers and their respective race/ethnicity (Black, Latino, or White) yielded that Latino
females reported the highest resiliency (M = 32.500), followed by Latino males (M =
31.300), White males (M = 30.462), Black males (M = 29.500), Black females (M =
27.111), and White females (M = 26.700). Correctional officers’ races/ethnicities and
genders resiliency means can be seen in Table 2.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Table 2
Means: Correctional Officers’ Races/Ethnicities & Genders
Source
LF
LM
WF
WM
BF
BM
M
M
M
M
M
M
Resilience
32.500
31.300
26.700
30.462
27.111
29.500
Note. LF-Latino Females; LM-Latino Males; WF-White Females; WM-White Males;
BF-Black Females; BM-Black Males.
Overall married correctional officers reported a slightly higher level of
psychological resilience (M = 29.065) than correctional officers who were not married (M
= 30.585); however, the differences in means were not large enough to be considered
significant. Examining the resiliency means of married and not married correctional
officers and their respective educational levels (AA, AS, or BA, BS, and beyond) yielded
that correctional officers who were not married with an educational level of BA, BS, or
beyond reported the highest resiliency (M = 33.000); followed by correctional officers who
were married with an educational level of AA or AS (M = 30.556), correctional officers
who were not married with an educational level of GED or high school diploma (M =
30.154), correctional officers who were not married with an educational level of AA or AS
(M = 28.600), correctional officers who were married with an educational level of a GED
or high school diploma (M = 28.389), and correctional officers who were married with an
educational level of BA, BS, or beyond (M = 28.250). Correctional officers’ marital
statuses and levels of education resiliency means can be seen in Table 3.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Table 3
Means: Correctional Officers’ Marital Statuses & Levels of Education
Source
M/B
NM/B
M/A
NM/A
M/HS
NM/HS
M
M
M
M
M
M
Resilience
28.250
33.00
30.556
28.600
28.389
30.154
Note. M/B- Married with a B.A. or B.S. and Beyond; NM/B- Not Married with a B.A. or
B.S. and Beyond; M/A- Married with A.A. or A.S.; NM/A- Not Married with A.A. or
A.S.; M/HS- Married with a high school diploma or G.E.D.; NM/HS- Not Married with a
high school diploma or G.E.D.
Results of the Study
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The first two-way ANOVA was conducted with the independent variables of
correctional officers’ marital status (married or not married) and educational level (AA,
AS, or BA, BS, and beyond), and the dependent variable of correctional officers’
psychological resilience. The second two-way ANOVA was conducted with the
independent variables of correctional officers’ gender (male or female) and race/ethnicity
(Black, Latino, or White), and the dependent variable of correctional officers’
psychological resilience. Using G*Power 3.1.9.2 analysis for conducting this rwo-way
ANOVA (fixed effects, special, main effects and interactions with a statistical power of
.80, Alpha of .05, and a medium effect size of .40), a total sample size of 52 participants
was appropriate for drawing significant differences between two variables (marital status
and educational level) and within a total of six levels (married or not married; GED or
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
high school diploma, or AA, AS, or BA, BS, and beyond; Buchner et al., n.d.; Sheperis,
n.d.).
RQ1- Are there differences in psychological resilience between levels of education
among correctional officers? (DV-psychological resilience, IV- educational level)
H01 = There will be no difference in psychological resilience between levels of
education among correctional officers.
H11 = Correctional officers with higher levels of education will have higher
psychological resilience scores.
Correctional officers’ levels of education were included as a factor in a two-way
ANOVA to investigate the relationship between this demographic factor and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. The F value of .197 was less than the F-Critical value
of 4.05 and resulted in a failure to reject the null hypothesis. The P-value (.822) was greater
than .05, which indicated that the finding was not significant. Subset psychological
resiliency means increased with higher educational levels among correctional officers
(GED or high school diploma [M = 29.13]; AA, AS, or BA, BS, and beyond [M = 29.86];
BA, BS, and beyond [M = 30.29]) and are represented in Table 4; however, the increases
were not large enough to be considered significant.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Table 4
Means, Std. Error, and F Statistics: Correctional Officers’ Educational Levels
Source GED or HS A.A. or A.S. B.A. or B.S. or Beyond ANOVA
test
M Std. M Std. M Std. F(df)
Resilience 29.13 4.493 29.86 6.666 30.29 3.904 .197
(1,4)
Note. Significance was indicated as follows: +p < .10; p < .05; p < .01.
RQ2- Are there differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers? (DV-psychological resilience, IV- marital status)
H02 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between different marital
statuses among correctional officers.
H12 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between different
marital statuses among correctional officers.
Correctional officers’ marital statuses were included as a factor in a two-way
ANOVA to investigate the relationship between this demographic factor and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. The F value of .776 was less than the F-Critical value
of 4.05 and resulted in a failure to reject the null hypothesis. The P-value (.383) was
greater than .05, which indicated that the finding was not significant. Overall, correctional
officers who were not married reported a slightly higher level of psychological resilience
(M = 30.585) than correctional officers who were married (M = 29.065) as represented in
Table 5; however, the differences were not large enough to be considered significant.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Table 5
Means, Std. Error, and F Statistics: Correctional Officers’ Marital Statuses
Source Married Not Married ANOVA
test
M Std. M Std. F(df)
Resilience 29.065 1.099 30.585 1.330 .776
(1,4)
Note. Significance was indicated as follows: +p < .10; p < .05; p < .01.
The second two-way ANOVA was conducted with the independent variables of
correctional officers’ gender (male or female) and race/ethnicity (Black, Latino, or White),
and the dependent variable of correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
Using G*Power 3.1.9.2 analysis for conducting this two-way ANOVA (fixed effects,
special, main effects and interactions with a statistical power of .80, Alpha of .05, and a
medium effect size of .40), a total sample size of 52 participants was appropriate for
drawing significant differences between two variables (gender and race/ethnicity) and
within a total of siz levels (male or female; Black, Latino, or White; Buchner et al., n.d.;
Sheperis, n.d.). Consequently, 27 (51.92%) participants were male, 25 (48.08%)
participants were female, 13 (25.00%) participants were Black, 16 (30.77%) were Latino,
and 23 (44.23%) participants were White.
RQ3- Are there differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities among
correctional officers?
(DV-Psychological resilience, IV- Race/Ethnicity)
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
H03 = There will be no differences in psychological resilience between races/ethnicities
among correctional officers.
H13 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
races/ethnicities among correctional officers.
Correctional officers’ races/ethnicities were included as a factor in a Two-way
ANOVA to investigate the relationship between this demographic factor and correctional
officers’ psychological resilience. The F value of 2.638 was less than the F-Critical value
of 4.05 and resulted in a failure to reject the null hypothesis. The P-value (.082) was greater
than .05 which indicates that the finding is not significant. Subset psychological resiliency
means were not significantly different between correctional officers’ races/ethnicities
[Black (M = 27.85); White (M = 28.83); Latino (M = 31.75)] and are represented in Table
6.
Table 6
Means, Std. Error, and F Statistics: Correctional Officers’ Educational Levels
Source
Black
White
Latino
ANOVA
test
M
Std. M
Std. M
Std.
F(df)
Resilience 27.85 1.440 28.83 1.088 31.75 1.238 .082
(1,4)
Note. Significance was indicated as follows: +p < .10; p < .05; p < .01.
RQ4- Are there differences in psychological resilience between genders among
correctional officers?
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
H04 = There will be no significant differences in psychological resilience between
genders among correctional officers.
H14 = There will be significant differences in psychological resilience between
genders among correctional officers.
Correctional officers’ genders were included as a factor in a Two-way ANOVA to
investigate the relationship between this demographic factor and correctional officers’
psychological resilience. The F value of 1.326 is less than the F-Critical value of 4.05 and
resulted in a failure to reject the null hypothesis. The P-value (.256) was greater than
.05 which indicates that the finding is not significant. Overall male correctional officers
reported a slightly higher level of psychological resilience (M = 30.421) than correctional
officers who were not married (M = 28.770) as represented in Table 7; however, the differences
were not large enough to be considered significant
Table 7
Means, Std. Error, and F Statistics: Correctional Officers’ Marital Statuses
Source Male Female ANOVA
test
M Std. M Std. F(df)
Resilience 30.421 1.044 38.770 .982 .256
(1,4)
Note. Significance was indicated as follows: +p < .10; p < .05; p < .01.
Summary
The analyses indicated that there are no significant differences in psychological
resilience between correctional officers’ educational levels, marital statuses,
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
races/ethnicities, and genders among correctional officers. Chapter 5 presents a summary
of the results and findings of this study. Included in chapter 5 is an interpretation of this
study’s findings, a discussion of this study’s limitations and social implications, and
recommendations for future research.
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
This study’s purpose was to investigate the potential relationship between
correctional officers’ psychological resilience and four specific demographic factors.
Quantitative research methodologies were utilized to gather and analyze data collected
via online survey and demographic questionnaire. The online survey included the CD-
RISC-10, which assessed the psychological resilience of participants, and the
demographic questionnaire, which retrieved data about participants’ genders, marital
statuses, races/ethnicities, and educational levels. The targeted data were collected, and I
have provided a detailed account of the findings in this chapter. In this chapter, I also
explain limitations of this study’s design as well as recommendations for future research
efforts.
Interpretation of Findings
This study provides information about relationships between four demographic
factors and correctional officers’ psychological resilience. The statistical analyses in this
study indicated that there were no significant relationships between correctional officers’
levels of education and their psychological resilience, correction officers’ marital statuses
and their psychological resilience, correctional officers’ races/ethnicities and their
psychological resilience, or correctional officers’ genders and their psychological
resilience.
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Level of Education
Grounded in previous literature, this study included the hypothesis that correctional
officers with higher levels of education would have higher psychological resilience scores.
Previous research efforts focused on academic success and progression as influenced by
psychological resilience had identified the vital role of personal adaptability (Jimerson et
al., 1999). Studies have suggested that the way individuals respond to and/or cope with
stressful intrusions are key when examining their ability to maintain effective levels of
resilience, and that studying the types of stressors may be less important than focusing on
individuals’ responses and/or coping styles (Allan et al., 2013; Jimerson et al., 1999).
While research identified a significant correlation between academic success and
psychological resilience in first year university students (Allan et al., 2013), this study’s
analyses showed that differences between correctional officers’ levels of education and
their psychological resiliency means were not significant. The responses and/or coping
styles that assisted correctional officers to achieve academic success may not be as
effective when dealing with stressful intrusions that occur inside prison walls. The lack of
significant differences between correctional officers’ levels of education and their
psychological resilience may suggest that the type of stress that correctional officers face
calls for different responses and/or coping strategies.
Marital Status
On the foundation that marriage may provide added social support, I formulated
this study’s hypothesis. The hypothesis that there would be significant differences in
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
psychological resilience between different marital statuses (married or not married) among
correctional officers was not supported by this study. Previous research efforts posited that
the reciprocal nature of correctional officers’ psychological resilience and interpersonal
relationship functioning may have provided added insight into the role of the marital status
demographics (Snyder & Lopez, 2009). The dissolution of marriages has been linked
historically with external stressors, such as work-related stress (Bolger et al., 1989; Repetti,
1989; Schulz et al., 2004). This study’s analyses showed that differences between
correctional officers’ marital statuses and their psychological resiliency were not
significant. Psychological resilience may not maintain a reciprocal nature when paired
with correctional officers’ interpersonal relationship functioning.
While the work-related stressors correctional officers endure may influence the dissolution
of marriages, correctional officers’ marital statuses had no significant impact on their
ability to respond to and/or cope with work related stress.
Race/Ethnicity
The hypothesis that there would be significant differences in psychological
resilience between races/ethnicities among correctional officers was not supported by this
study. Previous research posited that race/ethnic discrimination affected psychological
resilience as these factors may contribute to the depletion of psychological reserves due to
chronic exposure or exposure to a major traumatic discriminatory episode (Pascoe & Smart
Richman, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009). This study showed that there were no
significant differences between the races/ethnicities entailed in this research as they
pertained to correctional officers’ psychological resilience. Correctional officers
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
belonging to minority races/ethnicities may be exposed to greater discriminatory acts and
have experienced depletions of psychological reserves; however, in this study their
psychological resilience maintained similar levels to White participants, who are not
considered minorities.
Gender
The hypothesis that there would be significant differences in psychological
resilience between genders among correctional officers was not supported by this study.
Previous literature that focused on discrimination between genders and psychological
resilience suggested the prevalence in the development of ineffective coping strategies in
those who had been subjected to gender discrimination (Borrell et al., 2010). The
difference between correctional officers’ genders and their psychological resiliency means
were not significant. Previous literature also suggested that exposure to chronic
discrimination and/or a major discriminatory event resulted in deficiencies when
responding to and/or coping with psychological stress (Borrell et al., 2010; Luo et al.,
2012). This study’s results suggested male and female correctional officers who
participated in this study scored similar levels of psychological resilience, which may be
indicative of their similar abilities to respond to and/or cope with stress (Campbell-Sills &
Stein, 2007; Notario-Pacheco et al., 2011).
Limitations of the Study
Prior to the implementation of this study, limitations were identified and included
factors pertinent to the generalizability of this study’s findings, correctional officers’
potential lack of Internet access, and the self-report nature of the CD-RISC-10 and
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
demographic questionnaire utilized to gather participant data. I analyzed data gathered
from 52 participants from two correctional officer organizations that included the CDCR
and the TDCJ. A major limitation to this study is that it did not involve investigating
differences in psychological resilience between correctional officers who work for the
CDCR versus correctional officers who work for the TDCJ. The relatively small sample
size and two organizations that participants were drawn from has limited this study’s
generalizability. Furthermore, this study only included data drawn from correctional
officers who work in the United States, and the data produced may not be applicable to
correctional officers working outside of the country. Another limitation pertinent to the
utilization of information yielded from this study is that it may only be applicable to
correctional officers who work face-to-face with inmates and not those employed in
positions that do not require direct interaction with inmates.
Correctional officers who did not have the necessary access or the ability to gain
access to an online medium utilized in this study’s data collection (e.g., Facebook, Survey
Monkey Audience, Yahoo Focus Groups, LinkedIn) could participate via U.S. Postal
Service mail correspondence; however, no participant chose this option. Due to the lack of
participants utilizing the U.S. Postal Service option, my ability to analyze data from those
officers who did not have Internet access was limited.
A limitation of this study was its small sample size, which could have resulted in
a sampling bias error. This study’s sample size may have resulted in a systematic
distortion in measuring the true frequency of any phenomenon due to potential selection
bias and limited random sampling of TDCJ and CDCR correctional officers. Participant
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
recruitment and data collection occurred over a relatively short amount of time
(approximately 3 weeks), which could have potentially limited participation from
correctional officers and potentially resulted in sampling process errors. Individuals who
took longer than the approximate 3 weeks to decide to participate were excluded as this
study had already achieved adequate participation to conduct univariate tests.
Recommendations for Future Research
One recommendation for future research efforts that are concerned with
psychological resilience between different marital statuses may include interpersonal
relationships and interpersonal functioning. Focusing on investigating correctional
officers’ interpersonal relationships and functioning could provide important information
pertaining to the role that healthy support systems occupy in psychological resilience. A
longitudinal type study is recommended to gain further insight into the way correctional
officers’ psychological resilience may fluctuate in alignment with their perceived
interpersonal functioning and/or marital satisfaction.
Research is also needed to gain a better understanding of the roles that cultural
norms and socioeconomic statuses play in correctional officers’ utilization of coping
strategies and their reluctance to access mental health services following traumatic events
(Grych et al., 2015). Literature has yet to adequately explain cultural norms and their
influences on acceptable forms of expression pertaining to stress and coping (Grych et al.,
2015). While people in some cultures are more likely to seek mental health services should
they feel it warranted, others may find it taboo and unaccepted. The organization, delivery,
and financing of services may also contribute to potential correlation between
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
psychological resilience, socioeconomic statuses, and access/utilization of mental health
services. Groups with limited social resources and unequal access to mental health services
due to their minority statuses may have greater difficulty responding to and/or coping with
work-related stress.
Implications for Social Change
This study was focused on investigating potential relationships between
correctional officers’ psychological resilience and four demographic factors. This study
found that there were no significant differences among levels of education, genders,
marital statuses, and races/ethnicities and correctional officers’ psychological resilience.
The social implication drawn from this study is that demographic factors should not be
considered when determining whether correctional officers are psychologically resilient
to perform the respective scope of work. The information gained from this study implies
that the development of programs that improve correctional officers’ resilience and
prevent the onset of psychopathology should be focused on factors other than
races/ethnicities, genders, marital statuses, and levels of education.
Social change entails an alteration or transformation of culture and social
institutions over a period. This study’s implication for social change is rooted in a
foundation of equality between various demographics that include races/ethnicities,
genders, marital statuses, and levels of education. It provides further evidence in support
of a nonbiased mechanism that contributes to growth and strength by recognizing the value
in diversity. The interaction of various demographic factors, such as those investigated in
this study, provides a platform from which to acknowledge the
PSY 430 “Psychological Resilience in Correctional Oflcers” January 2, 2022
interdependence needed to grow and strengthen institutions such as our criminal justice
system. This study provides evidence in support of the insignificant differences that exist
between races/ethnicities, genders, marital statuses, and levels of education as they pertain
to correctional officers’ ability to perform their job duties. It supports the notion that the
high turnover rate facing correctional institutions is not rooted in correctional officers’
demographics, but may be more attributable to systematic issues that ultimately affect us
all.
Conclusion
I conducted this study seeking to investigate the roles of gender, race/ethnicity,
level of education, and marital status on correctional officers’ psychological resilience. My
motivation was to identify whether one demographic factor (or a combination of
demographic factors) would have a greater association with psychological resilience than
others. I used the stress-vulnerability model to help me identify the point at which
correctional officers displayed difficulty responding to and/or coping with adversity.
With this research, I sought to provide insight into demographic factors that might have
contributed to a correctional officer’s ability to effectively respond to and/or cope with
high stress demands.
This study provided inconclusive evidence that any of the four demographic factors
had a relationship to correctional officer’s psychological resilience and reaffirms the need
to promote equality among levels of educations, genders, races/ethnicities, and marital
statuses when considering candidates’ ability to perform correctional officers scope of
work.
