PSY 341 – Module 5
Language Development
Four Aspects of Language:
1. Phonology phonemes
2. Semantics morphemes
3. Syntax/Grammar
4. Pragmatics
Phonology: the sounds of a language
Phonemes: individual sounds (“ta”, “ba”, “sss”, “da”)
Semantics: the units of meaning in a language
Morphemes: smallest units of meaning
1. Individual words (i.e. cat)
2. Parts of words (i.e. endings of words to distinguish verb tenses, plural/singular)
3. Running run + -ing
4. Cats cat + s
Syntax/Grammar: how to put words together in sentence properly
i.e. the boy hit the ball the ball hit the boy
hit the boy the ball ?? no one knows what object is doing what
Pragmatics: rules for how to use language in social situations
i.e. don’t be ambiguous! “Give me the red ball” when there are two red balls
i.e. adjust your speech to the level of your listener
How do children learn the meaning of a word?
Two problems: reference and extension
oReference: what else is a cat? Are there other cats? What does that word refer
to?
oExtension: what else in the world is that word?
Children over-extend their early words
Older view (1970s): what are the first meanings for semantic features hypothesis
children? There are two aspects to first meanings - first meaning is one feature, new
featured are added one at a time
oIt CAN explain over-extensions
Adults do not agree on the meanings of words
The Classical idea (Plato) meaning is a definition or list of necessary and sufÏcient
features
The Modern idea (Wittgenstein) meaning is a prototype, or average image of the most
typical type of that thing
oPrototypical judgments: rating how good of an object it is to that definition
oScientists are always debating on how they should draw the line between certain
concepts
Semantic Features Hypothesis CAN’T explain:
1. Under-extensions: child would use word for only that one object (their cat, but no other
cat)
2. More over-extensions in production than in comprehension: In language production,
child learns word and says everything they see as that word. In comprehension, the
child sees a picture of two different animals and asks which one is the cat child has
not over-extended the word when comprehending between two pictures
3. Overlaps: child using the same word and switching features each time it’s used (“dog”
for anything that is black, then anything that’s furry, then anything that has 4 legs, etc.)
Prototype Theory:
1. The first meaning is a prototype
2. The child selects different subsets of features at different times
3. i.e. Cat an image that includes lots of features (4 legs, tail, soft, white, runs)
4. Child selects parts or all prototypes
5. Can explain under-extension, over-extensions in production, and overlaps
Rules that children use to get closer to the correct prototype:
1. Object scope constraint: child infers that the word refers to the whole object, not the
size, shape, function, but the whole object
2. Fast mapping: very good ability in remembering what the word was used for
3. Taxonomic Constraint: child infers that the rest of the objects are also that word
4. Lexical Contrast Constraint: adult uses two labels for the same thing, child assumes that
there’s something distinctive with the object
5. Mutual Exclusivity Constraint: children infer that object is different because adult used
new word for the last object
The Rules for Sentences:
Children create sentences on their own early on
We don’t know what the semantic rules are for putÝng words in the correct order to
generate meaning
If we could specify the syntax rules of languages, we’d be able to translate between
languages but we can’t
What do the rules do for us?
oDistinguish sentences from meaningless strings of words
oOrder of subject, verb, and object
oBias that subject is before object
oTells us what the sentence means
Noam Chomsky – Transformational Grammar
2 sentences, 1 meaning The President makes decisions. Decisions are made by the
President. The boy hit the ball. What did the boy hit?
o1a. The boy hit ? what
o1b. the boy hit?What
o1c. What the boy did hit? Dummy auxiliary verb
o2. Transposing “the boy” and “did” What did the boy hit?
oMind is subconsciously making these transformations to see that two sentences
can have the same meaning if they share a series of transformations
1 sentence, 2 meanings The shooting of the hunters was terrible. She won’t be will us
until July.
o1a. She will come July in
o1b. She come Julywon’t before
o1c. She before July won’t be with us
The two-word stage
oParty hat attribution
oKathryn sock possession
oSweater chair location
oKathryn ball subject object
oHit ball action object
oMore milk demand
Theories about how children learn syntax:
1. Reinforcement: Parents reinforce even when they use incorrect syntax
2. Imitation: Children have difÏculty repeating certain sentences “He can go out.” “Why
can’t he go out?” requires 3 transformations (add why, transpose, and negate)
3. Parent scaffolding by Child-Directed Speech: the way you speak to children in simple,
concrete manner, inconclusive if this helps children learn syntax
4. Language Acquisition Device: There must be innate rules
Failure to find simple rules
“Mental model” is deep structure of a sentence, which is connected to cultural, social,
objects, time, causality, beliefs
