Emergency Managers Perspectives on Social Media Use for Situatio

Emergency Managers Perspectives on Social Media Use for

Situatio

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Emergency managers are responsible for protecting communities by coordinating,

collaborating, and maintaining situational awareness during natural, human-caused, and

technological disasters (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2017). To

accomplish this task, emergency managers work in an emergency operations center

(EOC). The emergency managers’ role is to coordinate and collaborate with the first

responders through the incident command system (ICS) working from the disaster site.

First responders (police, fire, and emergency medical services) quickly assess the

situation and provide a report to the incident commander. The incident commander, based

on the information provided by the first responders, identifies the needs and the impacted

population and provides a disaster situation report using portable radios. The

disasterspecific information provided by the incident commander is crucial because it

aids in the decision-making process between the disaster site and the EOC and is essential

when developing disaster planning strategies and requesting additional needed resources.

However, there are times when first responders are unable to provide information to

emergency managers. As a result, emergency managers are unable to coordinate disaster

planning strategies due to the lack of situational awareness, which impacts the

decisionmaking process and the effectiveness of the disaster response operation.

When disaster-specific information is not available, emergency managers seek

other methods of obtaining situational awareness, such as the mainstream media or 911

communications (Curnin, Owen, Paton, & Brooks, 2015). However, these methods have

limitations. For example, mainstream media obtain information from reporters located at

the disaster site and from social media using posts by the public (Bouvier, 2019). In

previous disasters, 911 lines of communications quickly became overwhelmed, and the

public could not reach first responders (Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018).

Social media is a tool that emergency managers have to communicate with the

public. Emergency managers have been successful in providing preparedness messages

before a disaster and after when there is potential loss of life. However, emergency

managers have not embraced the use of social media as a tool for obtaining situational

awareness information during disasters (Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016), even though local

officials seeking to identify the disaster’s impact on the population and jurisdiction

pressure emergency managers to gather information quickly.

Recent studies focused on the sporadic use of social media during disasters and

recommended developing policies and procedures to include the use of social media

(Luna & Pennock, 2018; Martínez-Rojas, Pardo-Ferreira, & Rubio-Romero, 2018). There

is limited research on emergency management current situational awareness practices, as

well as the procedures of obtaining situational awareness information from the disaster

site when first responders are unable to provide information or when the communications

infrastructure fails. Additional research is needed to understand the perspective of

emergency managers regarding the use of social media as a tool for situational awareness

and to determine whether the information provided by social media is useful for

situational awareness during disasters that aids in the decision-making process

(Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018).

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study and the background concerning the

ability of emergency managers to obtain up-to-date situational awareness when the

incident commander is unable to provide the information that emergency managers need

for the decision-making process. This chapter also includes the problem statement,

purpose of the study, research questions, limitations of the study, and implications for

social change. In addition, Chapter 1 contains the definition of terms, theoretical

foundation, nature of the study, significance of the study, and a summary.

Background

Disaster management and response are complex and require that the jurisdiction

utilize the ICS structure. ICS is adaptable, flexible, and scalable, which is necessary for

command and control during disaster response (FEMA, 2017). The incident commander

is in charge of coordinating with first responders representing multiple agencies and

organizations, as well as providing situational awareness information to the emergency

manager working in the EOC (Reynolds, Michaels, & Spiess, 2017). The situational

awareness information provided by the incident commander allows emergency managers

to make decisions regarding coordination, requesting resources, documenting the disaster

response effort, strategizing, and sharing the disaster-specific information with local

officials, as well as internal and external stakeholders (FEMA, 2017). Emergency

managers analyze and verify the information provided by the incident commander before

making decisions. Communication between the disaster site and the EOC is essential for

maintaining accurate situational awareness during a disaster (Simon, Goldberg, & Adini,

2015). However, a no-notice catastrophic disaster is more likely to destroy the

communications infrastructure, which will prevent the incident commander from

communicating with the EOC (Wukich, 2015).

Social media is a communications tool consisting of 23 platforms in which users

can post and share information with others in real time (Hornmoen & Backholm, 2018).

Two thirds of Americans use social media. Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat are the most

popular platforms for individuals between the ages of 18 and 29 (Alhasbash & Ma,

2017). As the popularity of social media increases, so does the public’s reliance on it as a

means of obtaining information (Alhasbash & Ma, 2017). According to Pogrebnyakov

and Maldonado (2018), the public expects first responders to use social media as a

method of communicating during disasters. However, emergency managers see social

media as a one-way tool for communicating with the public, which is evident in

emergency managers’ use of social media to provide the public with disaster-specific

information. Emergency managers have not accepted the use of social media as a twoway

method of communicating with the public or a tool for situational awareness gathering

(Eismann, Posegga, & Fischbach, 2018; Luna & Pennock, 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016;

Plotnick, Kushma, Hiltz, & Tapia, 2015). The use of social media by emergency

managers for crisis communications strategies has been researched extensively (Cheng,

2018; Liu, Fraustino, & Jin, 2016; Rosham, Warren, & Carr, 2016). However,

understanding emergency managers’ perspectives on the use of social media and the best

method of incorporating social media into disaster response strategies to obtain

situational awareness during disasters is a subject overlooked by scholars (Eismann et al.,

2018; Luna & Pennock, 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al.,

2015).

Problem Statement

Emergency managers have the responsibility of protecting lives, property, and the

environment. Decisions are made based on the available information provided to

emergency managers from the disaster site. Communication from the disaster site

between first responders and emergency managers is a crucial component of obtaining

situational awareness for decision-making purposes during disasters (Simon et al., 2015).

For the current study, the definition of disasters includes no-notice natural, humancaused,

or technological incidents. The problem this study addressed was the lack of knowledge

regarding current situational awareness strategies used by emergency managers and

whether social media is a useful tool to utilize during disasters to obtain critical disaster-

specific information. When disasters occur that cause catastrophic damage, gathering

information from the disaster site will take time until the first responders can assess the

situation and identify the immediate needs of the first responders and the public (Wukich,

2015). When minutes count, emergency managers need to find another method of

obtaining up-to-the-minute disaster information that aids them in the decision-making

process. Social media is a tool that emergency managers have to communicate with the

public before and after disasters. However, social media is not used consistently during

disasters to obtain situational awareness for emergency management.

Emergency managers see social media as a one-way flow of information for the

sole purpose of providing the public with disaster preparedness and immediate

emergency messaging rather than a two-way flow with an opportunity of obtaining

information from the public (Reuter & Kaufhold, 2018). Reuter and Kaufhold (2018)

evaluated the use of social media in disasters. However, the data pertained to social media

communication with the public before and after disasters, not during a disaster to obtain

situational awareness. The use of social media during disasters to obtain situational

awareness for the decision-making purpose is an example of the situational awareness

model (Endsley, 2019), and the data, information, knowledge, and wisdom

(DIKW) hierarchy theoretical framework (Yusof, Zakaria, Zainol, & Ananthan, 2018).

Emergency managers have been slow to incorporate social media for obtaining situational

awareness during disasters. Researchers have identified barriers that prevent emergency

managers from utilizing social media (Eismann et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016;

Plotnick et al., 2015). However, emergency managers’ perspectives of social media as a

tool for obtaining situational awareness that aids in the decision-making process during

disasters, current strategies of obtaining situational awareness, or policies and procedures

that may prevent the utilization of social media by emergency managers for situational

awareness had not been identified (Eismann et al., 2018; Luna & Pennock,

2018; Martínez-Rojas et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al., 2015; Takeda,

Jones, & Helms, 2017). The current study addressed the gap in the literature regarding

emergency managers’ perspectives on social media and its potential to obtain updated

situational awareness during disasters, as well as current situational awareness strategies.

This study may provide a better understanding of emergency managers’ perspective of

social media and its role in obtaining situational awareness during disasters and providing

disaster-specific information necessary for emergency managers to make informed

decisions during disasters.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative explanatory case study was to understand the

perspectives of emergency managers regarding the use of social media and its role in

obtaining situational awareness and providing disaster-specific information necessary for

emergency managers to make informed decisions during disasters. Eismann et al. (2018);

Neely and Collins (2018); and Haataja, Laajalahti, and Hyvärinen (2016) documented

that a gap existed in the literature regarding the reason why the emergency management

field was slow to incorporate social media into its situational awareness strategy. The

current study addressed this area of emergency management situational awareness

strategies.

Research Questions

The research questions for this explanatory case study were the following:

RQ1: What are emergency managers’ perspectives of social media as a tool for

obtaining situational awareness during disasters?

RQ2: How does disaster-specific information required by emergency managers

improve the ability to make informed decisions?

RQ3: How, if at all, does social media provide the information that emergency

managers need during disasters?

Theoretical Framework

Two theoretical frameworks were used to explore situational awareness and the

decision-making process used by emergency managers and the incident commanders:

Endsley’s (2019) situational awareness model and Yusof et al.’s (2018) DIKW hierarchy.

The situational awareness model emphasizes that leaders must have an understanding of a

situation through perception, comprehension, and projection before making decisions

(Endsley, 2019). Similarly, the DIKW hierarchy emphasizes the leaders’ need to make

informed decisions based on a process of converting the data into useful information and

analyzing it against knowledge and wisdom (Frické, 2019). The frameworks provided

guidance on the decision-making process. Although Endsley held that the building blocks

of the decision-making process include perception, comprehension, and projection of a

situation, Dammann (2018) argued that previous knowledge and wisdom, in addition to

converting data into actionable information, were necessary before leaders make

informed decisions. The two theoretical frameworks that emergency managers can use

when seeking to assess disaster-specific information are the situational awareness model

and the DIKW hierarchy. When information is received, especially from social media,

emergency managers must analyze the information to determine its validity before it is

applied to the decision-making process for effective and efficient response operations.

Nature of the Study

For this study, I used a qualitative case study design, which was appropriate

because the focus was on a phenomenon and in-depth and intensive data analysis (see

Pacho, 2015). Qualitative research was the appropriate methodology to explore the

perspectives of emergency managers regarding the use of social media, and whether it is

a tool that would provide emergency managers with the information necessary to make

decisions during disasters. I focused on current situational awareness strategies and how

the use of social media would impact the decision-making process of emergency

managers during disasters.

The population for this study included local or state emergency management

professionals who worked within the Commonwealth of Virginia, had experience

working in the EOC during large-scale disasters, and possessed a solid knowledge of the

national incident management system and the ICS. For a case study, the recommended

sample size is 25-50 participants (Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, & McKibbon, 2015). Patton

(2015) suggested a sample size of 15, Yin (2018) on the other hand, did not provide a

specific number for a case study. Based on these recommendations, I determined that the

sample size for the study would be 11 emergency managers to meet data saturation.

Participants were interviewed using a self-developed interview guide based on the gaps

identified in the literature review.

Definitions

The following terms were used in this qualitative study:

Emergency manager: The person who coordinates the response operations,

including advising and informing internal and external stakeholders, elected officials, and

the public regarding emergency management activities during a disaster (FEMA, 2016).

Emergency operations center: A physical facility where the coordination of

information and resources occurs to help support disaster response activities (Virginia

Department of Emergency Management, 2015).

Incident command system: An incident management system that is mandated for

responding agencies to use for all hazards regardless of the location, duration, or

complexity (Jensen & Thompson, 2016).

Situational awareness: The perception of a situation as it relates to the

environment, time and space, comprehension, and projection of the status in the future

(Mohsin, Steinhäusler, Madl, & Kiefel, 2016).

Social media: Internet-based computer communication applications that allow

users to create, share, and exchange content in real time (Hornmoen & Backholm, 2018).

Assumptions

For this study, several assumptions guided data collection and analysis. The first

assumption was that emergency managers could adequately respond to disasters using the

situational awareness model and the DIKW hierarchy. The second assumption was that

the participants would answer interview questions honestly. The third assumption was

that the case study approach would be an appropriate method for data collection and

analysis.

Scope and Delimitations

I used two sources of data, which included interviews and documentation. The

interviews indicated the perceptions of emergency managers regarding the use of social

media as a tool for situation awareness, as well as current situational awareness strategies,

and whether social media could provide the information necessary to make decisions

during a disaster. This qualitative explanatory case study focused on interviewing

emergency managers who had experience working in EOC at the local or state

government level during a disaster. The rationale for this group of individuals was that

emergency managers are responsible for working closely with the first responders

through the ICS structure. The first delimitation was excluding emergency management

professionals who lacked experience working in an emergency operations center. Not all

emergency management professionals have the same kind of knowledge and skills. For

this study, the participants needed to have specific experiences to provide pertinent data.

The second delimitation was the decision not to use the situational crisis communications

theory (Van Rensburg, Coradie, & Dondolo, 2017) or the social-mediated crisis

communication model (Wan, Koh, Ong, & Pang, 2015). I decided not to use the

situational crisis communications theory or the social-mediated crisis communication

model because they focus on how organizations respond to social media posts based on

an organization’s crisis communications plan rather than using the information to obtain

situational awareness to develop disaster response policies. The third delimitation was the

potential for transferability of the data results to other local or state emergency

management organizations seeking to incorporate social media into current situational

awareness strategies. Encouraging emergency managers to incorporate the results into

situational awareness strategies may be a challenge. Because there was little to no data

available from previous studies that assisted in incorporating social media as a tool for

situational awareness, the results from this study may provide emergency managers with

recommendations.

Limitations

Limitations are aspects of the study that are beyond the researcher’s control. The

first limitation was using a sample size large enough to meet saturation. When the sample

size is too small, the researcher might not obtain in-depth results. The second limitation

was using a self-developed interview guide for data collection. The self-developed

interview guide contained questions that were identified as gaps in previous studies. The

third limitation was the use of the case study approach for the research design to capture

data-rich information on the phenomenon. The case study approach allows the researcher

to use direct quotes from the participants.

One challenge was the fact that I work in the emergency management field, so I

needed to ensure that there was a separation of my perspectives and opinions to prevent

researcher bias. The second challenge was getting participants from the professional

organization in which I am a member. In this study, I did not face any barriers regarding

the data collection process or accessing the population for this study because of my

membership with a professional emergency management organization. However, the data

collection process took longer than anticipated because it occurred during the COVID-19

pandemic, which limited the availability of emergency managers to participate in this

study.

Significance

The purpose of this study was to fill a gap by focusing on the perspectives of

emergency managers regarding social media as a tool for obtaining situational awareness

that aids in the decision-making process during disasters. This research was unique

because it addressed an unresearched area of the emergency management field that

focused on utilizing social media to obtain situational awareness to make decisions (see

Eismann et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016). The results of this study may provide

needed insights into emergency managers’ situational awareness strategies and

perspectives on social media as a tool for emergency managers to utilize during disasters.

The study’s findings may aid those in the emergency management field when developing

situational awareness strategies to incorporate the utilization of social media during

disasters. The emergency management field has a direct impact on social change as it

relates to the public. Emergency managers’ responsibilities include protecting lives,

property, and the environment. Tasked with coordinating disaster response operations

among multiple agencies (Curnin et al., 2015), emergency managers may include social

media in their situational awareness strategies. However, there was a lack of

understanding of how to incorporate social media into current situational awareness that

would allow emergency managers to have the latest information about the disaster to

meet the needs of the first responders and the public (Curnin et al., 2015; Pogrebnyakow

& Maldonado, 2018). The findings from this study may provide emergency managers

with guidance regarding incorporating social media into their situational awareness

strategies.

Summary

The use of social media by emergency managers should increase disaster-specific

situational awareness. Initial situational awareness information provided by the

mainstream media, 911 calls, or the incident commander fails to provide emergency

managers with a complete common operating picture of the disaster. Endsley’s (2019)

situational awareness model represents the processes involved when making decisions.

The DIKW hierarchy represents how the data are interpreted based on the

decisionmakers’ experience and knowledge (Yusof et al., 2018). A qualitative explanatory

case study design was the most appropriate methodology to understand the use of social

media for situational awareness information during a disaster.

In this chapter, I introduced the disaster response operation concepts that emerged

through the existing literature on social media, collaboration, communications,

coordination, and maintaining situational awareness during disasters. Chapter 2 provides

a literature review of research that related to the problem statement and research

questions. The literature review also addresses the theoretical framework, which explains

situational awareness and the decision-making process. The last section of Chapter 2

includes a summary of the positive and negative consequences of emergency managers’

use of social media during disaster response efforts.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Emergency managers’ priorities during a disaster include the protection of lives,

property, and the environment. Decisions are made based on the available information

provided to emergency managers from the disaster site. Communication from the disaster

site between first responders and emergency managers is a crucial component of

obtaining situational awareness for decision-making purposes during disasters (Simon et

al., 2015). Gathering information from the disaster site will take time until the first

responders arrive at the disaster site and provide immediate needs for the response

operations (Wukich, 2015). When minutes count, emergency managers need to find

another method of obtaining up-to-the-minute disaster information that aids them in the

decision-making process. Social media is a tool that emergency managers have to

communicate with the public before and after disasters. However, social media to obtain

situational awareness has not been used consistently during disasters in the field of

emergency management. The purpose of this qualitative explanatory case study was to

understand the perspectives of emergency managers regarding the use of social media in

obtaining situational awareness and providing disaster-specific information necessary for

emergency managers to make informed decisions during disasters.

Emergency managers working in the EOC during a disaster rely on first

responders to provide them with situational awareness information from the disaster site.

First responders and the emergency managers use ICS for communications, coordination,

and disaster response operations to maintain a common operational picture (Boersma,

Comfort, Groenendaal, & Wolbers, 2014; Curnin et al., 2015). There are times when first

responders are unable to provide information through the ICS chain of command. As a

result, emergency managers must rely on other methods such as mainstream media and

911 calls to obtain disaster-specific information (Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018).

However, there are times when these methods are not available or fail to provide

emergency managers with the disaster-specific information necessary to make decisions.

When standard methods of receiving information are not available, the emergency

manager must seek information from other methods. Social media has become the

public’s first choice of communicating and seeking information during disasters.

Emergency managers utilize social media as a form of one-way communication with the

public before and after a disaster with emergency preparedness and recovery messages.

When a disaster occurs, the public seeks disaster information from government agencies

(Maresh-Fuehrer & Smith, 2016; Rosham et al., 2016). However, emergency managers

have not integrated social media into disaster response operations for situational

awareness (Eismann et al., 2018; Haataja et al., 2016; Luna & Pennock, 2018; Martínez-

Rojas et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018; Wukich,

2015). Researchers noted that the integration of social media into current situational

awareness strategies will help emergency managers obtain disaster-specific information

regarding an ongoing disaster and its impacts on the public (Martínez-Rojas et al., 2018;

Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018; Simon et al., 2015; Stieglitz, Bunker, Mirbabaie, &

Ehnis, 2018; Tapia & Moore, 2014). However, despite the popularity of social media use

by the public, the emergency management field has not embraced social media for

situational awareness.

The literature review in Chapter 2 presents the theories of situational awareness

and the analysis of data for the decision-making process. This literature review includes a

brief overview of the gathering of disaster-specific information through ICS and current

situational awareness strategies employed by emergency managers operating out of the

EOC. In addition, this literature review focuses on social media as a tool used by the

public during disasters and the information made available by the public. Lastly, this

literature review focuses on social media situational awareness strategies for emergency

managers to integrate into disaster response operations. The chapter concludes with a

summary of the literature and the implications of the study.

Literature Search Strategy

The literature review includes peer-reviewed scholarly articles, professional

websites, books, and federal government publications. The sources for the articles were

Google Scholar and the Walden University library databases such as Emerald Insight,

ProQuest Central, Sage Journal, Science Direct, and Thoreau multidatabase search.

Extensive database searches consisted of the following keywords and phrases: crisis

communications, decision-making, disaster response, emergency management, incident

command system, situational awareness, and social media. The search yielded over 250

articles, and 110 were relevant to the study.

Theoretical Foundation

The two theories used in this study were the situational awareness model and the

DIKW hierarchy. Each theory contributed to the understanding of situational awareness

and the data analysis process necessary for the decision-making process by emergency

managers during disasters (see Figure 1). Dionne, Gooty, Yammarino, and Sayama (2018)

noted that certain factors impact the decision-making process, including emotions and

multilevel issues from the individual and the team. The decision-making process for an

individual consists of an assessment of the environment and using previous experiences

(memory) to form situational awareness. The decision-making process for a group or

team is similar to that of an individual. However, there are aspects of the decision-making

process that the team must consider, such as an analysis based on the interdependencies

of the group or team. During disaster response operations, rarely does the decision-

making process occur between individuals face-to-face; rather, the process occurs among

several individuals in an established hierarchy (Dionne et al., 2018; Jensen & Thompson,

2016). When emergency managers make decisions during a disaster, there are several

factors considered, such as concerns for the safety of the public and first responders,

collaboration with multiple partners, working under pressure with time constraints, and a

focus to resolve issues or situations simultaneously that require an immediate response

(Khorram-Manesh, Berlin, & Carlström, 2016). However, to make decisions, emergency

managers need to incorporate situational awareness into the decision-making process.

Figure 1. The theories incorporated in disaster response.

Situational Awareness Theory

Situational awareness is a common term in the emergency management field.

However, the term was first associated with aviation during World War I as a reference to

understanding an enemy’s situation before the enemy could obtain situational awareness

(Nazir, Colombo, & Manca, 2012). In terms of the disaster response operations,

situational awareness refers to the knowledge about a disaster, which includes the latest

information regarding hazards or other dynamics (Mohsin et al., 2016). Endsley (2019)

developed a situational awareness model to improve the dynamic human decision-making

process among members of aviation. Situational awareness is not only having an

understanding of what has occurred within the environment as assessed by the individual,

but also includes a combination of a high-level intelligence of current situational

awareness and perception of future pertinent goals (Endsley, 2019).

The situational awareness model includes three levels of situational awareness,

perception, comprehension, and projection. The first level is the perception of the

environment. The definition of perception is the ability of the individual to achieve an

understanding of the status, particulars, and other relevant information of the

environment. The second level is the comprehension of the current situation. The

individual relies on the information obtained in the first level to comprehend and

synthesize the current situation as it relates to the individual’s goals. In the second level,

the individual as a decision-maker processes the information to help form “a holistic

picture of the environment” (Endsley, 2015, p. 20). The third level consists of projecting

the near future status based on the knowledge and understanding obtained in the first and

second levels. During the third level, the individual predicts the future status and

anticipates the appropriate courses of action to achieve goals. Once the individual

completes the third level, they will have a comprehensive understanding of the situational

awareness within the environment to make clear and decisive decisions. Endsley (2019)

argued that situational awareness is a critical element of the decision-making process. The

situational awareness model provides an understanding of the situational awareness

phenomenon and the attributes associated with each level. Individuals must complete

each level before proceeding to the next to obtain a complete understanding of the

situation and determine the best course of action.

An individual’s ability to obtain a comprehensive understanding of a situation

requires an evaluation of the situation. When evaluating a situation, individuals need to

ask questions such as what has happened, why did it happen, how did it happen, and what

else will happen. Reichenbach (2009) argued that situational awareness is understanding

what has happened to take appropriate action. However, when there are gaps with the

information in the perception of the environment, comprehension of the information, or

evaluation for future needs, the decision-making process is not as effective as it could be.

When a disaster occurs, the decision-making process is critical for developing effective

and appropriate response actions. Ineffective decisions and response operations not only

put the lives and safety of the first responders in jeopardy but also can have devastating

impacts on the public, community, and the environment.

Decision-makers rely on situational awareness to make decisions. Situational

awareness is essential when teams work together for collaboration and coordination and

maintaining a common operating picture during a disaster. When a complex disaster

occurs with time constraints, there is a need for rapid and coordinated actions based on

the shared perception of the team members (Seppänen & Virrantaus, 2015).

Uitdewilligen and Waller (2018) argued that when a disaster response operation includes

personnel from multidisciplinary agencies, the sharing of information and rapid

decisionmaking needs to be a regular occurrence. Weick, Sutcliffe, and Obstfield (2005)

noted that disasters are complex and dynamic environments with substantial issues that

first responders do not face regularly. During the disaster response, making sense of the

information is vital for completing tasks and reaching goals and objectives.

Situational Awareness Theory and Emergency Management

Situational awareness theory was appropriate for this study because it explains the

process that emergency managers and first responders follow to make decisions as an

individual or as a member of a team. Van de Walle, Brugghemans, and Comes (2016)

noted that during disasters, disaster response teams encounter a rapidly changing

environment. There is a need to understand the situation as quickly as possible despite a

high level of uncertainty.

Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom Theory

The origin of the DIKW hierarchy is uncertain. The first mention of the DIKW

hierarchy was in 1955 by Boulding (as cited in Nitecki, 1985). Since then, there have

been several adaptations of the DIKW hierarchy with its use associated with engineering,

as well as computer and information processing (Rowley, 2007). However, it was not

until 1989, when Ackoff, an organizational theorist, brought the DIKW hierarchy back

into prominence when addressing the International Society for General Systems Research

(as cited in Weinberger, 2010). Ackoff (1989) proposed that additional clarification was

needed to understand the difference between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom.

According to Ackoff (1989), the characterization of data is either objects or events in

which the process of data is necessary to identify whether the data contain useful

information. Information consists of descriptions and provides answers to the who, what,

when, where, and how questions. Ackoff (1989) argued that knowledge answers the how

questions, while wisdom is the information based on knowledge to include “exercise of

judgment” (p. 170). The DIKW hierarchy was not initially popular.

Achoff’s (1989) DIKW hierarchy gained popularity and became widely utilized in

textbooks when discussing the process for analyzing data. Rowley (2007) felt that the

definition Achoff (1989) developed failed to articulate the process of data analysis clearly

and needed refinement. Rowely (2007) argued that textbooks minimized and, in some

cases, eliminated the role of wisdom within the process and believed that this was a

mistake. Instead, Rowley (2007) felt that wisdom was similar to knowledge within the

data analysis process. Knowledge, Rowely (2007) argued, was the processing and

organization of data and information based on the individual's understanding and

experiences to support the decision-making process. Rowley (2006) summarized wisdom

as an individual's ability to utilize the analyzed data and information to determine an

appropriate course of action, consider the known situation, and examine ethical and social

concerns. However, the DIKW hierarchy did not account for situational awareness in the

data analysis process.

The DIKW hierarchy, to be effective in the data analysis process, requires taking

into account situational awareness. Yusof et al. (2018) believed that the DIKW hierarchy

needed modification to include situational awareness within the data analysis process.

Yusof et al. (2018) argued that individuals’ knowledge of past experiences, which

influences wisdom, particularly their ability to choose right from wrong or good and bad,

be included when considering current situational awareness information. Rowley’s (2007)

definition of knowledge included using an individual’s experience, but not when

considering situational awareness. Yusof et al. (2018) suggested combining Endsley’s

(1995) situational awareness model with the DIKW hierarchy, developed by Rowely

(2007) to convert the data into more purposeful and useful information.

DIKW Theory and Emergency Management

The DIKW hierarchy impacts this study because it explains the data analysis

process, which begins with obtaining data and concludes with wisdom. The

decisionmaker takes appropriate actions. During the disaster response operations,

information on the disaster situation is better than no information, even if it is limited.

Weichselgartner and Pigeon (2015) argued that emergency managers should focus on

current challenges and anticipated future issues to minimize disaster risk during response

operations. Emergency managers accomplish this by monitoring the response efforts,

assessing and understanding gaps, and needs, through the data analysis and sharing of the

information among response personnel.

Disaster Management and FIRESCOPE

Disasters have occurred throughout time. Disaster management is an essential

element of disaster response. The management of disasters, in the past before the

establishment of the emergency management field, was the responsibility of the

community. Some disasters required additional assistance, and when this happened,

Congress passed laws that allowed the federal government to assist. For instance, the first

law was the Congressional Act of 1803 due to an extensive fire that occurred in a New

Hampshire town (National Public Safety Transportation Council, 2019). As the

population and communities began to grow within the United States, there was a need to

establish a non-governmental organization to work on behalf of the federal government.

The American Red Cross received its first congressional charter in 1900 to provide

disaster assistance within the United States and globally (Red Cross, 2019). Previously,

there was not an established disaster response operations process for first responders to

implement during a disaster. However, this changed in the 1970s when California

experienced an increase in the number of wildland fires, which required a standardized

process for managing the fire response operations.

FIRESCOPE

The first standardized process for managing fire response operations occurred in

the 1970s, through the Firefighting Resources of Southern California Organization for

Potential Emergencies (FIRESCOPE). FIRESCOPE helped streamline fire management

among multiple response agencies due to devastating wildland fires in California. The

concept of FIRESCOPE included a timely commitment of multiple resources and

personnel, which operated and utilized a common operating structure and procedures

(Chase, 1980). The organizational structure of FIRESCOPE consisted of five system

functions, incident command, planning, suppression and rescue, logistics, and finance.

Associated with these system functions were organizational characteristics, which

included incident command, general intelligence, planning and support, and

communications. Each of the functions had specific tasks that aided in the response

efforts. The general intelligence function provided the incident commander with

situational assessment data. Situational assessment, within FIRESCOPE, included the

number, size, and location of the incident, progress of work by response agencies, and

additional pertinent information helpful in the development or modification of response

strategies. The situation status unit transferred the situational assessment through the

operations coordination center. Over time, FIRESCOPE evolved into a new national

incident management system to standardize disaster response among first responders and

all levels of government.

National Incident Management System

The National Incident Management System (NIMS), developed by FEMA,

nationally standardized disaster response among first responders. NIMS included

principles and methods for local, state, federal governments, private-sector partners, and

non-governmental organizations to respond to and recover from disasters (FEMA, 2017).

The implementation of NIMS resulted from the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which

Congress passed after the attacks of 9/11, aided in the development of collaboration and

coordination strategies among local, state, and federal agencies for counterterrorism

incidents (Homeland Security Act 2002, 2002). The attacks on 9/11 proved that

coordination and collaboration among local, state, and federal response partners was an

issue. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks on the United States (2004) found

that radio interoperability among the responders interfered with collaboration and

coordination of the response and prevented effective communication and situational

awareness during the response and recovery efforts. As a result, incident commanders

were unable to develop effective response strategies to manage the response or account

for the first responders and the public's safety.

To aid first responders with developing effective response strategies, FEMA

released the first edition of NIMS in 2004 to encourage local, state, and federal agencies

to work together before, during, and after disasters and for planned events. NIMS

consisted of three components: resource management, command and coordination, and

communications and information management. NIMS ensured that regardless of the

disaster complexity, scope or size, first responders used the same incident response

structure for managing disasters. Since its development, FEMA has updated and modified

NIMS based on comments and feedback from first responders and emergency managers.

FEMA modified NIMS based on changing laws, policies, and best practices from

previous disasters with each update. The 2017 version of NIMS provided clarification

regarding the relationship between ICS, the EOC, and local officials.

Incident Command System

ICS provides a hierarchy for a standardized approach of the command, control,

and coordination of on-scene responders during a disaster. ICS is designed to assist with

accepting, tracking, directing, and supervising personnel representing multiple agencies

and resources during a disaster response, as documented within NIMS (Stambler &

Barbera, 2015). The most critical ICS component was the standardization of titles, roles,

and responsibilities of the organizational structure. ICS included two functions:

Command and general staff (see Figure 2).

The command staff consists of the incident commander, liaison, public

information, and safety positions. The command staff provides critical support to the

incident commander (Deal, De Bettencourt, Deal, Merrick, & Mills, 2010). For example,

the liaison officer is the point of contact for both internal and external agency

representatives that provide support for the incident. The liaison officer passes the

information along to the incident commander. The public information officer (PIO)

Figure 2. ICS command and general staff positions.

works with the incident commander and the news media to ensure that the information

provided regarding the disaster is accurate and disseminated to the public. The safety

officer ensures the safety of first responders and the public during response operations.

The general staff consists of four sections: operations, planning, logistics, and

finance/administration. The general staff tasks include ICS's functional aspects, such as

coordinating response operations, collecting and documenting disaster status information,

requesting additional resources, and recording personnel time and cost of the disaster

(FEMA, 2017). The size, complexity, and severity of the disaster dictate the positions

needed within ICS.

A small localized disaster would not require additional resources through mutual

aid and require only one incident commander. For a complex disaster, in which more than

one jurisdiction, organization, or agency assumes command or has the authority for the

disaster response, there is a need for multiple incident commanders (Nowell, Steelman,

Velez, & Yang, 2018). When this happens, the incident commanders work together to

establish a unified command (see Figure 3). Under the unified command structure,

agencies designate individuals to represent them and work collectively to manage the

actions and develop response strategies with the emergency manager working out of the

EOC.

Figure 3. Unified command structure.

Emergency Operations Center

During a large-scale disaster, the incident commander provides periodic updates to

the emergency manager, working out of the EOC. The EOC is a facility where emergency

managers, agency representatives, and local officials work during a disaster. The EOC has

the technology to aid emergency managers in coordinating disaster response efforts. With

the aid of agency representatives and local officials, emergency managers set policies and

objectives for the response and recovery operations (FEMA, 2017). Coordination during

a disaster occurs when staff in the EOC work together to consolidate and exchange

information to support the decision-making process. The decision-making process

includes identifying, coordinating, and requesting resources and communicating with

personnel at the disaster site. Rosland, Adbullah, and Omar (2019) documented how

essential the EOC's role is during disaster response. The EOC staff is responsible for

ensuring the first responders have the resources that victims of the disaster need and the

information to continue response activities. The EOC structure is either an ICS or

ICS/emergency support function (ESF) hybrid. The ICS structure provides clarity of

roles, similar titles and responsibilities, and clear communications between the disaster

site and the EOC. The ICS/ESF hybrid structure provides another method to coordinate

between the EOC and the incident command post. The agencies and resources are

grouped into ESFs (FEMA, 2016). (see Figure 4). The 2017 version of NIMS provides

guidance and recommendations regarding the process and procedures for the interaction

between the disaster site and the EOC when collaborating, coordinating, and

communicating during a disaster response.

EOC Process and Procedures

The level of collaboration, coordination, and communication between the disaster

site and the EOC depends on the complexity, severity, and size of the disaster. When a

disaster occurs, first responders arrive on-scene to assess the situation. If the disaster is

large or complex, the incident commander coordinates with the emergency manager and

local officials in activating the EOC. Criteria for supporting the recommendation

activation of the EOC include exhausting local resources (equipment or personnel). The

disaster is large-scale or complex, the potential for loss of life to the first responders or

the public. The response requires multiple operational periods (FEMA, 2019). While the

first responders are busy responding to the disaster site, emergency managers begin the

process of setting up and running the EOC. Emergency management staff sends out alerts

and notifications to agencies and organizations, notifying them that the EOC is activated

and to provide staffing for the duration of the disaster (FEMA, 2019). Roslan et al. (2019)

documented the importance of the organizational structure, leadership, and inter-agency

representation within the EOC for effective and efficient disaster response. The EOC's

activation and staffing provide another level in the NIMS collaboration, coordination, and

communication process.

Figure 4. EOC ICS/ESF hybrid structure.

Disaster Collaboration, Coordination, and Communication

Collaboration, coordination, and communication are essential elements of any

disaster response, which is why NIMS and ICS are important for all first responders and

emergency managers to understand and implement (FEMA, 2017). NIMS ensures that

first responders within the United States utilize the same disaster management approach

for responding to disasters. NIMS provides the guidelines on how personnel located at

different geographic areas coordinate with each other and the EOC by incorporating ICS.

Within ICS, there is an emphasis on having an appropriate span of control, which helps

ensure the disaster response's effectiveness and efficiency (FEMA, 2017). A manageable

span of control consists of one supervisor responsible for five subordinates. Having a

manageable span of control aids in the command and coordination aspects of any disaster

response and provides situational awareness to the EOC.

The incident commander or unified command is responsible for the collaboration,

coordination, and communication of the disaster during response operations and

providing the EOC with updated situational awareness. The Nordic Societies of Public

Health (2014) believed that coordination consisted of actions taken in unison.

Coordination during a disaster response provides first responders with oversight of the

disaster management operations and resources to meet the impacted population's needs.

When there is a lack of collaboration, coordination, and communication among first

responders, the results have devastating consequences to the population impacted by the

disaster, leading to confusion, duplication of efforts, inefficiencies, and creating less

effective response operations (Curnin et al., 2015; Jenson & Thompson, 2016; Nordic

Societies of Public Health, 2014). Zade, Shah, Rangarajan, Imran, and Stabird (2018)

identified that to have actionability in the disaster response, there is a need for quality

information from the disaster site and other sources such as social media post to develop

effective disaster response strategies. Stambler and Barbara (2015) conducted a study that

documented shortcomings in the on-scene disaster ICS structure and determined that a

gap existed in obtaining information necessary for future incident planning function even

though the situation unit had the staff experience and knowledge to complete this task.

However, to develop future planning strategies, emergency managers and local officials

require information from the disaster site to make informed decisions.

ICS Information Gathering and Sharing

First responders provide information from the disaster site through appropriate

channels within ICS. ICS uses a hierarchy that establishes a centralized command and

control for the management of the disaster. The use of a hierarchical approach, in many

cases, creates barriers and silos in terms of information gathering and sharing. For

example, law enforcement during a disaster would focus on collecting evidence and

conducting an investigation. Whereas fire and rescue personnel would focus on search

and rescue and providing medical treatment. The incident commander, emergency

manager, and local officials must align their goals and objects to have a common

operating picture.

The goals of the incident commander, emergency manager, and local officials

during a disaster response is to respond to the disaster efficiently, effectively and to

ensure that the community has the resources it needs to recover. Successful disaster

response requires sharing disaster-specific information among the agencies that have

roles and responsibilities assigned to them during the disaster. Within the ICS structure,

information is collected, analyzed, and shared by the situation unit. The situation unit is

located at the disaster site, as well as within the EOC.

The disaster site situational unit is responsible for moving the response operations

from a reactive to a proactive response while ensuring that everyone works together

(Deal et al., 2010). The EOC situation unit functions at a strategic or coordinating level,

which focuses on developing or modifying plans to identify actions that would balance

the strategic objectives based on current situational awareness (Sinclair, Doyle, Johnston,

& Paton, 2013). The situation unit provides current disaster status and other relevant

information to the emergency manager and local officials for the decision-making

process. The situation unit, emergency managers, and local officials work together to

identify future incident planning needs for multiple operational periods such as

emergency declarations, evacuations, waivers to regulations, access to emergency

funding, and establish local priorities for each operation period. The incident commander

or unified command establish response priorities for actions to meet goals and objectives.

However, none of this can occur without the gathering and sharing information between

the disaster site and the EOC (Curnin et al., 2015). To make informed decisions,

emergency managers and local officials require information from the disaster site. The

process of information gathering and sharing links knowledge and fosters collaboration,

coordination, and communication by encouraging response personnel to engage in

interrelated actions and reevaluating their actions based on the current situational

awareness (Comfort, Dunn, Johnston, Skertich, & Zagorecki, 2004). NIMS recommends

establishing situational awareness and the ability to access and maintain lines of

communication for this purpose.

Methods of Disaster Communications

Communication during a disaster is one method of sharing disaster-specific

information between the disaster site and the EOC. The National Emergency

Communications Plan (FEMA, 2014) encourages emergency response personnel to

communicate and share information between all levels of government, jurisdictions,

private-sector partners, and organizations by using any available means of

communication. Effective communications enhance the decision-making process by

stressing the need to share information and promotes collaboration, coordination and

ensures the efficiency of response operations.

During a disaster, providing situational awareness requires a means to

communicate with individuals that make decisions. First responders have several methods

of communicating information among each other and with the EOC. The first method

includes land mobile radio and wireless broadband infrastructure. Land mobile radios

provide first responders with the ability to communicate time-sensitive and lifesaving

tasks and rapid voice call set-up, group calling capabilities, and guarantees priority access

for the user (FEMA, 2014). The wireless broadband infrastructure is similar to the

internet provided to the public. However, wireless broadband infrastructure provides first

responders with faster speed and capacity, such as transferring large amounts of data

anywhere and anytime. According to the FEMA (2014) examples of the wireless

broadband applications accessible to first responders are video streaming, mapping and

location-based services, and telemetry for transmitting patient vital signs.

In addition to the land mobile and wireless broadband infrastructure, some

localities have access to cell or satellite phones that aids in the sharing of information

between the disaster site and the EOC. Satellite phones function by using satellites to

communicate. Unlike cell phones, which rely on cell towers to work, satellite phones do

not require cell towers to work, nor are they impacted when the communications

infrastructure becomes damaged by a disaster. According to the Department of Homeland

Security (2016) satellite phones must meet specific criteria such as communicating with

other satellite communication devices and mobile phones and transmit the information

either as voice or text. There are some limitations, which prevent first responders from

using satellite phones, such as having clear and unobstructed line-of-sight with the sky

and the inability to use them indoors unless positioned next to a window (Department of

Homeland Security [DHS, 2016). Disasters have the potential of destroying the

communications infrastructure, which prevents communicating between the disaster site

and the EOC.

Since 2000, several disasters have destroyed the communication infrastructure,

which emergency managers and first responders relied on to communicate with each

other. Notable disasters such as Hurricanes Katrina in 2005, Harvey in 2017, Maria in

2017, as well as the attacks on 9/11 are perfect examples of how vulnerable the

communications infrastructure is to disasters, as well as the devastating impacts the lack

of communications has on first responders and the impacted population. During 9/11, due

to the nature of the incident, there was an increase in public safety demands and

communications needs, which put a strain on the communications infrastructure (Kapucu

& Haupt, 2016). Hurricane Katrina was so powerful that not only did it destroy

thirtyeight 911 emergency call centers and disrupted local emergency services, but almost

three million customers lost telephone service, as well as radio and television broadcast

communications providers (White House, 2006). Robertson, Johnson, Murthy, Smith, and

Stephens (2019) reported that Hurricane Harvey overloaded 911 systems in the areas that

it made landfall. Hurricane Maria damaged radars, weather stations, and cell towers in

Puerto Rico when it made landfall on September 20, 2017 (De Arzola, 2018). The

destruction of the communications infrastructure that first responders and emergency

managers rely on hampers their ability to gather and share disaster-specific information

that aids in the decision-making process. As a result, emergency managers are unable to

obtain the much-needed situational awareness regarding the disaster.

Situational Awareness

When a disaster occurs, the goal is to obtain situational awareness quickly so that

first responders have an idea of what is happening. However, before the first responders

can obtain situational awareness, they must deal with the chaos associated with the

disaster by attempting to establish incident command. First responders face unfamiliar

and hazardous work environment due to the scale of the disaster, size of the footprint of

the area impacted, unpredictable work demands, all the while working under pressure to

gather real time information about the disaster (Son, Aziz, & Peña-Mora, 2007). To

respond effectively requires a quick and coordinated disaster response when there is little

information available regarding the disaster. Bjerge, Clark, Fisker, and Raju (2016)

argued that there would be a significant delay in the response's effectiveness due to a lack

of information-sharing among the responders. A lack of situational awareness leads to

mismanagement of resources, goals and objectives, and contributes to the loss of life of

the impacted population.

A lack of situational awareness can have devastating consequences to first

responders, the public and can lead to delays in obtaining the necessary resources to

respond to the disaster appropriately. Most importantly, a lack of situational awareness

leads to the likelihood that the disaster response is uncoordinated with conflicted actions

(Flin & Arbuthnot, 2017). The first responders' focus during the first 72-hours of a

largescale disaster includes responding to the disaster and providing services such as

search and rescue, medical treatment, and evacuation of the area (Bjerge et al., 2016).

Situational awareness is an understanding of what is happening to take an appropriate

course of action (Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018). However, situational awareness is

much more than understanding what is happening; it is also anticipating the needs of the

first responders for the disaster response phase and for the community to recover from the

disaster. First responders, through the incident commander and the EOC, work

collectively to meet these needs. The purpose of situational awareness is to ensure a

common operating picture exists among first responders and emergency managers that

aids in the decision-making process.

For first responders and emergency managers to make appropriate decisions

during a disaster, they need to have a common operating picture of the disaster. To obtain

a common operating picture requires that first responders and emergency managers share

situational awareness of the disaster (Sophronides, Papadopoulou, Giaoutzi, & Scholten,

2017). Individual situational awareness is paramount to ensure that decisions are made

based on the disaster and in a timely manner. Team situational awareness is necessary for

a team to work effectively during a disaster and requires that the members have the

situational awareness they need to complete tasks assigned to them, which is why the

sharing of information is essential (Waring, Alison, Carter, Barrett-Pink, Humann, Swan,

& Zilinsky, 2018). The information provided must meet the needs of first responders,

emergency managers, and local officials. However, the sharing of information does not

mean that everyone needs the information. Instead, the individuals that need the

information to complete their tasks should have access to it. Seppänen and Virrantaus

(2015) argued that inadequate or missing information hampers first responders' activities

and put their lives in harm’s way. More importantly, the potential exists for the failure in

the disaster response's effectiveness and efficiency and the decision-making process

during the disaster. Wukich (2015) identified that limited research is available, which

documents social media use and its impact on reducing information silos among response

agencies during disasters. Having a high level of situational awareness regarding the

disaster allows for better inter and intra-organizational coordination and communication.

Without situational awareness, the needs of the first responders, public, and community

go unmet.

Disaster Response Impacts

A disaster can have a devastating impact on the first responders and the public.

When the need for effective or efficient response goes unmet, there is a potential of

putting the lives of the first responders and public in danger. A challenge to any disaster

response is obtaining accurate information regarding the disaster to identify the first

responder and the public's needs. The gathering and sharing of situational awareness aids

in determining the needs and the decision-making process when developing disaster

response policies and strategies. When disaster-specific information is available, disaster

response functions such as collaboration, coordination, and communication occur

effectively and efficiently. Son et al. (2007) believed that it is critical for coordination to

provide information to first responders at the disaster site and those in position to make

decisions. Coordinating and setting priorities is the responsibility of the incident

commander, emergency manager, and local officials. The incident commander and staff

in the EOC also must be aware of indicators at the disaster site that might affect or cause

issues with the disaster response operations. For example, the incident commander's focus

is establishing a common operating picture among first responders and the EOC,

identifying the area with the most severe impacts, the impacted population and how many

are affected, and the critical needs for response operations which includes providing

lifesaving measures.

When a disaster occurs, the public expects the first responders to provide

lifesaving measures, such as searching for missing family members and evacuating

almost immediately following a disaster. Harris, McCarthy, Liu, Klein, Swienton, Prins,

and Waltz (2018) found that the public viewed disaster response as a stand-alone

obligation of local, state, and federal governments. However, disaster response involves

collaboration, coordination, and communication, requesting additional resources from all

levels of government, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations and

developing response strategies. As a result, the disaster response operation becomes

complex, requiring substantial planning to include in-depth strategies over multiple

operational periods and reliable and redundant communications for the sharing of

situational awareness (Cruz, Burger, & Keim, 2007). Without up-to-date situational

awareness, the disaster response has the potential to impact the community negatively, as

well as delay the recovery process.

Situational awareness is essential for a community to recover from a disaster.

However, there are instances when first responders and emergency managers face

challenges that prevent the gathering and sharing of situational awareness during a

disaster. Donahue and Tuohy (2006) argued that first responders and emergency

managers had faced challenges from previous disasters regarding communications,

impacting the effectiveness of collaboration, coordination, and communication. First

responders and emergency managers rely on the communications infrastructure during a

large-scale catastrophic disaster (Simon et al., 2015). However, disasters such as 9/11,

Hurricanes Katrina, Sandy, Matthew, Harvey, Irma, and Maria have shown how

susceptible the communications infrastructure is to disasters (The Heritage Foundation,

2018). As a result, first responders are unable to share information through standard

communications methods.

Failure in sharing information among first responders and those in the EOC leads

to uncertainty and a delay in the decision-making process (Waring et al., 2018). Disaster

response requires first responders and the incident commander to collaborate, coordinate,

and communicate their efforts with the emergency manager in the EOC. A lack of

situational awareness creates problems for first responders and staff in the EOC when

developing disaster response policies and strategies. Without accurate and timely

situational awareness information, there are assumptions that decision-makers are

required to make that might be incorrect in order to make decisions quickly.

United States Decision-Making and Disaster Policies

Decisions during a disaster, in many cases, are made based on little to no

information due to time restraints, which can limit the effectiveness of the disaster

response. The problem is that disasters occur and evolve quickly. Conditions of a

largescale disaster are unpredictable. The demands on first responders create a stressful

and dynamic work environment. Information collected by the first responders, in some

cases, may not be the information needed to develop policies and strategic goals and

objectives. Kapucu and Gatayev (2016) argued that decision-making in emergency

management depended on the first responders' information through the appropriate chain

of command. When the information fails to be useful during periods of time-sensitivity,

improvisation and seeking alternative sources of information might not be an option for

emergency managers. Failure to achieve situational awareness leads to poor decision-

making and inadequate projection of future needs of the first responders and the

community. Lifesaving decisions, based on false or incomplete information, cause more

harm than is necessary. Instead, the information provided should be credible (Haataja et

al., 2016). Individuals that make decisions cannot delay the process.

Decisions, during response operations, are made in real time and as quickly as

possible. Son et al. (2007) believed that first responders obtained situational awareness

from direct observation based on past experiences and knowledge. However, not all first

responders possess the same knowledge or experience necessary to provide helpful

situational awareness to the incident commander (Curnin et al., 2015). For example,

specialized responders possess specific skills and training that may lead to a

predetermined idea of the situation upon arrival at the disaster site, which unfortunately

causes them to have blinders when obtaining a holistic overview of a disaster. According

to NIMS (FEMA, 2017) the incident commander ensures that the information gathered by

the first responders is available to the decision-makers. If situational awareness is not

available from the disaster site, there is a likelihood that the disaster response will fail or

fall short when developing policies or providing the level of response needed by the

community.

Situational awareness is an essential element for any disaster response and is

necessary for decision-makers to have when there is a need to develop plans, policies, or

procedures. Roslan et al. (2019) documented the importance of sharing information

between the EOC and the incident. When policies do not include new or emerging tools

for situational awareness, the policies and procedures need to be updated. Nordic

Societies of Public Health (2014) argued that the incident commander, emergency

manager, and local officials made decisions based not only on the information provided

to them by the first responders but also from 911 calls and the mainstream media.

During disaster response, the incident commander focuses on ensuring the needs

of the first responders are met for life-saving measures, as well as gathering information

regarding the disaster scene, such identifying if any hazards exist, directing first

responders, and the status of the impacted population (Son et al., 2007). Emergency

managers focus on understanding the severity of the situation, potential cascading

impacts as a result of the disaster, immediate needs of not only the first responders, but

also the community, and developing future planning policies and strategies (Bharosa, Lee,

& Janssen, 2010; Mirbabaie & Fromm, 2019; Roslan et al., 2019). The concern of the

local officials is with the economic impacts of the disaster, the safety of the public, the

rebuilding process, and political ramifications (Klomp, 2019). The information provided

by the first responders helps the incident commander, emergency managers, local

officials with the development of goals and objectives during a disaster response.

However, having situational awareness strategies in place prior to a disaster is crucial for

the initial stage of any disaster response and the decision-making process.

Current Situational Awareness Strategies

Pre-identified situational awareness strategies that are in place prior to a disaster

aids in the decision-making process. Developing situational awareness strategies depends

on several key factors such as the type of disaster, demands of the response, choosing

which response procedures to implement, and the community impacted. According to

Flin and Arbuthnot (2017) standardized policies and procedures provide the best method

for collecting, analyzing, and evaluating the best course of action. There are instances

where predetermined situational cues, such as specific triggers or patterns related to

disasters, are necessary for the decision-making process. However, some disasters require

that the decision-maker use creativity when there are no other solutions that would

successfully contain the disaster, and when time is of an essence. As a result, effective

decision making requires that the decision-maker possess the ability to conduct a full

situation assessment and comparison of previous disasters to determine an appropriate

course of action.

Disaster Site

For decision-makers to make effective decisions, a full situation assessment needs

to be conducted immediately once first responders arrive on the scene of a disaster.

Utilizing their ICS training, first responders assess the disaster situation based on initial

perception, comprehension, and projection of what is currently occurring and provide an

update through their chain of command (Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018). Flin and

Arbuthnot (2017) believed that it is not the responsibility of the incident commander to

work alone, but as a team. As a result, the incident commander must rely on the

knowledge and experience of the first responders at the disaster site to evaluate the

situation of the disaster correctly based on the first responders’ observation.

First responders quickly assess the disaster situation and identify hazards

associated with the disaster and resources (equipment and personnel) necessary for

disaster response. The quality of the information gathered by the first responders may not

meet the needs of the decision-makers. However, any information from the disaster site is

better than missing or inadequate information (Seppänen & Virrantaus, 2015).

Information sharing during a disaster is necessary when the disaster includes multiple

agencies involved in the response operations. The incident commander is responsible for

ensuring that the situational awareness is shared among other first responders and with

the EOC staff through the standard methods of communicating such as portable radios,

cell phones, and through the 911 call center. If the critical infrastructure needed for

communicating is damaged or overwhelmed, there will be a delay in the communications

between the disaster site and the EOC (Curnin et al., 2015). Based on the disaster

situation, the incident commander and the emergency manager working with staff in the

EOC begin determining resource gaps, the needs of the impacted population, and goals

and objectives for the initial response operations. However, the most immediate role and

responsibilities of the incident commander and the first responders during a disaster are

saving lives, protecting property, and the environment.

Mainstream Media

The immediate focus of the first responders during a disaster response is to save

lives, protect property, and the environment. The role of the mainstream media during a

disaster is to disseminate information regarding the disaster to the public. The mainstream

media, before the age of social media, had been the primary source of disaster

information that the public had available to them (Lowrey, Evans, Gower, Robinson,

Ginter, McCormick, & Abdolrasulnia, 2007). During a disaster, the public immediately

seeks information regarding what has happened, where, who is impacted, and will this

disaster impact them (Greenberg & Scanlon, 2016). The mainstream media competes

with competitors to air a disaster first and provide the public with information. Reporters

attempt to exploit the situation to sensationalize the chaos associated with the disaster

(Fernando, 2010). However, in many cases, the disaster scene is chaotic. For safety

reasons, the reporter is not allowed to be close to the scene; because of this, the

information provided by reports may not be as accurate.

For safety reasons, reporters are not allowed to be close to the disaster scene; they

do not have specific information about the disasters. As a result, there are also times in

which the mainstream media purposefully provides inaccurate and incomplete

information in a rush to beat competitors (Lowrey et al., 2007). The PIO provides the

mainstream media with an approved briefing of the disaster and provides answers to the

reporters’ questions. (Ewart & McLean, 2018). At the same time, emergency managers

working in the EOC are monitoring the media coverage in an attempt to obtain additional

information that had not been provided by the incident commander. The focus of the

media, on the other hand, is to report the news by interrupting and presenting the disaster

event and phenomena based on the reporter’s perception and comprehension of the

situation and not necessarily from the experience, knowledge, and training perspectives

of the first responders (Fernando, 2010). There are times in which news managers

encourage journalists and reporters to generalize their coverage. In other cases,

mainstream news sees their role as providing information to the public and a watchdog, in

which the reporting is no longer passive (Lowrey et al., 2007). Unlike the first

responders, the news media does not have the training to provide the level of situational

awareness needed by emergency managers and local officials.

Disaster reporting from the mainstream media does not contain the same level of

situational awareness that emergency managers and local official receive from first

responders. However, the information provided by the mainstream media impacts the

public perception of the disaster response. Because of this, the locality is forced to

significantly change their level of response (Yan & Bissell, 2018). The information

provided by the mainstream media also determines how the public process the

information provided to them, which in many cases includes inaccurate and incomplete

information. The mainstream media often sensationalize the disaster in an attempt to

attract viewers (Lowrey et al., (2007). Meanwhile, the public is forced to analyze the

disaster information, determine if it is accurate and relevant to them, seek other methods

of obtaining additional information, and request immediate emergency assistance.

911 Emergency Call Center

The public analyzes the information they receive from the mainstream media to

determine if the information is accurate, relevant to them, need additional information,

and request immediate emergency assistance. 911 emergency call centers are a nationally

instituted system that the public has access to during an emergency or disaster to seek

assistance (Whalen & Zimmerman, 1998). The 911 dispatcher collects and codes the

information provided by the caller to determine the nature of the emergency to dispatch

the most appropriate first responder. There are specific procedures in place that the

dispatcher must follow to obtain situational awareness of the emergency. Unlike first

responders that obtain situational awareness once arriving on-scene of an emergency, 911

dispatchers obtain their situational awareness based on the information provided by the

caller. Whalen and Zimmerman (1998) explained the importance of gathering as much

information as possible from the caller because the information provided is passed along

to the first responders. During a disaster, 911 emergency call centers are the first call that

the public makes when seeking help (Cannuscio, Davis, Kermis, Khan, Dupuis, & Taylor,

2016). However, when a disaster occurs, 911 emergency call centers can quickly become

overwhelmed, which prevents the public from getting the help they need.

911 emergency call centers are quickly overwhelmed or damaged when a disaster

occurs; because of this, the public cannot get the help they need, which in some cases,

puts the public lives in harm’s way. Not only does a disaster overwhelm 911 call centers’

capability, but some disasters, such as hurricanes, severe flooding, and earthquakes have

damaged the communications infrastructure that the 911 call centers depend on to operate

(El Khaled & Mcheick, 2019; Kishorbhai & Vasantbhai, 2017; Timmons, 2007). The first

responders working at the disaster site rely on information provided by 911 dispatchers to

help with the disaster response. However, when there is damage to communications

infrastructure, which prevents first responders and the public from gather and sharing

information regarding the disaster, the disaster response is severely hampered. El Khaled

and Mcheick (2019) argued that the communication infrastructure is essential for the

disaster response activities and the public to obtain the help they need. When the public

cannot get through to a 911 emergency call center, the public seeks another form of

communicating their needs to first responders. Social media provides another method of

communicating that the public utilizes during disasters.

Social Media

When a disaster occurs that damages the communications infrastructure that

prevents the public from reaching 911, the public seeks alternative methods of

communicating their needs. One of the alternatives is social media. Social media is a

computer-mediated communications tool, which is internet-based that allows users to

create, share, and exchange information in real time (Hornmoen & Backholm, 2018).

Many applications make up social media, such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat,

Twitter, and YouTube (Hornmoen & Backholm, 2018; White, 2012). Each application has

unique capabilities and functions. According to McIntyre (2014) social media first

evolved in 1969 when dial-up internet was still in its infancy, which created a need for

online communication. In 1997, the first social networking site, SixDegrees.com, was

created, which led to new social media sites such as MySpace, Facebook, and Twitter

(McIntyre, 2014). Facebook, founded in 2004, allows people to create a community that

brings people together. According to Facebook (2019) as of June 2019, there are an

estimated 2.1 billion people that use Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, or Messenger.

Twitter, founded in 2006, has 326 million users that, on average, create or share 500

million tweets daily, of which 80% of the users utilize the mobile app (Omnicore, 2019).

The public, media, organizations, and all levels of government utilize social media as a

form of providing and sharing information. Social media has become a vital tool in the

emergency management field, especially related to disasters.

Public Use of Social Media

Social media is a vital tool that emergency management utilizes in disasters.

Natural disasters have occurred throughout history, and catastrophic disasters continue to

occur with devastating impacts on not only the community and first responders but also

the communications infrastructure. As a result, during disasters, the public seeks

information from any communications method that is operational. During Hurricane

Katrina, the communications infrastructure, such as 911 emergency call centers, first

responders’ portable mobile radios, cell towers, and landlines phones, were inoperable,

which prevented the public from successfully reaching out for assistance during the

disaster (Cooper & Block, 2006). Although social media was still in its infancy during the

time, approximately 8% of the population used social media during Hurricane Katrina

(Cohen, 2015). Social media, during disasters, allow users to find information out about

family members, let others know that they are safe, request help from first responders,

and to share information about the disaster (Bennett, 2014; King, 2018; Reuter &

Kaufhold, 2018). Since Hurricane Katrina, the expectation is that the public will utilize

social media during disasters when they are unable to get through to 911.

In many cases, during a disaster, 911 emergency call centers cannot handle the

large call volumes associated with disasters. As a result, the public seeks other methods,

such as Facebook or Twitter, to request help. During Hurricanes Harvey and Irma, the

public turned to social media as a means to coordinate rescue for those trapped by

floodwaters (King, 2018). Another example is the 2013 Boston bombing in which social

media played a critical role in identifying and tracking the suspects (Davis, Alves,

Sklansky, 2014). Turnoff, Hiltz, Bañuls, and Van Den Eede (2013) argued that social

media posts would not be as useful in the collaborated effects in disaster planning or

response. Instead, Turnoff et al. (2013), believed that for disasters related to riots or

criminal activities, social media post would be more effective. Facebook and Twitter

provided the public with another method of communicating their needs when the standard

route of requesting assistance fails. Facebook realized that the public relied on their

system during disasters, and in 2014, Facebook launched its safety-check tool

(Seetharaman & Wells, 2017). The safety-check tool allows users to mark themselves safe

during emergencies. The reliance of the public on social media in disaster situations

encouraged the emergency management field to utilize social media, where in the past,

there was not a need.

Emergency Management

The emergency management field adopted social media as a means of reaching

out to the public due to its popularity in disaster situations. According to Simon et al.

(2015) the fact that the public used social media in previous disasters forced the

emergency management field to evaluate the benefit of social media within their

operations. The incorporation of social media by emergency managers for disaster has

been a slow process. It depends on the jurisdiction’s capabilities, staffing, and policies

that determine the level of usage by the emergency management agency (Hiltz, Kushma,

& Plotnick, 2014; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al., 2015). Haataja et al. (2016),

argued that emergency managers encountered difficulties when trying to adopt social

media, which resulted in their inability to exploit the capabilities of social media fully as

recommended by Plotnick et al. (2015). Emergency managers are reluctant to incorporate

a new concept into their operations unless there is a benefit for them to do so, which is

the main reason why the emergency management field had been slow in adopting social

media despite the acceptance, popularity, and continued use of social media by the public.

Emergency Management Acceptance of Social Media

The acceptance of social media by the emergency management field is slow even

though the public continued to utilize it in disaster situations. Lindsay (2016) found that

for the past ten years, social media had played a significant role in emergencies and

disasters for both the public and private sectors. Despite this, not all emergency

management agencies have a social media presence. Several factors that prevented

immediate acceptance of social media by emergency managers. The two most significant

factors include lack of experience with social media, which creates issues with

trustworthiness and information overload and limitations in staffing (Hiltz et al., 2014;

Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al., 2015). Hiltz et al. (2014) documented that

emergency managers felt that the lack of training and familiarity with social media was a

generational issue. The majority of emergency managers were at the end of their careers.

However, the perspectives of emergency managers regarding social media specifically as

a tool for situational awareness was not addressed in the research conducted by Hiltz et

al., 2014; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al., 2015; Simon et al., 2015; Wukich, 2015.

When there is a lack of understanding in terms of social media, there is a potential of

mishandling the disaster or, worse, cause harm to the organization (Roshan et al., 2016).

The issue with trustworthiness is a concern for emergency managers because missing or

inaccurate information has the potential of doing more harm than good (Plotnick & Hiltz,

2016; Hiltz et al., 2014). According to Hiltz et al. (2014) governments prohibited the use

of social media due to concerns related to the trustworthiness of the information.

The lack of trust occurs when the information on social media is not validated,

which can cause more harm than good during disasters and is why formal policies and

procedures are necessary when it comes to the use of social media (Lindsay, 2016).

Roslan et al. (2019) argued that when an EOC used standard operating procedures or had

established policies that contained the recommended methods of sharing information, the

disaster response was more effective. There are some jurisdictions in which the policy for

social media prohibits employees from using social media, and in others, provide specific

guidelines as to when employees may access social media and what constitutes as

acceptable content for sharing with the public (Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016). However,

Plotnick et al. (2015) noted that most of the policies established by jurisdictions

prohibited emergency managers from collecting data from social media for situational

awareness, especially during disasters. The ability to validate the information on social

media requires resources such as trained staffing and time, which not all jurisdictions

have the personnel available or time to analyze the data when responding to a large-scale

catastrophic disaster. During a catastrophic disaster, the information available on social

media would be quite extensive. Even if jurisdictions had had enough staff to cover social

media, there would be too much data to handle when time is of the essence. However, due

to the public’s insistence on utilizing social media, there is an expectation that emergency

response agencies use social media as well.

Emergency Management Social Media Benefits

Because the public continues to utilize social media during disasters, there is an

expectation that emergency managers should also have an active social media account.

There are several benefits for emergency managers to utilize social media. One of the

benefits is to assess the needs of the public when immediate life-saving situations occur

during a disaster. Timely and essential disaster-specific information, such as current

response activities, is much-needed and vital when it comes to the life-safety of the first

responders, public, and the community. Wukich (2015) argued that such information

provided to the public quickly is the difference between life and death. Social media

allows emergency managers the opportunity for the rapid dissemination of critical

information. However, an untapped benefit that social media could offer emergency

managers is achieving and maintaining situational awareness.

Social media provide emergency managers with the ability to search and solicit

information from the public and, in particular, the population that is directly impacted by

a disaster (DHS, 2014). Real time information while the incident is still unfolding aids in

assessing the disaster situation and the needs of the public. Panagiotopoulos, Barnett,

Bigdeli, and Sams (2016) documented that a need existed in understanding how the

utilization of social media in conjunction with other established processes for planning is

useful during disaster response. Lindsay (2016) agreed that in previous disasters, the

information provided on social media aided in assessing victims and alerted the public

and first responders of what had happened. In addition, social media could provide first

responders and emergency managers with newly discovered threats and condition

changes associated with the disaster. Social media provide users with access to

opensource tools for searches using keywords, geographical locations, content, and

trending topics, and popular hashtags (DHS, 2014). Using situational awareness would

impact the overall effectiveness of the disaster response. Whereas, improved situational

awareness enhances not only the quality of the information but the analysis and sharing

of the information with those in a position of authority to make timely decisions are

critical for local governments to maintain the health and safety of the community during a

disaster (Brandy, Brookes, Brown, Brown, Perry, & White, 2013). The use of situational

awareness for decision-making is significant for a successful response during a

catastrophic disaster.

The use of situational awareness data by decision-makers during disasters is

immensely beneficial to the success of the disaster response, for not only the first

responders but for the public and community. Eismann et al. (2018) argued that social

media provided emergency managers with content that had not been available before that

included geographical information, pictures and videos, details of the disasters, as well as

requests for help. Ernst, Mladenow, and Strauss (2017) argued that crowdsourcing and

the use of information and communication technology, such as social media, provided

emergency managers with another tool when seeking to validate disaster-specific

information. Another benefit of utilizing social media for decision-making is the ability to

use the information for generating predictions regarding resources, response strategies, as

well as cascading impacts associated with the disaster (Castillo, 2016). Monitoring social

media could provide emergency managers with additional information to create or

modify existing goals and objectives. Intelligence gathering from the data available on

social media could provide emergency managers with information that aids in the quick

resolution of the disaster (DHS, 2014). Social media is not just about knowing what has

happened or the population impacted. Instead, the emphasis is on the information

available on social media to facilitate the decision-making process for efficient and

effective disaster response (Brady et al., 2013). Wukich (2015) argued that the use of

social media supported the sense-making process, which is vital to not only emergency

managers but also first responders and local officials. Despite recent research that

documented the usefulness of social media for situational awareness during disasters,

emergency managers have strong feelings and views regarding incorporating social media

into their current situational awareness strategies.

Emergency Management Social Media Disadvantages

Emergency managers have strong feelings and views on social media and its role

in current situational awareness strategies. These opinions and views are the reasons why

the emergency management field is slow in utilizing social media. Emergency managers

believe social media is full of rumors with little to no opportunity to correct them during

disasters. As a result, emergency managers do not trust the information posted by anyone

other than official government social media entities. Social media does contain fake

news; however, in many cases, it is not intentional. Plotnick, Hiltz, Grandhi, and Dugdale

(2019) wrote that fake news posted by the public occurred because the user thought that

the information was accurate. Fake news or incorrect information posted on social media

is often the result of the jurisdiction’s inability to meet the demand for information by the

public. Inaccurate information on social media can exacerbate the disaster’s impact on the

public and disaster response (Luna & Pennock, 2018). DHS (2018) contributed false

information to situations in which there is limited information available regarding the

disaster, which causes rumors to begin rapidly. Besides emergency managers’ concerns

with rumors on social media, they still see social media as a useful tool for one-way

communication during disasters.

Social Media Tool

Emergency managers view social media as a one-way tool for them to utilize

during disasters to provide emergency messages to the public quickly. Emergency

managers have used social media as a tool to disseminate disaster specific information

before, during, and after a disaster (Lindsay, 2016). Social media is also a tool for

community outreach and receiving concerns from the public concerning public safety and

disaster preparedness topics. Eismann et al. (2016) documented that governments used

social media to disseminate information. Most certainly not to engage in a dialogue with

the public. For example, when there is a life-safety threat to the public from a disaster,

emergency managers will provide alerts and notification using several alerting systems

available to them and other methods such as social media. Neely and Collins (2018)

documented that during a disaster, social media helped reduced the workload of first

responders and emergency managers because social media allowed for immediate

information available to the public and reduced the number of requests to the emergency

management agency by the media and public. The position responsible for updating

social media during a disaster is the PIO.

The PIO is responsible for gathering details regarding the disaster and

disseminating the information to the media and the public. Correcting rumors and

providing updates is also the responsibility of the PIO. According to NIMS and within the

ICS structure, the PIO is not responsible for monitoring social media for situational

awareness. Instead, it is the responsibility of the PIO to ensure that the public is kept

informed regarding the disaster and response activities (Deal et al., 2010). Emergency

managers have embraced social media as a tool for disseminating information to the

public. However, the process for utilization of social media for situational awareness and

the position responsible for monitoring social media during a disaster continues to be an

area in which emergency managers have been slow to adopt.

Potential Places for Social Media During Disasters

Emergency managers have been slow to adopt social media because they are

unsure of the best process of utilizing social media for situational awareness during a

disaster or the appropriate position within the ICS structure that is the most qualified to

do this. There are several possible positions within ICS that emergency managers could

use for monitoring social media for situational awareness. Curnin et al. (2015) believed

that the liaison officer would be an appropriate choice based on their roles and

responsibilities assigned to this position within ICS. The liaison officer role is a

gobetween for the incident commander and interacts with agency representatives. Deal et

al. (2010) wrote that the task of the liaison officer included management of concerns and

issues raised by first responders and agency representatives during the response. Because

the liaison officer has the role of gathering information from agency representatives,

using the information for situational awareness purposes would not be an additional

burden. However, a burden would exist in terms of monitoring social media for

situational awareness in addition to the liaison officer’s role of coordinating among first

responders and agency representatives. The second position that could monitor social

media for situational awareness during a disaster is the PIO.

Public Information Officer

The PIO is another position that could monitor social media for situational

awareness during a disaster. Generally, the primary role of the PIO is to coordinate with

the media to provide information to the public (Lefever, Walter-Garcia, Hanson, & Smith-

Easley 2018). To accomplish this, staff working in the joint information center gathers,

verifies, and disseminates disaster-specific information in a timely manner. The purpose

of the information provided by the PIO is to ensure that the public has the most current

situational awareness of the disaster so that the public could make life-safety decisions. In

addition to providing the media and public with up-to-date information, the PIO is also

responsible for monitoring social media for inaccurate information and rumors that might

be harmful to the public or first responders. Social media monitoring by the PIO is one

method that helps prevent the sharing of false or inaccurate information (Eriksson 2018).

Although the monitoring of social media is useful for rumor control, it does not mean that

the PIO is an appropriate position to monitor social media for situational awareness. A

PIO could monitor social media for situational awareness for a small-scale disaster, in

which the data available on social media is minimal (Seppänen & Virrantaus, 2015).

However, when the information available on social media is significant, and the disaster

response requires a fast-pace resolution to meet the demands of the community, the PIO

is not the appropriate position. As a result, the capability to successfully manage the

gathering, analyzing, and predicting future planning needs of the first responders and the

public from social media for situational awareness, requires a dedicated position within

the ICS structure.

Situation Unit

Within the ICS structure, the position that could successfully obtain situational

awareness from the information available on social media is the situation unit. Within the

ICS structure, the location of the situation unit is under the planning section. During a

disaster, accurate and timely information is critical for the success of the disaster

response. Although first responders are required to provide situational updates through

their chain of command, this does not mean that they have time to collect and analyze the

data aggressively (Deal et al., 2010). The responsibility of the situation unit is to manage

data received from multiple sources and analyze the data into useful information for

decision-makers (FEMA, 2018). In addition to gathering information, the situation unit is

also responsible for sharing the information with internal and external stakeholders.

However, the role of the situation unit is more than just gathering and analyzing

information. The situation unit is also responsible for the preparations of situational

awareness summaries, development of projections and forecasts related to the disasters,

and using geospatial information systems to produce maps and other visual

documentation (FEMA, 2017; Lefevre et al., 2018). Disaster response operations require

that decision-makers have the most current situational awareness in order to provide

effective disaster response, which is rapid and coordinates life-safety activities.

Effective disaster response is critical for life-safety. As a result, the situational

awareness information obtained needs to be of the highest quality, which is why the

analysis and interpretation of the data received from outside sources require thorough

vetting and verification from staff that has the knowledge and experience to perform this

task (DHS, 2014; Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018; Seppänen & Virranatus, 2015;

Wukich, 2015). Staff within the situation unit not only possess the knowledge and

experience but also receive additional training specific to their role within the ICS

structure.

One training that the situation unit staff could have is the all-hazard

positionspecific situation unit leader, which is a five-day training course and was

developed by FEMA. The training intends to ensure that staff in the role of situation unit

leader have the essential core competencies requires to complete the tasks assigned to this

position (FEMA, n.d-a.). There are additional courses that would aid staff working in the

situation unit, such as a course on situational awareness and another on the common

operating picture (FEMA, n.d-b.; FEMA, n.d-c). Both of these courses provide

individuals with the knowledge necessary to determine where and how to use reliable

information for disaster response efforts and analyze the information to understand its

usefulness for the decisionmaking process (FEMA, n.d-b; FEMA, n.d.-c). These courses

play an essential role in the ability of situation unit staff, within the EOC, to obtain

situational awareness during a large-scale catastrophic disaster where lines of

communications and the ability to get disaster-specific information from the disaster site

are not available.

Gaps Identified in Research

The topic of social media in emergency management is a popular topic among

researchers. The focus ranges from social media use before, during, and after disasters. In

particular, the role emergency management has on providing alerts, notifications, and

warnings to the public of an imminent threat from a disaster. Gaps in research exist in

terms of emergency managers’ perspectives on the use of social media for situational

awareness, current situational awareness strategies, and identifying the best method of

incorporating social media into current situational awareness strategies for the

decisionmaking process during a catastrophic disaster.

A current situational awareness strategy aids in the effectiveness and efficiency of

the disaster response. Takeda et al. (2017) identified the need to develop strategies for

sense-making to include resources and tools that would aid in the decision-making

process to include current disaster situation, needs assessment, and contain relevant

information. Lefevre et al. (2019) identified a need in which during a disaster, emergency

managers should monitor social media as a means to obtain insights not available through

standard procedures. Plotnick et al. (2015) agreed that emergency managers lacked

official guidance in analyzing, evaluating, and identifying useful information available on

social media during disasters. Whereas, Kim, Bae, and Hastak (2018) documented the

need that emergency managers should monitor social media during disaster response to

quickly gather information due to how rapidly a disaster situation changes. Stieglitz et al.

(2017) stated that there is a need to understand better how social media could be

effectively analyzed, adapted, and incorporated into the decision-making process. In

terms of the decision-making process, Eismann et al. (2018) identified that emergency

managers would benefit from the utilization of social media information but should make

sense of the information available on social media during disasters. Panagiotopoulos et al.

(2016) confirmed a need to integrate social media into future planning needs during a

disaster. The gaps identified by the researchers mentioned above have also identified that

the emergency management field acknowledges that social media is a tool available to

them.

This qualitative explanatory case study attempts to document standard operating

procedures for the collaboration, coordination, and communication required to obtain

situational awareness during a disaster and the benefit of social media as a tool in

developing response strategies and determining future response needs. Luna and Pennock

(2018) reported a gap that strategies fail to leverage social media content for

decisionmakers to utilize during disaster response. Whereas, Simon et al. (2015) reported

that a need existed to utilize social media during disasters to obtain critical information

when there is a need for a rapid assessment of the situation is necessary. Haataja et al.

(2016) agreed that social media would be beneficial in terms of situational awareness and

to develop efficient strategies for saving lives, protecting property, and the environment.

This study documents various situational awareness strategies available to emergency

managers during a disaster and the benefit of social media as a tool that would provide

emergency managers with additional information regarding the disaster when information

is limited or unavailable from the disaster site.

Summary

Emergency managers working in the EOC during a disaster rely on first

responders to provide them with situational awareness information from the disaster site.

This literature review included an analysis of the theories of situational awareness and the

decision-making process (Achoff, 1989; Endsley, 2019; Rowely, 2007; Yusof et al.,

2018). The literature review consisted of three sections that included a synthesis of the

processes and procedures that first responders and emergency managers use in obtaining

situational awareness during a disaster (Deal et al., 2010; FEMA, 2017; Pogrebnyakov &

Maldonado, 2018; Seppänen & Virantaus, 2015). The literature review also focused on

social media as a tool the public uses to obtain disaster-specific information during

response operations (Benett, 2014; Davis et al., 2014; King, 2018). Lastly, the literature

review also included social media situational awareness strategies for emergency

managers to integrate into disaster response operations (Curnin et al., 2015; Lefevre et al.,

2018; Seppänen & Virrantaus, 2015). The results of the current study would address gaps

in the literature by examining emergency managers’ perspectives regarding social media

as a tool for obtaining situational awareness that would aid in the decision-making

process during a disaster.

In Chapter 2, I conducted a literature review of disaster response operations,

social media use, and situational awareness role in the decision-making process. I also

addressed the gap in the literature regarding the lack of policies, procedures that

incorporate social media into current situational awareness strategies. In addition, this

qualitative explanatory case study also addressed why emergency managers do not use

social media for situational awareness because official guidance does not exist that

identified the best method of incorporating social media into current situational

awareness strategies. The implication of this study on social change was emergency

managers' ability to obtain disaster-specific situational awareness information quickly

that enabled them to make an informed decision during disasters to respond effectively

and efficiently to ensure life-safety, protection of property, and the environment when

catastrophic no-notice disaster occurs. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the research

methodology, rationale for using the explanatory case study approach, participants, data

collection procedures, and instruments. The last section of Chapter 3 includes an

overview of the data analysis, ethical considerations, trustworthiness, credibility, and

research bias for this study.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The purpose of this qualitative explanatory case study was to understand the

perspectives of emergency managers regarding the use of social media and its role in

obtaining situational awareness, as well as identifying disaster-specific information

necessary for emergency managers to make informed decisions during disasters. Eismann

et al. (2018), Plotnick and Hiltz (2016), and Plotnick et al. (2015) documented that

emergency managers are slow to incorporate social media and have not used the

information provided through situational awareness during disasters as part of emergency

managers’ decision-making process. Eismann et al. (2018), Luna and Pennock (2018),

Martínez-Rojas et al. (2018), and Takeda et al. (2017) identified the need to understand

emergency managers’ perspective regarding the use of social media as a tool in obtaining

situational awareness that aids in the decision-making process during disasters.

Chapter 3 includes an overview of the qualitative research design and rationale,

methodology for the explanatory case study, appropriateness of the design, and role of the

researcher. Chapter 3 also contains an overview of the participants, data collection

instruments, instrument reliability and validity, and data analysis strategy. Lastly, Chapter

3 addresses trustworthiness and ethical concerns in the study.

Research Design and Rationale

Research Design

The research design provided the methods and procedures that I followed when

conducting this study. Moser and Korstjens (2017) described qualitative research as an

investigation of a phenomenon to provide in-depth data that explain the phenomenon

from the participants’ point of view. Qualitative research is an appropriate research

method when the information is needed to understand the attitudes, preferences, or

opinions of the participants (Hammarberg, Kirkman, & De Lacey, 2016). A case study is

a research design that focuses on a group, organization, or phenomenon. A researcher

uses a case study design when the purpose is to seek descriptive-rich data including direct

quotes from the participants (Hancock & Algozzine, 2017). Grounded theory is another

qualitative research design I considered for this study. Martin, Scott, Brennen, and

Durham (2018) argued that the grounded theory approach begins with identifying

concepts from the data. Once the concepts are identified, the researcher develop a theory

based on the concepts (Tie, Birks, & Francis, 2019). For this current study, the focus was

gathering the perspectives of emergency managers. An explanatory case study is a

common research approach in which the goal is to obtain multiple perspectives, as was

the case in the current study. An explanatory case study is useful when conducting a

comparative study with a small group and there is a need to explain and describe a

phenomenon in detail (Hancock & Algozzine, 2017). To understand emergency

managers’ perspectives regarding the use of social media as a tool for situational

awareness during a disaster, I used an explanatory case study approach. The research

questions for this explanatory case study were the following:

RQ1: What are emergency managers’ perspectives of social media as a tool for

obtaining situational awareness during disasters?

RQ2: How does disaster-specific information required by emergency managers

improve the ability to make informed decisions during disasters?

RQ3: How, if at all, does social media provide the information that emergency

managers need during disasters?

Rationale

Emergency management research depends on qualitative studies that include

semistructured interviews consisting of open-ended and follow-up questions to identify

strategies and best practices rather than relying on disaster after-action reports that

document areas of improvement (Arain, 2015; Sobelson, Wigington, Harp, & Bronson,

2015). Al Balushi (2018) argued that the benefits of semistructured interviews include

data consisting of experiences and perceptions from the participants’ point of view. To

understand the perspective of emergency managers and why the emergency management

field is slow to incorporate social media into situational awareness strategies during

disasters required interviewing and collecting data from emergency managers who have a

similar role but different levels of experiences working in an EOC.

To answer the research questions for this study, I developed an interview guide

based on the gaps identified in the literature review. Semistructured interviews allow the

participant to provide detailed answers to the questions and provide examples of past

experiences (Manzano, 2016). The interviews, which are considered the standard form of

collecting data from participants (Rahman, 2015) were conducted over the telephone

instead of face-to-face. Drabble, Trocki, Salcedo, Walker, and Korcha (2016) pointed out

that telephone interviews have challenges such as establishing a rapport with the

participant and the inability to respond appropriately to visual cues. However, there are

benefits in choosing to conduct interviews over the telephone, such as lower cost in terms

of travel time and expense and limiting response bias on the part of the interviewer

(Rahman, 2015). Telephone interviews provide the participants with the flexibility to

schedule a date and time convenient to them.

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is to identify and address a gap in the literature when

conducting a study. The process of designing and developing a study allows the

researcher to gather descriptive-rich data. For the current study, my role was to collect

data by interviewing emergency managers who currently or had previously worked at the

local or state government level in an office of emergency management within the

Commonwealth of Virginia. I belong to two professional emergency management

associations. I intended to recruit participants from one of the organizations. Many of the

members I know as regional colleagues and peers and from attending training

opportunities and professional conferences. Some of the members I worked with in my

previous position with the Virginia Department of Emergency Management and in my

current position as a deputy emergency management coordinator for an organization

located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. However, in my current role, I was not in a

position of authority and did not expect to have a conflict of interest when interviewing

participants whom I knew or had worked with previously. I determined that interviewing

individuals I knew would help because of an established relationship, making the

participant feel comfortable to speak freely during the interview.

A concern with interviewing individuals within the field that I currently work was

the potential for researcher bias, which was something that I wanted to limit. One

technique that I used was bracketing. Bracketing occurs when the researcher ignores

personal beliefs, assumptions, or theories during the research process (Baksh, 2018). The

bracketing technique I used in this study included bracketing in descriptive research.

Bracketing in descriptive research requires the researcher to eliminate personal

assumptions to capture the participants' descriptive meaning during the interview (Sorsa,

Kiikkala, & Astedt-Kurki, 2015). During the interview, the focus was on the participants'

data rather than imposing my beliefs to obtain a preconceived desired outcome of the

results.

As an emergency management professional, I was interested in the benefits that

social media would offer emergency managers during disasters. However, the emergency

management field has not fully embraced social media for various reasons, such as

outdated infrastructure, staffing, and training (Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al.,

2015). Emergency managers have embraced social media use before and after a disaster.

This has occurred because FEMA has provided guidance to emergency managers

regarding how to write preparedness messages and encourage the use of social media to

provide recovery information to the public (DHS, 2013). I believe there is an opportunity

to use social media that aids in disaster response, especially when the communications

infrastructures are down during a disaster. I have 9 years of experience working in the

emergency management field for state and local governments. As a result, I explained the

disaster response operations so that those unfamiliar with the emergency management

field could understand the process. However, I refrained from pressuring the participants

to agree with my opinion or judgment to prevent any researcher bias.

Methodology

I used qualitative methodology to focus on the phenomenon, which was

understanding emergency managers' perspectives regarding the use of social media and

its role in obtaining situational awareness during disasters. The use of an explanatory case

study design helps researchers describe and explain a phenomenon and identify common

patterns and themes from the perspectives of the participants (Thomas, 2016; Yin, 2018).

The participants in this study were emergency management professionals. I used a

purposeful sample to conduct interviews that facilitated the gathering of in-depth data

from emergency managers' perspectives. I selected participants who worked in the

Commonwealth of Virginia and had at least 5 years of experience working in the

emergency management field. I used a self-developed interview guide to conduct

semistructured interviews, which consisted of open-ended, follow-up, and demographic

questions. Hancock and Algozzine (2017) noted that semistructured interviews are the

best choice when conducting case study research. I recorded the interviews, took notes,

transcribed the interviews, and conducted data analysis to identify common patterns and

themes.

Participation Selection Logic

In a qualitative study, it is important to select appropriate participants to obtain

descriptive-rich data results. The targeted population for the current study included

emergency management professionals located in the Commonwealth of Virginia with

positions in local or state government. Prospective participants had or previously held a

position with the title of emergency manager, assistant emergency manager, deputy

emergency management coordinator, emergency management specialist, or emergency

preparedness specialist. I reached out to an emergency management professional

organization that promotes the emergency management field. The president of the

organization and the board leadership provided me with a letter of cooperation (see

Appendix A). The emergency management organization sent a recruitment email

invitation on my behalf to its members seeking participants for this study. The

recruitment email was an invitation to prospective participants (see Appendix B). The

email included the topic of the study, the method of data collection, and the interview

process. Individuals interested in participating in this study contacted me through email to

schedule a time for the interview. On the day of the interview, I emailed the participants

the informed consent form. The informed consent form explained to the participants that

participation in this study was voluntary, and at any time in the process participants could

cease participating in the study. Each participant was required to read the informed

consent form and indicate consent to participate in the study by emailing the words “I

consent” to me before I conducted the interview.

The sample method and size depend on the research design and methodology.

Lobo, Moeyaert, Cunha, and Babik (2017) explained that for a robust internal validity of

the outcome and external validity of the results, a case study should include “purposeful

replication, randomization, and multiple participants” (p. 187). Using the purposeful

sampling method increases the study's credibility and makes the sample size manageable

(Patton, 2015). Another possible sampling method is convenience sampling, which

consists of accessing the targeted population in terms of geographical location,

availability, or other cost-effective methods (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016).

Convenience sampling was not an appropriate sampling method for the current study

because the targeted population needed to have specific skill sets and experiences, which

required the participation of emergency managers from multiple jurisdictions and

representing local and state governments. I used the purposeful sampling method to meet

the objectives of the study.

Purposeful is a sampling technique most often used in qualitative research. I

identified and selected participants based on experience and knowledge to provide

descriptive-rich data results related to participants' perspectives regarding the research

phenomenon (Palinkas, Horwitz, Green, Wisdom, Duan, & Hoagwood, 2015). There

were specific criteria that participants needed to meet to participate in this study, such as

having worked in the emergency management field for a minimum of 5 years, which is

enough time for an individual to gain enough experience and knowledge. If the

participant did not possess a minimum of 5 years of working experience in the emergency

management field, the participant must be a certified emergency manager (CEM) (IAEM

2019) an internationally recognizable certification or possess a state-sponsored

emergency manager certification such as the Virginia Professional Emergency

Management (VaPEM) (Virginia Emergency Management Association, n.d.). To obtain

either the CEM or state-sponsored emergency management certification required that an

individual have a minimum of 3 years of working experience within the emergency

management field, have a baccalaureate degree, and attended 200-hours of emergency

management and general management training (IAEM, 2019; VEMA, n.d.). The sample

size depends on the type of case study and how quickly data saturation occurs.

Sample Size

For an explanatory case study, the sample size for participants depends on

saturation. Researchers who rely on data collection interviews may have challenges

reaching data saturation (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Data saturation occurs when no new data,

patterns, or themes are obtained during the interview process (Moser & Korstjens, 2018).

Fusch and Ness (2015) explained that data saturation occurred when sufficient

information is available for another researcher to replicate the study when the researcher

cannot attain additional information, and when the feasibility for new themes, patterns,

and codes are not possible. Merriam and Tisdell (2106) explained that the number is

irrelevant for purposeful sampling and is based more on when saturation has occurred. A

small sample size fails to provide enough data to reach saturation. At the same time, a

larger sample size provides an extensive amount of data that becomes too burdensome for

one researcher to analyze. Patton (2015) recommended for a purposeful sampling; the

size should include 15 participants, while Yin (2018) did not suggest a sample size. Fusch

and Ness (2015) believed that the number of interviews is not a magical number, and to

reach saturation requires that the researcher utilize the same interview questions on

multiple participants. For this case study, I had a sample size of 11 participants. This size

was manageable but also helped ensure that data saturation occurred.

Instrumentation

In a qualitative study, the researcher is the primary instrument to conduct

semistructured telephone interviews that will provide emergency managers' perspectives

on social media and its role in obtaining situational awareness during disasters. I used a

self-developed interview guide consisting of open-ended, follow-up, and demographic

questions to answer the research questions (see Appendix D). Conducting semistructured

interviews was the appropriate method of data collection for a qualitative explanatory

case study because it provided an opportunity to ask specific open-ended questions while

allowing for follow-up questions during the interview.

For this study, I conducted interviews over the telephone. Conducting telephone

interviews requires that the researcher have the ability to pick up non-verbal cues that

would be recognizable during an in-person interview through the art of active listening

and observation (Farooq & de Villiers, 2017). Active listening is critical when the

interviewer does not have visual cues to respond to appropriately. Farooq and de Villiers

(2017) mentioned that a lack of visual cues might hinder the researcher’s ability to collect

descriptive-rich data. However, Farooq and de Villiers (2017) argued that the use of the

telephone for interviews could be successful when the participants have experience and

confidence with conversing on the telephone regularly. Drabble et al. (2016) mentioned

that non-verbal cues include responding to the participant’s tone of voice when providing

narrative content. The non-verbal cues may also include pauses and hesitance in

providing in-depth information. To ensure the data results' accuracy, I used a digital

recorder to record the telephone interview, took notes, and transcribed the interview for

data analysis once the interview concluded.

Researcher-Developed Instrument

For this study, I used a self-developed interview guide that aided in the data

collection and analysis of emergency managers’ perspectives regarding social media and

its use for obtaining situational awareness during disasters. The self-developed interview

guide was developed based on the gaps identified in the literature review. I asked three

subject matter experts to evaluate the research and interview questions for the validity

and reliability of the self-developed interview guide (see Appendix E).

The use of a subject matter expert panel established the validity and reliability of

the instrument through the process of vetting the research questions and the

semistructured, open-ended, follow-up, and demographics questions that I used during

the interview. The subject matter expert panel included individuals with experience and

knowledge of the emergency management field and the qualitative research methodology.

The subject matter experts evaluated and determined the appropriateness of the research

questions along with the semistructured, open-ended, follow-up, and demographics

interview questions. Bolarinwa (2015) suggested that experts on the research topic should

analyze the researcher-developed interview guide for content validity. However, Yin

(2018) stated that internal validity is the appropriate design test for an explanatory case

study and is conducted during the data analysis phase because it allows for pattern

matching and explanation building. The three subject matter experts provided

constructive feedback and recommendations for the self-developed interview guide to

obtain in-depth data from the participants. Reliability ensured that another researcher

could replicate the study by following similar procedures (Marques, Camacho, & De

Alcantara, 2015). However, with a case study, replicability is not possible. As a result,

reliability will be demonstrated through the process of data triangulation (Yin, 2018).

Triangulation occurs when the results are similar to previous research studies such as

those identified by Eismann et al. (2018); Plotnick and Hiltz (2016); and Plotnick et al.

(2015).

Data Collection

The data collection included conducting interviews over the telephone that

focuses on the phenomenon. I asked the participants open-ended questions to gather

emergency managers’ perspectives on social media, disaster-specific information needed

for situational awareness, current situational strategies, and follow-up and demographics

questions. Aspers and Corte (2019) argued that the focus of a qualitative research study is

the interpretation, which relies on multiple data collection methods to obtain data results.

The data collection included peer-reviewed scholarly articles, governmental recommend

guidelines, and reports.

Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection

I selected emergency manager participants using a purposeful sampling strategy to

obtain a sample size of 11. The emergency management professional organization that I

am a member of sent out a recruitment email on my behalf to seek participants for this

study from its members. Individuals that were interested in participating in this study, and

meet the criteria of having a minimum of 5 years of work experience in the emergency

management field or possess a CEM or a state-sponsored professional emergency

manager certification, contacted me via email to obtain more information and to schedule

a telephone interview. When a prospective participant reaches out to me, I provided them

with a brief overview of the research topic, answered any questions the participant had,

and found out if the participant was interested in participating in the study before

scheduling the interview.

On the day of the interview, I sent each participant by email a copy of an informed

consent form that contained information regarding participants’ voluntary consent to

participate in this study. Before starting the interview, the participant had to email the

informed consent form back to me and the words “I consent” to the interview instead of a

required signature. I conducted interviews with the participants over the telephone, which

lasted no longer than 60 minutes. I took notes and digitally recorded the telephone

interview. At the interview conclusion, I provided the participants with a debriefing that

includes ensuring the confidentiality of the participants and steps for keeping the data and

the data collection tools in a locked box. Immediately after the interview, I transferred the

digital recording file to an encrypted external hard-drive and transcribed the interview. I

uploaded the transcript of the interview and my notes into NVivo to conduct data

analysis. NVivo provided me the ability to document word frequencies and detecting

themes. Jackson and Bazeley (2019) mentioned that NVivo had the capability to conduct

both a word frequency and a text search query. The digital recorder files, my interview

notes (scanned into a pdf document), and transcripts were copied to an encrypted external

hard-drive. I store the external hard-drive, digital recorder, and hard-copies of my notes

from the interviews in a lockbox at an undisclosed location. The use of the

semistructured, open-ended interview questions allows for follow-up questions during the

interview. However, I do not anticipate the need to have an additional follow-up with the

participants once the interview is over.

Data Analysis Plan

Once I completed the telephone interviews, I began the process of data analysis.

The purpose of the qualitative data analysis is to examine, categorize, and draw a

conclusion so that the data results are descriptive and provide in-depth perspectives from

the participants (Twining, Heller, Nussbaum, & Tsai, 2017). Avenier and Thomas (2015)

believed the data analysis must include the steps the researcher took so that another

researcher may replicate the research study and obtain similar data results in the future.

Yin (2018) argued that interviews enable the researcher to identify the how and why of

the phenomenon and obtain perspectives from the participants. During the data collection

process, I used a self-developed interview guide and the use of a digital recorder when I

interviewed participants over the telephone. The use of a digital recording ensured the

integrity, clarity, and creditability of the information during the transcribing process. Yin

(2018) argued that the unit of analysis for a case study depends on the research design

and the data collection process. Therefore, my qualitative explanatory case study strived

to understand multiple emergency managers' perspectives on social media and its role in

obtaining situational awareness during disasters. Yin (2018) and Thomas (2018) believed

that the research questions must align with the case study design and methodology. The

focus of a qualitative research study is to understand the experience and perspectives of a

population as it relates to a phenomenon.

For my study, I used NVivo software to upload, transcribe digital interview

recordings, and conduct a thematic analysis to determine patterns and themes (Jackson &

Bazeley, 2019). NVivo helped me organize and manage the data from the telephone

interviews. I conducted the thematic data analysis manually within NVivo because the

software does not reduce, identify groups or categories automatically (Jackson &

Bazeley, 2019). NVivo is useful with identifying patterns, linking codes across a large

amount of data, and creating graphical displays (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018). The use of

a qualitative data analysis software, such as NVivo, will reduce the time it takes to

analyze the data manually and entering into either Microsoft Excel or Word. NVivo is a

useful tool when conducting a thematic analysis of qualitative data.

The thematic analysis allows the researcher to identify patterns and themes. The

benefit of utilizing thematic analysis is the ability to identify patterns derived from the

data, separating the data into themes, which helps with interpreting and making sense of

the data (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). The process to conduct a thematic analysis

includes thoroughly reviewing the interview transcripts to become familiar with the data

and allows me to take notes on my initial impression of the data. Once I was familiar with

the data, I generated codes using the initial (open) coding process. Saldaña (2016) stated

that for qualitative research data, initial coding is an appropriate first step in the data

analysis process because it provides the researcher with a starting point to explore further.

Theron (2015) explained that during the initial coding process, the researcher “breaks

down the data into distinctive parts” (p. 5). Once I completed the initial coding, I began

the process of searching for themes among the identified codes. Nowell, Norris, White,

and Moules (2017) noted that identifying themes occurs when the researcher combines

the participants' ideas and experiences. Once completed, I incorporated the codes into

much broader themes, which corresponds to the research questions (Maguire & Delahunt,

2017). The coding process stopped when I could not identify new codes, which was

another step towards achieving data saturation. The final steps of the thematic analysis

included reviewing and providing a definition for each of the themes. The writeup

included the identification of the patterns and themes and an explanation of the data

results.

I compared the patterns and themes from my study to those in previous similar

studies for the purpose of data triangulation. If there were discrepancies between the

results that I found and those in similar studies, I documented the findings. DiLoreto and

Gaines (2016) recommended interpreting the discrepant findings because doing so might

identify flaws in either the current or previous studies. Identifying and analyzing any

discrepancies in the results provided readers with the ability to draw a conclusion

regarding the discrepancies.

Trustworthiness Concerns and Issues

The trustworthiness of the data results in this study was a concern for me as the

researcher. Trustworthiness is associated with credibility, transferability, dependability,

and confirmability (Kostjens & Moser, 2018). Hadi and Closs (2016) documented that for

a qualitative research study, two specific strategies could be utilized to determine the

trustworthiness of the data results and include peer debriefing for credibility and

providing descriptive-rich data results for transferability. Credibility is the assurance of

the researcher that the results are truthful. Conducting peer debriefings was a strategy that

I intend to use to increase the internal validity of findings and interpret my study's data

results. Transferability refers to the researcher’s ability to transfer the results to other

contexts within the population of the study (Connelly, 2016). Tong and Dew (2016)

argued that transferability occurs when other researchers utilize the results to develop

theories or apply the results in other contexts. The hope was that the results of this

currenty study would be useful in future studies related to emergency management

coordination practices and situational awareness during disaster response. Dependability

is a trustworthy strategy in which the researcher provides descriptive-rich data results of

the findings to ensure the consistency and replication of the data results (Forero, Nahidi,

De Costa, Mohsin, Fitzgerald, Gibson, McCarthy, & Aboagye-Sarfo, 2018). I provided

descriptive-rich data results that aided in the explanation of the phenomenon. I kept an

audit trail. The audit trail included a step by step process taken for this currenty study,

such as the decision-making process, the development of the study, and the reporting of

the data results. Confirmability is another step to test the trustworthiness of a study. It

occurs when another researcher confirms the results of a study. Korstjens and Mose

(2018) explained that the concern associated with confirmability is establishing and

interpreting that the results originated from the data. I ensured that the results are from

the participants and that I did not influence the results by inflicting personal bias by

spending a sufficient amount of time with the participants to document in detail the

participants’ experiences during the interview.

To ensure the trustworthiness of this current study, I conducted semistructured

interviews by asking open-ended, follow-up, and demographics questions. I interpreted

the results while maintaining neutrality without imposing my personal or professional

views during the data analysis process. I provided descriptive-rich data that supported the

transferability of the results. For this study, I kept a reflective journal that documents my

decision-making process in terms of why I am conducting a qualitative explanatory case

study, the sample size, and the data analysis process. The use of the reflective journal also

provided me an opportunity to validate the decision-making process.

Ethical Considerations

For this current study, I adhered to and complied with Walden University’s

Institutional Review Board (IRB) rules and requirements. Walden University IRB

approval for the study was 03-25-20-0659103. The IRB ensured that the research met and

adhered to federal regulations and ethical standards set forth by Walden University

(Walden University, n.d-a). For this current study, I took precautions to follow the

guidelines established by the IRB regarding the masking of partner organizations. The

participants interviewed were over the age of 18 and not a member of a vulnerable

population, as identified by Walden University IRB (Walden University, n.d.-b). Each

participant received a copy of the informed consent form that identifies the intent of this

study. Participation was voluntary. The participant may refuse to answer questions asked

during the interview, and may stop participating in the interview at any time. I used a

lockbox to store the digital recording device, external hard-drive, transcribed notes, and

hard copies of any additional documentation relating to this study to preserve the data

results' confidentiality and integrity.

Ethical Concerns

For this qualitative explanatory case study, the participants were emergency

managers that work in local, state, or federal government level equivalent of an office of

emergency management. The participants' position title included emergency manager,

assistant emergency manager, deputy emergency management coordinator, emergency

management specialist, or emergency preparedness specialist. I worked with a

professional emergency management organization that promotes the emergency

management field within the Commonwealth of Virginia. I am a member of the

organization and know many of the members due to my previous position with the

Virginia Department of Emergency Management and my current position as a deputy

emergency management coordinator in a locality’s emergency management office.

However, in my current position, I am not in a position of authority. The participants were

my peers within the emergency management field. A possibility exists that we may work

together if a disaster impacts the whole state in which we work. However, I did not

anticipate that there would be an ethical concern regarding my role and that of the

participants.

My study does not contain identifiable or demographically recognizable

information regarding the participants. I identified each participant as participant 1,

participant 2, participant 3, and so forth. The data collection for this study would be in the

form of a semistructured interview over the telephone. Conducting telephone interviews

allowed the participants to schedule a date and time that was convenient and in an

environment that feels safe to the participant. If any of the participants decided not to

continue with the interview, I would shut off the digital recorder and erase the file,

deleting electronic files, and shred any hard copies of notes. I would also notify Walden’s

IRB office when this happens.

Confidential Data Protection

I was responsible for ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity for each of the

participants that I interviewed for this study. Thomas (2016) noted that confidentiality is

respecting the wishes of the participants, being honest with them on the intent of the

research, and minimizing the risk that might cause harm. The informed consent form

documents the process of ensuring the confidentiality of each participant, as well as the

procedures for safeguarding the data collected during the interview process, along with

other files associated with this study in a locked box. I stored all digital and audio files on

an encrypted external hard drive. I kept the hard drive in a locked box and housed the

locked box in an undisclosed location. I ensured that the identity, location of employment,

and other identifiable information provided by the participants would be protected. Once

this study was completed, I scanned all documents that were not in a digital format into a

file onto the encrypted external hard drive and kept it for a period of five years. All hard

copies from the study would be shredded. Once the required record keeping for a period

of five years is over, I would reevaluate the need to keep the files. If I feel that the files

might be needed in the future, I will continue to keep the encrypted external hard drive in

a locked box.

Summary

Chapter 3 contained an overview of the research design, rationale, and

methodology for using a qualitative explanatory case study to understand the perceptions

of emergency managers on the use of social media and its role in obtaining situational

awareness during disasters. Chapter 3 contained the research questions, the targeted

population, and the sample plan. Chapter 3 also included a description of the

selfdeveloped interview guide that I used for this study, the data collection and data

analysis process, issues associated with trustworthiness, and ethical concerns of the

participants. I provided an explanation as to why the use of a self-developed interview

guide was an appropriate method of collecting data to obtain the perceptions of

emergency managers to determine patterns and themes. Chapter 4 includes a

comprehensive description of the data analysis process based on the information provided

by the participants. Chapter 4 also includes the demographic characteristics of the

participants, along with the patterns and themes that emerge during the coding process.

Chapter 4: Results

Previous researchers identified barriers that prevent emergency managers from

utilizing social media. The purpose of the current qualitative explanatory case study was

to understand the perspectives of emergency managers regarding the use of social media

and its role in obtaining situational awareness and identifying disaster-specific

information necessary for emergency managers to make informed decisions during

disasters. This study addressed the gap in the literature regarding emergency managers’

perspectives on social media and its potential to facilitate acquisition of situational

awareness during disasters.

This chapter contains the results of the qualitative explanatory case study

conducted to answer the following research questions:

RQ1: What are emergency managers’ perspectives of social media as a tool for

obtaining situational awareness during disasters?

RQ2: How does disaster-specific information required by emergency managers

improve the ability to make informed decisions?

RQ3: How, if at all, does social media provide the information that emergency

managers need during disasters?

This chapter includes the research setting and demographics of the participants and the

guidelines for data collection and analysis. The chapter also addresses the

trustworthiness, results, and summary of the findings.

Research Setting

Participants for this study were emergency managers who belong to an emergency

management professional organization. The emergency management professional

organization agreed to send out a recruitment email to its members on my behalf.

Individuals had to meet specific criteria, including a minimum of 5 years of work

experience in the emergency management field or either a CEM or state-sponsored

emergency management certification. Individuals interested in participating in the study

contacted me for additional information. Data were collected from participants through

semistructured interviews.

The interviews were conducted over the telephone. Participants provided me with

a date, time, and phone number for each interview. Interviews conducted over the phone

gave the participants the ability to choose time and location, which promoted the

participants' in-depth sharing of experiences and perspectives. Although face-to-face

interviews would have provided me with nonverbal social cues, I used participants' tones

and voice inflection for obtaining social cues when analyzing the data. The interview

questions came from a self-developed interview guide that consisted of semistructured,

open-ended, follow-up, and demographic questions and took 30-60 minutes to complete.

Demographics

I interviewed 11 participants for this study. The participants included seven (64%)

males and four (36%) females whose ages were one (9%) 21-30, three (27%) 31-40, four

(37%) 41-50, one (9%) 51-60, and two (18%) 61-70. The level of education among the

participants varied; one (9%) had a doctorate, six (55%) had a master’s, three (27%) had

a bachelor’s, and one (9%) had no degree.

The total years of experience in the emergency management field varied among

the 11 participants. Participants with 25 or more years of experience represented 9% of

the sample size. Participants with 11-20 years of experience represented 36%, those with

6-10 years of experience represented 46%, and one (9%) had less than 5 years of

experience. All participants had experience working in the EOC for disasters that

included natural and human-caused disasters. The demographics of the participants are

displayed in Table 1.

Table 1

Participant Demographics

Demographic

Category

Number

Gender

Male

Female 4

Age

21-30

31-40 3

31-50 4

51-60 1

61-70 2

Level of education

Doctorate

Master’s 6

Bachelor’s 3

No degree 1

Years of experience

5 years or fewer

6-10 years 5

11-20 years 4

25 years or more 1

Data Collection

After Walden University’s IRB approval was granted, I recruited participants and

collected data from 11 participants who met the inclusion criteria. The primary source of

data collection was 11 in-depth, semistructured interviews with individuals who were

emergency management professionals. Members of the professional emergency

management organization interested in participating in this study contacted me via email

to schedule individual interviews. Before the interview, all participants reviewed the

informed consent form and consented to participate in the study. I conducted in-depth,

semistructured telephone interviews for each participant using a self-developed interview

guide. At the time of the interview, I called the participant with the number provided by

the participant. Before the start of the interview, each participant consented to the

interview to be recorded. The interviews were recorded through the use of a digital

recorder. The length of the interview was 30 to 60 minutes. The interviews were

conducted over 4 weeks. There was no deviation from the data collection plan presented

in Chapter 3. Additionally, there were no unusual circumstances in the data collection

process.

Data Analysis

After each interview was conducted, I used NVivo Transcription to perform a

verbatim transcription of the data. I then compared the transcript with the audio-recorded

interview to ensure accuracy and to become engaged with the data. According to

Nasheeda, Abdullah, Krauss, and Ahmend (2019) a researcher becomes familiarized with

the data by listening to the audio recording of the interview and reading the transcript

multiple times. After I transcribed the interviews, I imported them into a Word document

to create a data set. A data set consists of data that helps the researcher answer the

research question identified within a study (Zahle, 2020). The data set was uploaded into

NVivo, where I coded by interview questions, case, and participants. Table 2 includes

each interview question.

I used thematic analysis to analyze the data. There were six steps in the thematic

analysis process. The first step required that I read and reread the interview transcripts to

become familiarized with the data before coding them.

The coding process began when I conducted a cross-case analysis seeking

commonalities in participants’ responses. A cross-case analysis is used in a case study to

identify comparisons of commonalities (Khan & VanWynsberghe, 2008; Ryan, 2012).

From the raw data, I used open coding to identify initial codes. I identified phrases and

sentences, which I labeled with a meaningful topic and placed them into parent and child

nodes in NVivo, which became subthemes. I identified five themes and provided a

definition for each theme. I compared the themes against the data to ensure that I

captured the meaningful aspects of the data.

There were five themes identified: (a) informed decision, (b) situational

awareness, (c) emergency operations center, (d) social media, and (e) training. Informed

decision is the disaster-specific information that emergency managers take into

consideration when making decisions. Situational awareness is the ability to identify,

process, and comprehend critical information during a disaster. Emergency operations

center is its role during disaster response and the coordination and data analysis process

Table 2

Interview Questions

Number Question

Q1 What is your sex?

Q2 What is your age?

Q3 What is your highest level of education?

Q4 How many years of experience do you have working in the emergency

management field?

Q5 What is your current position and title? What does that entail?

Q6 Do you have experience working in an emergency operations center (EOC)?

Q7 How many times have you worked in an EOC?

Q8 What type of disasters?

Q9 What position did you have in the EOC? What did that entail?

Q10 How does your department use social media during disasters and in what capacity?

Why or why not?

Q11 What policies and procedures does your department have for the use of social

media during disasters? Can you tell me about them?

Q12 How would you define situational awareness as it relates to disasters? Why is

situational awareness important to emergency managers during disasters?

Q13 What specific information can be gleaned from social media to help improve

situational awareness?

Q14 What type of disaster-specific information factor into your emergency manager

decision-making process? Why are these types of disaster-specific information

critical to the decision-making process?

Q15 How does your department’s current situational awareness strategies during

disasters enhance response operations? How are your department’s situational

awareness strategies different when there are disasters in which an on-scene

incident command is utilized?

Q16 What do you think of the sufficiency of your department’s current situational

awareness strategies for obtaining information during a disaster?

Q17 If your department’s standard operating protocol for obtaining situational

awareness becomes unavailable, how does your department gather disaster-specific

information?

Q18 In the EOC, what specific positions are responsible for obtaining situational

awareness?

Q19 What are your department’s processes for analyzing and validating the information

you receive?

Q20 How, if at all, does social media access improve the quality of information that

emergency managers need during disasters to make informed decisions?

Q21 What disaster specific information could emergency managers access using social

media during disasters?

Q22 How does your department analyze and validate information data-mined from

social media?

Q23 How does the information about situational awareness accessed from social media

compared to the traditional method of fact-gathering information that your

department gets through its standard methods of obtaining situational awareness?

Q24 What kind of skills, knowledge, and training would help emergency managers to

utilize social media for situational awareness during disasters?

of the information received during a disaster. Social media is the issue with and its role

during a disaster. Training is the available training for emergency managers and the type

of courses emergency managers would like to have available. According to Saldaña

(2016), the second coding cycle occurs when similar codes are grouped to create themes.

I identified 16 subthemes. There were no discrepant cases. Table 3 details the themes and

subthemes for emergency managers’ perspectives on social media use as a tool for

situational awareness during disasters.

Evidence of Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness of the research study is important. Trustworthiness was developed

at the start of the study and was maintained throughout the study. There are four

requirements associated with trustworthiness: credibility, transferability, dependability,

and confirmability. Credibility was established through the process of reflexivity, member

checking, and peer examination. I kept a reflective journal in which I documented and

validated my decision-making process regarding the research design and methodology,

sampling size, and the data analysis process. I also used peer debriefing to validate the

findings and interpretation of the data results.

Transferability of this study was established from the beginning by including a

detailed description of the research process. I documented the research purpose,

methodology, and process for data collection and analysis. I used purposive sampling to

ensure participants provided relevant, valuable, and adequate information regarding the

phenomenon. Dependability was established when I provided descriptive-rich data to

explain the phenomenon and ensure the consistency and replication of the results. I Table

Summary of Themes and Subthemes

Themes

Subthemes

Description Sources

(data sets)

References

Informed decision Response

priorities

The focus of response

operations

1 9

Disaster updates Information from response

personnel to assess the

effectiveness of response efforts

1 19

Resources Identifying resource gaps and

requesting necessary resources

1 10

Situational

awareness

Importance Updated information aids in the

decision-making process

1 16

Perception The difference between

perceptions of first responders

and personnel working in the

EOC

1 10

Common

operating picture

Obtaining a common operating

picture helps to determine

objectives and future actions

1 13

Sources Who is responsible for

providing disaster information

1 15

Emergency

operations center

Coordination Ability to get information from

response partners

1 20

Data analysis Use of trusted sources to

validate the information

1 15

Role EOC impacts the effectiveness

of the response operations

1 19

Social media Policies Current use of social media by

emergency managers

1 11

Strategic role Ways social media could help

enhance disaster response

operations

1 16

Concerns Lack of social media

implementation in disaster

response operations

1 16

Perception Conflicting reports of disaster

effectiveness and what the

public posts

1 18

Training Courses Training available for

emergency managers

1 7

Gaps Topics in which there are no

training currently available

1 14

maintained an audit trail in my reflective journal, which documented the steps I took

during the study. Confirmability was established when I ensured the results were from the

participants without researcher bias by spending a considerable amount of time during the

interviews to document in detail the participants' experiences.

Study Results

Informed Decision

Informed decision is an umbrella term used for this dissertation to describe the

issues primarily related to emergency managers’ decision-making process for disaster

response operations. Although emergency managers would like to have the most current

situational awareness information for a disaster to make informed decisions, there are

times when emergency managers must make decisions based on little to no

disasterspecific information. Therefore, to make informed decisions, emergency

managers require disaster-specific information. There were four subthemes assigned to

the umbrella term of informed decision (see Figure 5).

Response priorities. Response priorities refer to the focus of the first responders

and emergency managers during disaster response. One participant mentioned that

response priorities include “Life safety, protection of property, and the environment.”

Disasters, depending on the severity, have the potential of causing catastrophic impacts

on a locality. When a disaster happens, the first 12 to 24 hours of the response operation

is critical, as are the response priorities. One participant said, “We will look at the hours

as critical for life safety because if we can’t get in there to rescue them, they may lose

their lives or their family’s whole life.” Another participant said, “We want to save as

Figure 5. Informed decision code. many lives as we can, as much property as we can in

the most appropriate, effective, and efficient manner.”

Disaster updates. Emergency managers identified that in many cases, the only

information provided is the reports from first responders. Because emergency managers

work from the EOC, they do not have the opportunity to see firsthand what is occurring at

the disaster site. Any disaster update from first responders is important when developing

and updating response plans and strategies. One participant said, “The type of

information coming in from the disaster, that is the data you’re putting together for your

objectives for the Incident Action Plan.”

Emergency Managers share the disaster updates with senior officials and why this

is important for the public to see that the government is reacting to the latest disaster

update. One participant said, “Showing people there are leadership in place that decisions

are being made at the highest level and that there is a continuity of operations with what

we are doing.” Another participant said, “It’s a decision tool for senior leadership to make

the most informed decision.”

Resources. Emergency managers have identified that resources, such as

availability and requests, are also considered when making informed decisions.

Responding to disasters is the responsibility of the locality. First responders provide

emergency managers with current resource status. One participant provided in detail why

resource status is an important element when making informed decisions. “Part of the

strategy in the incident command element in the situation is if there are insufficient

resources. Incident command has to change their strategies and objectives based on

resource availability.” Other participants provided a further explanation of why

information about resources is important to emergency managers. One participant said,

“It allows you to direct resources that may be needed in areas that need more than

others.” Another participant said, “You need information on what resources you have

available, what resources the region has available, and what resources the state has

available.”

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is an umbrella term to describe the ability to identify,

process, and comprehend critical information during a disaster. Emergency managers

identified the need to obtain continuous situational awareness reports, which provides

emergency managers with an understanding of the disaster. There were four subthemes

assigned to the umbrella term of situational awareness (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Situational awareness.

Importance. Importance refers to the reason why emergency managers need

continual updated situational awareness reports during a disaster. Emergency managers

use the information provided to know the type of disaster, population impacted, location,

and what resources might be needed. One participant said, “Well, the short answer is if

you don’t have situational awareness, first of all, you don’t know what is going on, and

then you don’t have any way to determine what might go on.” Another participant said,

“It’s huge because if we don’t know what’s going on or know the magnitude of what’s

going on, we’re operating in a vacuum.” According to another participant, “Specific

information is extremely important in the decision-making process to actually make

good, sound and justified decisions.”

One participant shared why situational awareness is important in the

decisionmaking process.

I cannot make an accurate or solid decision if I don’t understand how my

residents and my community is being impacted. So the more awareness that I can

have on what’s going on in all of my neighborhoods, the better and the more

confident I feel and being able to make a decision whether or not that’s a decision

for them, an evacuation or resource decision like relaying the need for public

safety, resources or other resources needs.

Perception. Emergency Managers rely on situational awareness from first

responders, emergency managers, and the public. However, the situational awareness

provided to the emergency managers contains different perceptions of the disaster.

Gathering multiple situational awareness reports provides emergency managers with

information directly from the disaster site from the perspective of the response personnel

and the public perception of the disaster response efforts. One participant said, “So

having that information available at the EOC level gives us the ability to make future

decisions while those that are on the ground are making the immediate decisions and

asking for resources they need right now.” Another participant mentioned that

understanding what the public is thinking is also important to emergency managers said,

“How the public is seeing the government response and the effect of the disaster.”

Common operating picture. Common operating picture is real time situational

awareness among disaster response personnel. Emergency managers have identified that

obtaining situational awareness is one way of maintaining a common operating picture

among disaster response personnel, ensuring continual coordination during the disaster.

Emergency managers continually seek information to maintain a common operating

picture. One participant said, “We’re trying to take in information, so you get that

operating picture to get that situational awareness.” Another participant elaborated even

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further said, “We would just work with whatever the command structure is being used at

the scene. Try to gather information from them as well as sharing situational awareness

information with them.” Another participant said, “So we do have regional personnel who

work with the localities as a first response to the localities, and then those regional teams

have direct access to us.”

One participant mentioned that the use of field observers to maintain a common

operating picture between the EOC and the response personnel:

We will send out field observers that work for a situation to gather the truth. They

work very closely with our resource unit, safety, and ops to make sure that those

in the command post or EOC bring factual information, everything from numbers

of resources and types of resources.

Sources. Emergency Managers in the EOC rely on integrating multiple sources to

obtain situational awareness for coordination efforts. These sources provide specific

information that emergency managers share with other response personnel. The more

information obtained from multiple trusted sources, the better information emergency

managers have to contribute to the disaster response efforts. One participant said,

“They’re telling us what the public is experiencing through the goals or their own

employees.” Another participant said, “Then I will have to go out and request information

from different entities whether we establish the physical EOC or go to the dispatch center,

which I have access to, getting the dispatcher to determine what and where the calls are

coming in and what types of calls and what field units are reporting back.”

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Another participant explained why trusted sources are important when seeking

information.

So, it’s really important to vet your information. And so, for instance, things that

come out with the media or from our PR or things that are more official, we consider

those more vetted obviously with the media and with reports and stuff like that.

Emergency Operations Center

Emergency operations center is an umbrella term to describe its role during

disaster response and the coordination and data analysis process of the information

received during a disaster. The emergency operations center is a physical location where

emergency managers and staff work together to support disaster response efforts. There

are three subthemes assigned to the umbrella term of emergency operations center (see

Figure 7).

Figure 7. Emergency operations center.

Coordination. Emergency managers are responsible for coordinating disaster

response operations between local and state agencies. Emergency managers are not

responsible for responding to the disaster; instead, emergency managers work with all

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internal and external response personnel to coordinate the response operations by

providing responders with the resources needed for disaster operations without interfering

with the response. One participant said, “Everything that’s going on here supports what’s

going on out in the field without interfering. And I think that is the biggest challenge

because you usually have quite a lot of type a personality who doesn’t want to be

interfered with, if they ask for it, they want it.”

One participant felt that better communications could enhance coordination. One

of the things I think that needs improvement in the emergency operations center is

definitely communications and making sure the reason why we follow the chain

of command is because that way, everyone’s in the loop that needs to know what’s

going on.

Another participant mentioned why coordination was important for future

planning efforts.

It’s important for us to continue to partner with different agencies that have

agencies that have access to the information so that we gather that information

and shift through what is pertaining to the incident. We’re always looking ahead

of the incident; our planning is typically 12 hours ahead.

Data analysis. Data analysis is an important component of the function of

emergency managers and staff working in the EOC. When disaster-specific information is

received from sources, the information needs to be vetted and analyzed to determine if

the information is accurate. Data analysis is important when seeking to verify the

information received in the EOC. One participant said, “So with information, any and all

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information can be good, it can be fed. It depends on how it’s interpreted and read.”

Another participant spoke about reading the data to identify false information.

There’s all sorts of information that is false information out there. So, you can

kind of have to weed through what’s real, what’s not real, and make the decision. And

that takes experience, and it takes time.

Emergency managers rely on staff to do the data analysis of the information

received from sources. One participant said:

So, I use a multitude of people to double-check. I also know my team that I know

who is very detailed oriented. I know who can look at numbers consistently and

maintain patterns of change. I would utilize those people to really dig in to make

sure that the numbers are coming outright.

Another participant went into further detail on the data vetting process: We will

typically bring that information back in to get it presented to our command staff.

We’ll see what information we can, you know, what we can vet through that if

it’s something that we got multiple news sites reporting this information. Or is

this just a person on Facebook reporting this information? And then from there,

it’s really our validating process. We’ll go to, you know, what agencies can we

communicate with, and we get law enforcement involved to validate.

Role. The role of the EOC was identified as an important element of the disaster

response efforts. The staff working in the EOC is responsible for information flow and

communicating it with response partners.

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All pieces and parts of the EOC are required to have situational awareness.

Divisions within the US are going to be different. Different types of information,

different information from different sources. It goes back to making sure we

communicate because there are so many different types of situational awareness

and information coming in.

One participant elaborated on how the staff in various positions within the EOC

work together said, “You may have operations in the EOC communicating with

operations in the field, but the situation unit really needs to be on top of the situation.”

Another person provided more information on the situation unit said, “The situation unit,

which is our dispatch, will be running operations and information sometimes through that

scenario.” While another participant believed that everyone in the EOC plays a vital role

during the disaster response said, “Everybody in the EOC will be able to get situational

awareness through their chain of command or through standard communications.”

Social Media

Social media is an umbrella term to describe specific issues, concerns, and

limitations that prevent emergency managers from using social media during disasters.

This theme recognizes the difference in perception of social media from the public and

emergency managers and potential roles in which social media could aid in the disaster

response efforts. There were four subthemes assigned to this theme (see Figure 8).

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Figure 8. Social media.

Policies. Emergency managers mentioned that social media usage is determined

based on either the policy of the locality or the Office of Public Affairs (OPA). The

policies provided explicit detail on who, when, and how local officials could utilize social

media.

Some localities did not have a policy specifically for social media.

We do not have any direct at this particular point policies or procedures. It is done

as a cooperative, you know, discuss things or just simply goes directly to the

information that is passed along from, say, the state or weather service or things

of that nature.

Another participant said, “When I was a local, I did not have a social media policy

since I was the only person in the department.” One participant mentioned having a social

media policy. “They had a couple of rules for using social media officially. We have a

general order or whatever that kind of spells it out. But to me, it seems loosely defined.”

Another participant explained how the policy for social media provided indepth

instruction for emergency management.

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We actually have a social media policy that is driven by OPA. They have some

direct rules because they’re actually the managers for all of the accounts. So, for

me to run my social media account as an emergency manager. I am directed kind

of under their guidance, and so I have to take a certain training. I have to do the

approval process to be able to even post on the emergency management account,

and so they have all of that already lined up for us. We do have record retention,

which is a big deal. So, they actually have it set up as a county to retain all of our

posts, comments, and private messaging. So, in the event that someone was to

want to do a public information request, we would have that, but that would all go

through OPA. They also have policies on deleting comments. We have a whole

procedure on reviewing it if there is a comment that might not be appropriate. We

have a policy where we send that to OPA, they say yes that’s good or know what’s

bad, and then we make the decision on that from a legal standpoint.

Strategic role. Emergency managers mentioned using social media to provide

preparedness information or immediate actions that would aid the public. However, the

use of social media during disasters is inconsistent. Emergency managers mentioned that

social media could have a strategic role during disasters. Several participants provided

examples of when it would aid with disaster response efforts.

A lot of trends come from it, such as help requests, equipment requests, you

know, photos. You know you can track if a tornado runs through you can see the

track of where the tornado comes through by where pictures are taken. You can

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get a quick view of devastation before you can actually get on the ground so you

can get an idea of what resources may need to go in there.

Another participant believed that social media is useful for getting real time

situational awareness information.

You’re getting real time reports from them as soon as they are posted. So that kind

of helps speeds up some of your situational awareness. So, I think that social

media adds a faster way to get situational awareness, which in my head, gives us a

faster ability actually to pump out resources. In another way that it differs is I

think it adds a level of closeness and relationship building with our community

and our residents.

Another participant mentioned how having social media changes how first

responders react to a disaster.

When I was living in Florida in the 2004 timeframe, I went through three

hurricanes as a firefighter, and we didn’t have social media to really track. As

soon as the storm was finished, we jump into the fire engine and start heading in

that direction, basically street by street. Driving up and driving down to see what

the damage was and start doing the address, letting headquarters know the

different addresses and damage lines down and the trees down where we could

get to where we could not. But, nowadays, I mean, there are different programs

out there that’ll sit there and say ok. We have damage here, here, and here. We can

start building on those trends and start heading towards those areas. Because

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social media is such a high use item now and it helps us to build the, you know, it

helps us to respond faster to those different events versus going street by street.

Concerns. Emergency managers identified there are areas of concern with social

media. These concerns are the reasons why emergency managers are hesitant to

incorporate social media into disaster response operations. One participant said, “The

difference is social media is quick and immediate. But at the same time, it is unfiltered

and validated. It is quick. However, it is also steeped very deeply in emotion.”

Emergency managers mentioned that the process for analyzing and validating the

data on social media is also a concern.

How quickly can I validate it? Because information is great, but I still have to

make sure it’s valid information before I can act on it. So, I don’t think it’s

helpful, but I think it also has some limitations in that unless your people are

specifically reporting on it.

Another participant explained why the information on social media would not be

beneficial to emergency managers.

So, see, the social media we know is subjective, and it’s very hard during an

emergency to find objective information. We consider objective information to be

credible sources like the weather service or people that we know are going to

report out the best they have. Social media is subjective, meaning it is somebody's

perception. A lot of times, it’s an opinion, and it hasn’t been vetted. It’s not

necessarily credible.

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Perception. The public and emergency managers use social media for different

reasons. Emergency managers are more likely to use social media to provide

preparedness information to the public. One participant said, “We use it primarily to

communicate with our community to let them know what we’re doing, what things they

need to be aware of the prepared information.” Another participant said, “I think it’s also

helpful for us to utilize that information to get people to be prepared, even if it’s during

an actual event.” Several emergency managers mentioned that the public post on social

media provides first responders with a different perspective of the disaster response

operations.

The thing is, it helps in gathering what the public perceptions are. First of all, the

way things are now, people do not keep secrets anymore. So, they post what they

think and feel, and that assists with rumor control, and that’s how rumors get

started, and if you don’t address them quickly and definitively, then obviously,

they become people’s realities. Social media is a good way to get information out,

and however, it is good to get information in.

Social media post from the public includes pictures of the disaster, which is

helpful to emergency managers. One participant said, “You can see where people are

posting pictures of what areas you get, you can get a good feel of the extent of the

flooding.”

Training

Training is an umbrella term to describe specific training available for emergency

managers and the type of courses emergency managers would like to have available.

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Emergency managers rely on training to obtain specific knowledge and skills to support

disaster response effects effectively. Emergency managers also identified some aspects of

training that were missing. There were two subthemes assigned to the umbrella term of

training (see Figure 9).

Figure 9. Training.

Courses. Courses refer to the training emergency managers attended. There are

courses offered at the federal, state, or local level in which the instructors are considered

subject matter experts on the course topic. Many emergency managers mentioned taking

a PIO course, which provided them with some knowledge of social media. One

participant said, “There is a basic, intermediate, advanced PIO course we offer. And that’s

one of the classes that addressed using social media. Obviously, the advanced has a little

more into it.” Another participant mentioned taking online courses offered FEMA, “There

is from FEMA independent study site. I know because I’ve taken them two threehour

courses online on using social media in emergency situations.” Another participant

mentioned taking a course on social media. But it was so long ago that the training is

outdated with the current capability of social media. “I know years ago; I took a class on

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social media in disasters. It was a great class, so much of what I learned there doesn’t

apply to the way social media is used now.”

Gaps. Emergency managers identified gaps in training as an issue that still needs

to be addressed, especially in terms of situational awareness and social media. Gaps in

training prevent emergency managers from staying current with new trends and emerging

capabilities within the emergency management field. Unaddressed gaps in training were

identified as challenges that emergency managers face when integrating social media into

response operations.

I think the biggest thing is having people that are lack of a better term illiterate

using technology and using social media and not just Facebook or not just Twitter,

but all of them. That could be a challenge because a lot of it is generational. Older

folks are now comfortable with Facebook. Younger people are using Snapchat and

Instagram, and Twitter. So, for me is you have to have people that understand the

system and also understand all the other systems are traditional systems. How to

interface with the other people in the EOC, the situation unit leader, or the

planning section and operations, all of that is understanding how it works and

where they sit.

Another participant explained why experience with social media is important for

emergency managers to possess. “I would love to see a comparison between Instagram,

Facebook, Twitter, and what is the common trends, who are using them, what information

can be shared, and can’t be shared.” One participant mentioned that just knowing the

difference between the social media platforms would be helpful said, “I think for

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emergency managers if we could get access to those same types of platforms and learn

how to monitor certain things. I think that would be really really helpful.”

Summary

This chapter contained the results of the analysis, connected the analysis back to

the research questions, and demonstrated the consistency of the thematic analysis with the

qualitative explanatory case study methodology. I interviewed 11 participants for this

qualitative explanatory case study. I used a self-developed interview guide to understand

emergency managers’ perspectives of the use of social media and its role in obtaining

situational awareness and provide the disaster-specific information necessary for

emergency managers to make informed decisions during disasters.

For this qualitative explanatory case study, there were three levels of analysis,

which consisted of cross-interview, opening coding, and thematic. One hundred fortyfour

codes emerged from open coding. I conducted a cross-interview analysis to identify

commonalities among the participants’ responses. I used NVivo to group codes into

emerging categories and then into 16 subthemes. From the subthemes, I identified five

themes that resulted from this study summarized emergency managers’ perspectives on

social media use for situational awareness during disasters: (a) informed decisions, (b)

situational awareness, (c) emergency operations center, (d) social media, and (e) training.

Chapter 5 explores emergency managers’ perspectives on the use of social media

as a tool to obtain situational awareness during disasters. I analyze and interpret the

findings, compare the data with the information presented in Chapter 2, and

recommendations based on the information provided by the participants.

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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations The purpose

of this qualitative explanatory case study was to obtain the perspective of emergency

managers regarding the use of social media as a tool for situational awareness during

disasters. I used the explanatory case study design to explain a phenomenon and identify

common patterns and themes from the participants’ perspective (Yin, 2018). The

interview questions provided detail on current situational awareness strategies, uses for

social media, reasons why emergency managers are slow to adopt social media into

disaster response operations, and training gaps. I used a selfdeveloped interview guide to

obtained qualitative data through in-depth, semistructured individual interviews.

The results of the data from 11 emergency managers supported previous research

(Eismann et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al., 2015) that barriers prevent

emergency managers from utilizing social media during disasters. However, the results of

the study also indicated current situational awareness strategies emergency managers use

during disasters, which were not identified in previous research (see Eismann et al., 2018;

Luna & Pennock, 2018; Martínez-Rojas et al., 2018; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et

al., Takeda et al., 2017). The theoretical frameworks were confirmed in the results, which

indicated emergency managers rely on updated information gathered from the disaster

site in situational awareness reports and conduct thorough data analysis and validation of

the information based on knowledge and experience to make informed decisions to

protect lives, property, and the environment. During certain disasters, emergency

managers mentioned using social media to determine damages and resource needs. The

results of the study provided an opportunity to understand emergency managers’

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perspectives regarding the use of social media for situational awareness during disasters.

The emergency managers participating in this study were familiar with current situational

awareness strategies used by response personnel working in the field and the EOC. The

participants’ knowledge and experience added to the existing literature regarding the use

of social media by emergency managers. The results of the study provided new

perspectives on how emergency managers see social media’s role during disasters, current

situational awareness strategies, and disaster-specific information needed to make

informed decisions.

Summary of Key Findings

The key findings from the study revealed five themes that describe the

perspectives of emergency managers regarding social media and its usefulness as a tool

for obtaining situational awareness during disasters. The five themes included informed

decisions, situational awareness, emergency operations center, social media, and training.

These five themes were used to develop an analysis of the findings on the disasterspecific

information emergency managers need to make informed decisions and whether social

media is a tool that could provide the information emergency managers need during

disasters.

Interpretation of the Findings

Informed Decision

Emergency managers rely on disaster-specific information to make informed

decisions. The first 72 hours of a disaster is critical to the disaster response efforts. The

disaster-specific information emergency managers seek immediately following a disaster

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includes how the disaster impacts the locality, why the disaster occurred, who is involved,

when the disaster happened, where the disaster occurred, and what resources are needed

that would aid in disaster response operations. Answers to these questions allow

emergency managers to make informed decisions based on response priorities.

Emergency managers’ response priorities during disasters are the protection of lives,

property, and the environment, which was identified by Eismann et al. (2018) as

information needed to understand the data emergency managers could obtain from social

media. To ensure response priorities are met, emergency managers rely on continual

updates from first responders and other response personnel. Takeda et al. (2017)

identified how essential it is for emergency managers to have disaster updates to

minimize the impacts of the disaster on the community. The disaster updates help

emergency managers understand what is happening for the decision-making process

among government officials and request resources that aid first responders and the public.

Emergency managers identified the need for disaster-specific information and

how important it is for the decision-making process. However, when emergency

managers do not have disaster-specific information, several issues arise. The issues

include resources needed by response personnel go unmet, duplication of efforts, the

safety of responders and the public are at risk, and an overall less effective disaster

response operation. Roslan et al. (2019) identified these issues when there are several

agencies involved. Consistent with findings from previous studies (Curnin et al., 2015;

Jensen & Thompson, 2016; Roslan et al., 2019) my study’s findings indicated that

emergency managers rely on updated disaster-specific information to make informed

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decisions regarding response priorities and resources needs during disasters. Aligned with

the situational awareness model (Endsley, 2019) emergency managers have developed

processes and procedures in which disaster updates are utilized during the

decisionmaking process that meets response priorities and resource needs.

Situational Awareness

One of the important aspects of disaster response operations identified by the

emergency managers was maintaining situational awareness throughout the disaster for a

common operating picture among disaster response personnel. Response personnel

operating from the disaster site provide emergency managers and staff working in the

EOC with disaster-specific information in situational awareness updates. The response

personnel’s background, knowledge, perspectives, and experience will vary. However,

continual information sharing and coordination between the disaster site and the EOC are

essential for developing and maintaining a common operating picture. Similar to findings

of Sophronides et al. (2017) and Waring et al. (2018) the common operating picture is

important among response personnel because it allows the responders located at the

disaster site and the EOC staff to coordinate, set priorities, and determine the

effectiveness of the response operation.

Emergency managers in the current study noted there are information silos when

the lines of communication are disrupted. Information silos prevent the sharing of

disaster-specific information and hinder the coordination among response personnel. The

situational awareness information provided by first responders and other response

personnel allows emergency managers to see the disaster from different perspectives.

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Emergency managers rely on situational awareness reports when developing planning

objectives and operational strategies (Reynold et al., 2017; Roslan et al., 2019). Without

having the most updated situational awareness, emergency managers identified that their

planning efforts are negatively impacted. Waring et al. (2018) noted the importance of

situational awareness when working as a team for an effective response. Emergency

managers in the current study mentioned using the aid of other sources when situational

awareness updates are not available.

Emergency managers’ strategy for obtaining situational awareness consisted of

sending personnel to the disaster site as a liaison between the incident commander and

the EOC staff. In addition, emergency managers assign field staff in strategic locations to

provide situational awareness updates to the EOC. Curnin et al. (2015) identified the use

of the liaison officer within ICS to gather and share situational awareness information

among the response personnel at the disaster site and the EOC. However, this is not the

standard role of the liaison officer within the ICS structure during a large disaster, which

is to communicate with agencies in support of the disaster response. The findings from

the current study are inconsistent with previous studies, which emphasized the

importance of relying on the ICS to gather situational awareness (Curnin et al., 2015;

Roslan et al., 2019). Emergency managers in the current study mentioned using trusted

sources such as field observers, regional staff, and response agency representatives to

obtain additional disaster-specific information.

One surprising finding in my study was that emergency managers did not identify

the use of social media as a source for obtaining situational awareness information.

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Although the public uses social media for seeking, posting, and sharing disaster-specific

information (Eismann et al., 2018; Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018; Tapia & Moore,

2014), emergency managers expressed concerns related to using social media. The first

concern was verifying the information on social media. Emergency managers did not

want to use information that had not been analyzed or validated. Using information that

had not been analyzed or validated may put the first responders and public lives at risk.

There was a trust concern regarding the source. Emergency managers mentioned that the

source for the information was important when using the data found on social media.

Emergency managers reported that unless the information comes from trusted sources

through normal communications methods, it is not considered trustworthy. Analysis of

the data found on social media is another concern for emergency managers. Emergency

managers mentioned that a data-mining process for social media does not exist because

emergency managers are unfamiliar with how to conduct data analysis for the data from

social media.

The other concern that emergency managers mentioned was a large amount of

information available on social media. Emergency managers felt that during a large-scale

disaster, there are time constraints that prevent response personnel from utilizing social

media information for situational awareness. Consistent with findings from previous

studies (Eismann et al., 2018; Haataja et al., 2016; Plotnick & Hiltz, 2016; Plotnick et al.,

2015; Wukich, 2015), my study’s conclusions indicated that situational awareness is

important to emergency managers for an effective disaster response operation.

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Emergency managers reported that they prefer to use trusted sources rather than social

media to obtain situational awareness for evolving disasters.

Emergency Operations Center

The EOC is a physical location where emergency managers coordinate disaster

response efforts with first responders located at the disaster site and other internal and

external stakeholders. Disaster response operations are continually evolving. The primary

role of the EOC is coordination between the incident commander and the emergency

manager. Coordination is necessary for maintaining situational awareness of the disaster

response status, which directly impacts the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the

disaster response operations. Emergency managers identified an issue with

communications between response personnel and the personnel working in the EOC as an

aspect of the response operations requiring continual improvement. Without consistent

communication between responders and the chain of command, the coordination process

is negatively impacted (Roslan et al., 2019; Stambler & Barbara, 2015). Consistent with

findings from previous studies (Curnin et al., 2015; Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018;

Roslan et al., 2019), my study’s findings indicated the importance of continuous

communication between the response personnel located at the disaster site and the EOC

personnel. Aligned with the situational awareness model (Endsley, 2019) and the DIKW

hierarchy (Rowley, 2007; Yusof et al., 2018), emergency managers rely on continuous

communication to obtain situational awareness information to support the collaboration,

communication, and coordination of the disaster response efforts.

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The EOC is important to the disaster response efforts because it is where EOC

personnel gather documentation to track the effectiveness of the disaster response, and

also analyze, validate, and share situational awareness reports and disaster-specific

updates. The EOC personnel utilize the disaster-specific information when evaluating the

effectiveness of the disaster response and modify response strategies when developing

incident action plans for each disaster response operational period. The data analysis

process was not identified as an important role for the EOC in previous studies (Curnin et

al., 2015; Roslan et al., 2019). The data analysis process varied among emergency

managers. Some emergency managers relied on the planning section to conduct the data

analysis; some had staff assigned to a situational unit, separate from the planning section

staff. Other emergency managers mentioned using whatever positions were available for

data analysis. The results of my study are consistent with previous studies (Roslan et al.,

2019; Curnin et al., 2015). However, the data analysis process was not identified by

Roslan et al. (2019). My study emphasized the role of the EOC in the data analysis

process. The process of data analysis was consistent among emergency managers, which

consisted of gathering, compiling, reviewing, validating, and distributing the data.

Social Media

One of the noticeable difference in my study’s results compared to previous

research was the emphasis on social media and its role in disaster response versus the

emphasis on the ability of emergency managers to utilize social media during a large

catastrophic disaster, as previously discussed in the literature (Eismann et al., 2018; Hiltz,

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Kushma, & Plotnick, 2014: Pogrebnyakov & Maldonado, 2018). The ability of

emergency managers to utilize social media depended significantly on the policies set

forth by the locality. A few of the emergency managers mentioned having a policy

specifically for the use of social media. In contrast, the rest of the emergency managers

mentioned that a policy did not exist that discussed the use of social media.

Consistent with the findings of Plotnick and Hiltz (2016) emergency managers

that had a policy on social media were more likely to utilize social media to assess

damages, access real time disaster information, locations where the public needs

assistance, and anticipate resource needs. Emergency managers that did not have a policy

were less likely to use social media during a disaster except to provide the public with

preparedness information and immediate life-safety actions. My study’s results

emphasize the need for emergency managers to have a policy that includes the use of

social media during disasters. Policies provide emergency managers with guidance on

who, when, where, and how to utilize social media, which protects not only the

emergency managers but also the locality.

Emergency managers mentioned that there is a place within the disaster response

operations where social media would be beneficial to not only disaster response

personnel, but also the public. Emergency managers mentioned real time disaster

information was one benefit associated with social media, especially when the disaster

can potentially have large catastrophic impacts on the public and locality. Tornadoes and

flooding were the types of disasters in which emergency managers mentioned that social

media would have the most benefit to the disaster response efforts. However, emergency

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managers mentioned a hesitance to incorporate social media into current situational

awareness strategies. Emergency managers mentioned several concerns regarding social

media, such as the trustworthiness of the data obtained from social media, limited

staffing, and an overwhelming amount of data available on social media. The results of

my studies are consistent with the findings of Hiltz et al. (2014); Plotnick and Hiltz

(2016); and Plotnick et al. (2015) that emergency managers are slow to adopt social

media during disaster response operations. However, emergency managers mentioned

lacking a data analysis process that included social media information, which was not

identified in previous literature (Plotnick et al., 2015). Emergency managers felt a lack of

understanding regarding the information available on social media, the best method to

analyze and validate the information, and positions within the EOC that possessed the

appropriate training to gather and conduct a data analysis of the information from social

media.

Training

One of the noticeable difference in my study’s results compared to previous

research is the emphasis on training for emergency managers and disaster response

personnel versus the emphasis on limited guidance on incorporating social media into

disaster response operations as previously discussed in the literature (Plotnick & Hiltz,

2016; Plotnick et al., 2015). The availability of training from the federal or state

government regarding social media and data analysis is limited. Emergency managers

mentioned that social media is rapidly evolving based on the technology available.

Current social media training fails to address newer social media platforms or

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capabilities. As a result, emergency managers are slow to adopt social media into disaster

response operations for situational awareness. Emergency managers also mentioned that a

course specifically for emergency managers on incorporating social media into disaster

response operations and the data analysis process associated with situational awareness

would be beneficial.

Some emergency managers mentioned taking multiple PIO courses, which

addressed social media, but not all emergency managers had this training. Several

emergency managers mentioned taking a social media-specific course online from

FEMA, but the training was released in 2013 (FEMA, 2013) and contains outdated

information on social media. Some emergency managers felt that training for social

media should be the responsibility of the state emergency management agency and

updated regularly since the state already provides various emergency management

training. Therefore, as previously mentioned, social media training should be considered

when addressing emergency managers’ concerns with incorporating social media into

current situational awareness strategies.

Limitations of the Study

There were several identified potential limitations to the trustworthiness of the

study. The first limitation was the study’s methodology. Therefore, the results were

limited to the sample included in the study. While I still agree that a qualitative

explanatory case study was the appropriate methodology for my study, qualitative

research cannot be generalized.

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The second limitation was the small sample size. There were 11 participants

included in my study. According to Patton (2015) a sample size of 15 participants is

sufficient to reach data saturation. Even though I reached the desired sample size, the data

collection process took longer than expected due to the COVID-19, which directly

impacted emergency managers’ availability to participate in my study.

The third limitation was the self-developed interview guide I used for data

collection. I had subject matter experts vet the self-developed interview guide. However,

at the conclusion of the data collection, I felt I had too much data with some of the data

outside the perimeters of the focus of this study.

Recommendations

The findings brought up several instances as to why emergency managers are

slow to incorporate social media into disaster response operations and particularly to

utilize it to obtain situational awareness. Three key areas need further examination by

scholars. One area includes comparing social media policies to determine if emergency

managers were more likely to utilize social media during disaster response because a

policy exists. The second is an effective method to conduct data analysis of the

information obtained through social media. The third is the specific type of social media

training that would encourage emergency managers to incorporate social media into

current situational awareness strategies.

Plotnick and Hiltz (2016) suggested that emergency managers develop social

media policies that encourage emergency managers to utilize social media during

disasters. My study identified that this is still an area in which the emergency

125

management field is lacking. However, in the case where a social media policy existed,

emergency managers were more likely to use it during disaster response when assessing

damages, determining areas of flooding, and the impact of the disaster on the public.

Future studies should compare emergency management social media policies to identify a

position within the EOC to monitor social media posts, a list of specific social media

training required, and the role social media will have during disaster response. As

indicated by the participants, localities with social media policies were more likely to use

social media during disasters than emergency managers that did not have a social media

policy.

Data analysis is another area in which emergency managers mentioned was an

issue associated with the use of social media because of the large amount of data

available in real time. Emergency managers are comfortable conducting data analysis

with the information received from response personnel because a process exists that

allows emergency managers to gather, analyze, and validate the information. Eismann et

al. (2018) suggested that social media can provide emergency managers with digital

content that aids in the decision-making process. However, the process of data analysis of

the information available on social media does not currently exist. Future studies should

focus on the most effective method to conduct data analysis, including gathering,

analyzing, and validating the information obtained through social media.

Training is very important to the emergency management field. Emergency

managers felt a gap in training existed regarding social media platforms, capabilities, and

126

how to incorporate social media into disaster response efforts. There are several in-person

courses such as Public Information Officer and Situation Unit that discuss social media.

However, social media is not the main focus of the courses. Social media training was not

identified as a gap in previous literature for emergency managers. Currently, the only

FEMA course available online is IS 42: Social Media in Emergency Management,

released in 2013 and has not been updated since. Technology is constantly evolving, and

training regarding social media should reflect this. Training available on FEMA’s

Independent Study site should be reviewed and updated regularly for its content. Another

method of providing emergency managers with social media training is for the state

emergency management agency to develop a social media and technology course. The

social media course should include comparing the different social media platforms,

capabilities and limitations, and incorporating social media into all phases of emergency

management. Another option is for professional emergency management organizations to

provide social media presentations or training during annual meetings. Emergency

managers interested in learning more about social media would have the opportunity to

attend.

Implications

The results of my qualitative explanatory case study provided original

contributions to the emergency management field. The findings of my study may further

validate the perspectives of emergency managers on social media and its usefulness as a

tool for obtaining situational during a disaster. In addition, the findings may influence

social change by providing emergency managers with the knowledge and skills to

127

incorporate social media into disaster response operations, which will ensure that

emergency managers meet response priorities such as the protection of life, property, and

environment during a disaster. The combined components of my recommendations and

suggestions provided the resources and support for the study’s implication of social

change regarding the use of social media as a tool for situational awareness during

disasters by emergency managers.

Conclusion

Emergency managers are responsible for protecting lives, property, and the

environment during disasters. To accomplish this, emergency managers working in the

EOC collaborate, communicate, coordinate, and maintain situational awareness during

disaster response operations with first responders located at the disaster site and internal

and external stakeholders to make informed decisions. However, there are times in which

emergency managers are unable to obtain disaster-specific information from response

personnel. As a result, emergency managers are unable to maintain current situational

awareness. During disasters, the public turns to social media to stay informed, post, and

share information about the disaster. Social media is a tool that emergency managers have

to communicate with the public before and after a disaster. However, emergency

managers have been to slow to incorporate social media into disaster response operations

to obtain situational awareness during disasters. The purpose of my study established the

answers to the research questions concerning the perspective of emergency managers on

the use of social media and its role in obtaining situational awareness, as well as the

128

disaster-specific information needed for emergency managers to make informed

decisions.

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Emergency Managers Perspectives on Social Media Use for Situatio

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