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INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES: FEMALE NAVAL OFFICERS AND THE
INTERSECTION OF COMBAT ROLES AND CAREER ADVANCEMENT
Chapter 1: Introduction to Studies
In 2013, women were allowed to serve in combat roles for the first time after the
repeal of the exemption policy known as the Aspin Rule. This rule previously prohibited
women from engaging in direct combat roles (McNulty, 2012). Over time, military
demographics have continued to change, with women now accounting for 24.8% of the
Navy's officer corps in 2020 (U.S. Department of Defense, 2020), an increase of 4.8%
since 2018 (Council on Foreign Relations, 2018). However, few studies have highlighted
the perception of female officers in the Navy regarding the impact of these policy
changes on their recruitment, promotion, and retention processes. Given the ever-
evolving role of women in the military, it is crucial to understand how they have been
integrated into combat roles as well as their perceptions of careers in the military.
This study aims to explore the views of female officers in the Navy who have
served combat duty, especially regarding the impact of the revocation of the combat
exemption policy on their recruitment, retention, and promotion. With more and more
women serving their countries, it is important to analyze how they are integrated into the
Navy's combat role and how this new role is impacting their career journey.
The results of this study are expected to provide deeper insights into women's
unique experiences in the military, including gender-based challenges and stresses that
may arise from experiences in combat zones. The findings could provide important input
for policymakers to promote diversity and equity in the Navy.
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Chapter 1 of this study provides an overview of the approach used. This chapter
begins with the background of the issue, with a primary focus on a literature review
outlining the revocation of the combat exemption policy as well as its implementation in
the U.S. Navy. Next, a statement of the problem is presented to explain the importance,
relevance, and contribution of this research. The literature review also highlights the
relevance of this research to public policy and administration.
Chapter 1 covers the operational definitions of the key terms used in this research,
assumptions, scope, delimitations, limitations, significance of the research, and concludes
with a summary of the main points.
Background
With the repeal of the 1994 Combat Exemption Policy in 2013, women were
allowed to serve in combat positions in the military. The decision to repeal the ban was
seen as a victory by feminists who viewed ground fighting as a problem for women's
equal opportunities (Justi, 2017).
The integration of women first into the Navy and later into fleet operations forces
has been "an extended, slow, and controversial process influenced by institutional biases,
attitudes, and political and cultural trends" (Balano and Rosenberg, 2007, p. 6). For
women in the United States Navy, the repeal of the Aspin Rule represents an opportunity
to serve on most fighter aircraft and ships and increases the number of women eligible
for promotion (Jordon, 2003). This opportunity has led to women comprising the fastest-
growing segment of the U.S. military population, including 14.5% of all active-duty
military, 18% of all National Guard and Reserves, and 8% of the total veteran population
(Amara, 2020).
Organizational changes, leadership, and cultural changes in the military have
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contributed to the integration of women in the military. Cone (2016) examines this issue as a
necessity if women want to be integrated into combat situations without gender restrictions
(Cone, 2016). Ahern et al. (2015) explored the challenges and experiences of veteran
placement in combat tours in Iraq and Afghanistan and their transition from military to
civilian life which is important in providing a better understanding of the experiences of men
and women in the military.
U.S. Navy-specific research by Smith and Rosenstein (2014) showed gender
differences in career intent and influence by male and female counterparts while also
examining the retention of women in combat specialties and why retention is lower for
women than men. They found both men and women leaving the Navy because of the
impact of service in the Navy, which includes deployments and mobilizations, may
occur on families and separations, and include increased divorce rates (Smith &
Rosenstein, 2014). Meadows et al. (2016) looked at ways to improve retention of female
officers in the Navy and detailed factors that the military can use to improve retention of
female officers by encouraging female officers to overcome long-term separation fears
and to address the retention of other female officers.
Several researchers have studied the impact of historical military policy and
women's participation in the military and its impact on family roles, while cultural values
influence policy solutions to reconcile women's roles. Amara (2020) explores the
implications of women in combat and the status of women's integration, health, and
education in the military. Armey (2020) examined women serving in high-risk combat
jobs in Iraq and Afghanistan and the benefits of GI bills for higher education.
Kamarack (2016) reviewed the revocation of combat exemption and equivalent policies
Access to jobs provided in the military, based on qualifications and abilities, to men and
women for advancement and retention in the military. Soules (2020) reviewed the
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relationship between women's status and the lifting of restrictions on military combat
roles by conducting an analysis of women on the front lines in all countries, not just the
US Military or NATO countries.
Some well-documented cases focus on the interactions of military men and
women serving in combat positions in Afghanistan and Iraq before the repeal of the
exemption policy. These cases focus on problems in these interactions when women are
only allowed to function in combat support roles instead of fully integrated combat roles
(Erika & DiNitto, 2019). Since women were allowed to serve in combat support roles in
the U.S. Army, there has been a lot of research on the impact of integrating women into
military combat positions, especially during the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
MacLean (2018) presents an analysis of how race, status, and gender are associated with
those who served during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Lindstrom (2011) investigated
the effects of combat experience on female military members in the Iraq and Afghanistan
war zones and the impact of this experience on female veterans in the Army.
While the researchers focused on integrating women into combat roles, there was
little focus on understanding how changes in gender combat policy were perceived by female
officers assigned to combat positions in the U.S. Navy. Therefore, it is important to
understand how female naval officers have been integrated into the combat role of the navy
and understand how the repeal of the combat exemption policy has impacted their
recruitment, retention, and promotion in the military. A better understanding of women's
unique phenomena in situations such as combat experiences in war zones and their
perceptions can influence social work theory. This understanding can also be useful for
policymakers to improve conditions within the military as the number of women serving in
the armed forces continues to increase.
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Problem Statement
In December 2015, the Department of Defense (DoD) opened up all military-
wide combat-related positions to women despite revoking the Combat Exemption Policy
in 2013 (Kamarck, 2016). According to Harris and Gortney (2014), policies for full
gender integration are left to individual service branches with the Army implementing
women into combat support roles prior to the implementation of the Department of the
Navy.
Previous studies have focused on issues related to the role of women in combat
positions and how race, status, and gender affected those serving in the Army during the
wars in Iraq and Afghanistan (MacLean, 2018). Smith and Rosenstein (2014) report that
women make up 16% of all Navy officers, and the retention of women in combat
specialties is slower, compared to men. However, research studies have not focused on
understanding the relationship between the recruitment, retention, and promotion of
female naval officers due to the revocation of combat exemption policies. Little research
has focused on understanding female naval officers' perceptions of the revocation of
combat exemption policies on their careers.
This presents a significant gap in research that needs to be addressed in order to
develop an adequate response to this problem. The perception of female naval officers is
important to strengthen naval diversity and equality in the military. The U.S. Navy's
Chief of Operations in 2022, Adm. Mike Gilday, has stated that, "The U.S. Navy values
diversity, equity, and inclusion — striving to build a community of service members that
accurately reflects the rich makeup of our nation. Our belief is that with hard work and
determination, anyone, from anywhere, has the power to succeed in the Navy" (U.S.
Navy, 2021, para. 4).
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Study Objectives
This qualitative study aims to explore the phenomenon of female naval officers'
perception of the concept of revoking combat exclusion policies. As the number of
women has increased in the U.S. Navy, but the lagging retention, opinions, and
perceptions of how combat exclusion policies have affected the recruitment, retention,
and promotion of female naval officers in the military are important issues to understand.
Women's opinions, perceptions, and ideas are essential to strengthen naval
diversity and equity and impact policies to improve conditions within the military.
Renowned US feminist writer Cynthia Enloe has shown that gender analysis is necessary
to understand the motivations, costs, and consequences of military conflicts (Brooks et
al., 2012). It is very important to understand women's views and take women's
experiences seriously. The people in the scope of the war must contextualized
appropriately and historically because each set has a gender phrase that is influenced by
its gender history (Brooks et al., 2012).
This study offers an opportunity to understand the perceptions of female naval
officers who have experienced combat duty and the impact of these experiences on their
retention and promotion. The study may also help fill in the gaps in the literature on how
changes in gender combat policy are perceived by female officers assigned to combat
positions in the U.S. Navy. Changes that could have a positive impact on men and
women serving together in the military in a combat environment can also be identified.
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Research Questions
The research question that guides this research is: What are the perceptions of
female naval officers about the revocation of combat exclusion policies on their
recruitment, retention, and promotion?
Conceptual Framework
The study is based on the work of feminist security studies (FSS) Cynthia Enloe,
a well-known and published feminist author, theorist, and professor for her work on
gender and militarism and her contribution to feminist international relations. Women in
combat have become a policy in practice that impacts behavior, procedures, and policies
in the military. Enloe's work on FSS, feminist theory in international relations, and
feminist geography emphasizes the need to examine the military and conflict in a
nontraditional way (Enloe, 2015). The study draws on its proposals, including examining
disputes, wars, and issues of security and insecurity, which should be observed with
'feminist curiosity' and studying war and conflict as experiences. FSS researchers suggest
that women's experiences and narratives are an integral part of global conflicts and
hierarchical institutions, and are useful for listening to and characterizing women's
perceptions (Harding, 1989).
Furthermore, shared understanding or normality is at the heart of feminist
intervention in safety studies, and feminist theory begins by examining women's experiences.
This theory can access various contexts of women's lives while also remaining in tune
with the contextual nature of "normality" (Wibben, 2010). Feminist theory has focused
on the intersection of gender with class, nationality, race, and other markers of identity to
inform the conceptualization of women's experiences and subjectivity. A consistent
theme that characterizes the FSS is the need to focus on the diverse dynamics of gender
relations as evidenced in feminist work on human security (Wibben, 2010). This concept
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will be explained further in Chapter 2 of this research.
The assignment of women in combat roles for the Navy is quite controversial and
the use of the FSS theory forms the basis for this study approach and the formulation of
the research question. Recounting women's experiences and staying in tune with their
experiences is at the heart of feminist resistance to abstraction. It serves as a corrective to
generalize and universalize tendencies that can institutionalize bias and obscure
responsibilities. Qualitative interviews about the experiences of female naval officers in
war can provide a perspective to shape public awareness of the issue of women in
combat.
The FSS framework can be used well in this study to understand women's
perceptions of the revocation of combat exemption policies and how it impacts their
recruitment, retention, and promotion within the military. Understanding their
experiences and perceptions can contribute to an understanding of combat role
assignments on career advancement for these women.
Nature of Research
Percy et al. (2015) explained that research that includes opinions, attitudes,
beliefs, or experiences that cannot be measured requires qualitative methods. Key
concepts investigated in this study include the perception of female naval officers and
how those who have served in combat perceive how their promotions, career
enhancement tours, and educational opportunities may have been affected by the
revocation of combat exemption policies. This type of information cannot be learned or
obtained from statistical analysis. A quantitative study may have provided a relationship
between dependent and independent variables for female naval officers by examining
polls, questionnaires, or surveys (Creswell, 2013). However, qualitative methodology is
the appropriate method to focus on an individual's subjective thoughts, attitudes, and
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perceptions based on everyday experience.
Regarding research, qualitative methodology is used when research is aimed at
subjective experience because it is believed to capture the richness of human experience
more completely (Lyons, 2006). While other qualitative methods may be helpful, generic
qualitative investigations or basic research approaches are used to focus on the subjective
experiences and opinions of female naval officers' experiences. Ethnography case
studies, based theories, or phenomenological methods will not be appropriate because the
content of the desired information or the type of data sought is not suitable for this
approach (Percy et al., 2015)
Thus, Percy et al.'s (2015) approach to generic studies offers the most suitable as
a method for this study and notes that, "researchers who consider any study of people's
subjective 'opinions' about actual external events and events should consider generic
qualitative investigation as their approach" (Percy et al., 2015, p. 79). Generic qualitative
inquiry is appropriate to use if a researcher wants to be able to describe a more complete
experience from the participant's perspective (Patton, 2002). The main concentration of
generic qualitative methods is to explore and discover how individuals construct the
meaning of the world they live in and the experiences they have experienced (Berg,
2004).
In addition, the focus of generic qualitative questions is on real-world events or
problems and data collection gets reports from participants about their ideas about things
that are outside of themselves using unstructured data collection methods, such as semi-
or fully structured interviews, questionnaires, surveys, content, or activity-specific
participant observations (Percy et al., 2015). This approach also provides a step-by-step
process for the analysis of data collected from each participant. "Transcripts of
participant interviews will be analyzed, and the repetitive patterns and themes of all
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participants will be synthesized together into a composite synthesis, then interpretation or
implication regarding the question under investigation" (Percy et al., 2015, p. 80).
Semi-structured individual interviews were used to learn about the experiences of
ten female naval officers who had experienced combat duty. Encoded interview data and
analyzed using thematic inductive analysis which is an indication of a generic qualitative
methodology and involves searching across datasets to find repeating patterns of
meaning, analyzing the data from a point of view that does not seek to fit the data into
pre-existing categories (Berg & Lune, 2012). In qualitative analysis, "themes and
categories emerge from the data through careful examination and constant comparison"
(Wildermuth, 2017, p. 319).
Definition
The following terms are operationally defined for this study:
Active duty: Anyone who works for the military on a full-time basis.
Direct ground combat: "Engaging the enemy on the ground with individual or
crewed weapons when exposed to enemy fire and most likely direct physical contact with
enemy force personnel. It happens far ahead on the battlefield while finding and
approaching the enemy to defeat them with fire, maneuvers, or shock effects" (Barry,
2013, p. 20; Burrelli, 2013, p. 4).
Glass Ceiling: A political term used to describe invisible and unbreakable
barriers that largely prevent women and minorities from reaching the upper ranks of their
chosen fields (Naples, 2016).
Institutional Barrier: Something that blocks access or hinders within an
institution or organization (Chang & Wu, 2013).
Retention: In a military context, the term refers to re-enlistment after the end of
compulsory active service (Kapp, 2020).
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Military turnover: The term derived from the term staff turnover defines a
scenario in which military personnel leave a military organization or withdraw their
services (Hosek, J., 2011).
Boundless General Line Officer : The designation of a female naval officer in
which the billet (occupation) is administrative. The indefinite line officer designation
connotes sea duty, command at sea, and flying status. Title 10, U.S. Code states that
women should not be assigned to serve on aircraft engaged in combat missions or on
board naval vessels except for hospital ships and naval transport (Coye, 1972).
Assumption
Several frameworks and paradigms define research approaches, and each
qualitative study is based on a specific research genre with ontological, epistemological,
axiology, and methodological assumptions. Guba (1990) notes that there is "a set of basic
beliefs that guide action and there is a worldview that forms the field of the researcher's
discipline with a particular genre that reflects certain onto-epistemological assumptions
that must be taken seriously through the process of research and writing" (Guba, 1990, p.
7).
Ontology refers to a researcher's beliefs about the nature of reality, while
axiology addresses ethics, aesthetics, and religion and, given my position as a female
researcher and naval officer in the reserve, my beliefs about this research topic may agree
or contradict the participants. Epistemology is more philosophical and examines the
relationship between knowledge and researchers during the discovery that for my study
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I have a very similar background and relationship to the research participants,
given my background in the Navy. Axiology focuses on what researchers value in their
research. The axiological perspective of the research paradigm is aimed at describing the
degree of consistency, reliability, or reconstructing or expanding on previously held
theories or constructions (Neuman, 1997). This perspective was maintained throughout
the study with a consistent level of reliability depicted during the study. Methodological
assumptions refer to procedures related to the systematic discovery of knowledge and a
philosophical approach to learning (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
Generic qualitative methods examine perceptions, opinions, or beliefs about a
particular issue without the philosophical construction of this approach (Percy et al.,
2015). The interpretive method of generic qualitative investigation was used for this
study. Qualitative research methodologies are basically guided to help researchers gain
an in-depth understanding of people's subjective experiences, thoughts, and feelings in
order to obtain information to help improve understanding (Creswell, 2009).
This qualitative study investigates the policy process of implementing combat
exclusion policies involving human actors acting under certain circumstances and rules.
The constructivist framework is appropriate given the character of the phenomenon
being studied. The epistemological considerations of the constructivist framework,
"focus exclusively on the meaning-making activity of the human mind" (Patton, 2015, p.
122). In constructivism, the epistemological approach, human beings
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building knowledge from their life experiences (Aoun, 2017; Cleaver & Ballantyne,
2014; Patton, 2015; Saldaña, 2016). T
This argument includes epistemological implications due to the rational
interpretation of human beings and the meaning given to experiences or events. Creswell
(2014) and Patton (2015) underline that constructivist logic affirms the belief that
knowledge is never definitively objective because the meaning formed on top of reality is
simply an abstraction of subjective perception and interpretation. However, subjectivity
in research management can promote and create social transformation in situations of
injustice or oppression (Patton, 2015).
When data is collected from participants, they are promised anonymity and
confidentiality and are reminded that they can withdraw at any time because participation
is voluntary. Participants were informed of the importance of the research, and there was
an underlying assumption that the participants' responses to the interview questions were
correct. Since participants were told that their responses would be shared anonymously at
first, it was assumed that they were comfortable answering honestly without threat to
their position or future career advancement. Also, they are assured that they can retreat
without any personal consequences. In addition, it is assumed that participants provide
unbiased information regarding their personal experiences. The use of service data is
restricted to protect the integrity of participant data and adds additional safeguards to
maintain confidentiality. Information that has the potential to produce contradictory data
is caught, thus eliminating bias. Participants shared their life experiences related to past
and present positions in the navy. Validity of the information provided
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determined by the participant who provides the company name, location, job title, and
branch of service for several answers. In addition, the interviewed participants provided
enough data that no additional data collection was required.
Scope and Boundaries
All research should acknowledge the scope and boundaries or deliberate
narrowing that are placed on the research and serve as the boundaries within which the
research is based (Ellis & Levy, 2010). The study involved female naval officers who
had participated in combat zones and were limited to participants in the Lieutenant (O-3)
to Captain (O-6) classes.
My intended focus in conducting this research is to determine the perspective of
junior to senior female naval officers on the revocation of combat exclusion policies on
their recruitment, retention, and promotion. Participants were geographically spread
across four locations (Central and Southeastern states), and race, age, and background
were not restricted. Transferability relates to the ability of other researchers to replicate
research and apply findings to their settings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The transferability
of the results was enhanced by recruiting study participants who were currently on active
duty or in reserve and those who had retired from service, geographically spread across
the Central and Southeastern United States.
Limitations
The results of the interview were obtained through virtual interviews with
participants. The geographic location of the participants was a major limitation of the
study because most of the participants were from the Washington, D.C. area. There's
always potential
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bias that can affect the results of the study. Reasonable steps are taken to overcome any
limitations arising from bias.
Importance of Studies
This qualitative study is important for several reasons. Based on the research
conducted, there is limited research on the perception of female naval officers about the
revocation of combat exemption policies and their impact on their recruitment,
retention, and promotion. This study examines the perception of participants'
experiences through the statements from which thematic groups about the meaning of
their perceptions are developed. Based on the perspective of female naval officers, this
research can provide some knowledge about the unique phenomena of women in gender
experience and historically stress, such as combat experience in war zones, and can also
be used in social work theory and practice to benefit policymakers and improve
conditions for women in combat, with a special focus on female officers in the Navy. By
learning more about the perception of female naval officers about how they have been
integrated into naval combat roles, it is possible to understand the further impact of
service on the nation and focus on possible recommendations for increased combat role
assignments for women.
The study may also help fill in the gaps in the literature on how changes in gender
combat policy are perceived by female officers assigned to combat positions in the U.S.
Navy. By developing an understanding of the process of implementing women in battle
since 2013 and documenting those developments over time, it is possible to develop
recommendations to positively improve society
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construction and conditions for women in action, with a special focus on female officers
in the Navy. Changes that can positively impact men and women serving together in the
military in combat environments can also be identified to promote social change and
increase diversity and inclusion within the U.S. Navy. Others who may find the research
significant include federal, state, and local community leaders, military leaders, and
policymakers.
Summary
Chapter 1 introduces research and includes background information on the
barriers women faced prior to the repeal of the combat exemption policy and the impact
of the removal of the combat exemption policy that allowed women to serve in combat
positions. The problem and objective statements of this qualitative study are introduced
and guided through research questions that focus on exploring the perceptions of female
naval officers about the concept of revoking combat exclusion policies on their
recruitment, retention, and promotion. The theoretical foundation for this research is
based on the work of FSS Cynthia Enloe, a feminist author, theorist, and professor, who
is well-known and published for her work on gender and militarism and her contribution
to feminist international relations. Women in combat have become a policy in practice
that impacts behavior, procedures, and policies in the military. The nature of this research
involves a generic qualitative approach that will be used to explore female naval officers'
perceptions of these experiences because generic methods offer space to develop new
methodologies and engage in rigorous discussions that cross disciplinary and
methodological boundaries (Kahlke, 2014).
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Since the study focuses on perception, a generic approach is the most suitable.
Generic qualitative methods examine perceptions, opinions, or beliefs about a particular
issue without the philosophical construction of this approach. This method can be used if
the researcher has prior knowledge or understanding of the topic he wants to be described
from the participant's perspective more fully (Percy et al., 2015). The data analysis in this
qualitative study focuses on inductive analysis by setting aside all pre-understanding and
analyzing data collected with female naval officers individually. The definition of key
concepts, assumptions that clarify the defined aspects of study are meaningfully
discussed, as well as the scope and delimitations, limitations, and significance of this
research for potential contributions to advancing knowledge in this discipline.
Chapter 2 provides an overview and begins with a brief description of the
literature search strategies and conceptual frameworks used in this study. This is
followed by reviewing and assessing the literature on the history of combat exclusivity,
factors of women's integration, effects on the promotion, retirement, and recruitment of
women in the military based on the FSS approach developed by Cynthia Enloe (2015).
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Understanding the perception of female naval officers about the impact of the
revocation of combat exemption policies on their careers is a meaningful gap in research
that needs to be addressed to develop an adequate response to this issue. The purpose of
this chapter is to analyze and synthesize literature relevant to the revocation of combat
exemption policies and the perceptions of female naval officers about their recruitment,
retention, and promotion. With combat exemption laws in place, women cannot take part
in benefits to earn higher ranks before retirement (Ross & Donnelly, 2011). When the
law was repealed, women began to see the advantages of serving in combat roles. Since
the repeal of the Act, military women have come forward to express their feelings
towards their new rights granted to them in the military community.
Chapter 2 provides a description of the literature search strategy and conceptual
framework used in this study. A literature review is provided related to key variables to
analyze and interpret the history of the implementation of combat exemption laws, the
integration of women in combat and the effects of combat experience, and the effects on
promotion, retention, and recruitment. A description of the strategies used to collect and
analyze the extracted literature for the review, an examination of the FSS approach,
followed by how existing theories are applied in the context of combat exclusion
policies, and an analysis of the selected literature, followed by summaries and
conclusions.
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Literature Search Strategy
In conducting research, I leveraged Walden University's library to access
databases including EBSCO Policy and Public Administration, Complete Academic
Search, Complete Business Resources, Complete Political Resources, SocINDEX with
Full Text, Complete Business Resources and Additional Indexes. I also searched
ProQuest and the ABI/INFORM Collection which provide scientific journals, books, and
dissertations and theses. I searched for terms: naval women in combat, combat roles for
women in the Navy, and female naval officers in combat. I research other dissertations
and theses available through Walden University through ScholarWorks, dissertations
and theses @ Walden University, and ProgQuest Global Dissertations & Thesis. I also
researched the number of female officers in the U.S. Navy, which is available through
the Navy Personnel Command website and found a Rand study that examined
differences in officer career development in the military by looking at gender and
minority differences.
Conceptual Framework
Women in combat have become a policy in practice that impacts the behavior,
procedures, and policies that exist within the military. The study is based on the work of
FSS Cynthia Enloe, a feminist author, theorist, and professor, who is renowned and
published for her work on gender and militarism and for her contributions to the field of
feminist international relations. J. Ann Tickner's work on the feminist perspective of
international relations (IR) complements Cynthia Enloe because both focus on
knowledge gained from women's experiences, but also remain on the fringes. Women
and gender are an important part of the day-to-day operations and scholarship and issues
20
gender to the global economy and understanding of security and militarism (Narain,
2014).
In addition, there are several studies related to feminism in politics and IR that
have leveraged Enloe's work on feminist theory of FSS in IR, and feminist geography to
emphasize the need to examine the military and conflict in a nontraditional way (Enloe,
2015). The study draws on an approach in which Enloe (2015) proposes including an
examination of conflict, war, and issues of security and insecurity that should be
observed with 'feminist curiosity' and study war and conflict as experience. FSS
researchers suggest that women's experiences and narratives are an integral part of global
conflicts and hierarchical institutions, and are useful for listening to and characterizing
women's perceptions (Harding, 1989). Furthermore, shared understanding or normality is
at the heart of feminist intervention in the study of security and feminist theory begins by
examining women's experiences. This theory can access a diverse range of contexts of
women's lives while still being in tune with the contextual nature of "normality".
Feminist theory has focused on the intersection of gender with class, nationality, race,
and other markers of identification to inform the conceptualization of women's
experiences and subjectivity. A consistent theme that characterizes FSS is the need to
focus on the multifaceted dynamics of gender relations that are evident in feminist work
on human security (Wibben, 2010).
The assignment of women in combat roles for the Navy has been controversial
and the use of the FSS theory forms the basis for this approach to study and the
formulation of research questions. Tell the woman's experience and stay in tune with
21
Experience is at the heart of feminist resistance to abstraction. It serves as a corrective to
generalize and universalize tendencies that can institutionalize bias and obscure
responsibilities. Qualitative interviews about the experiences of female naval officers in
war can provide a perspective to shape public awareness of the issue of women in
combat. The FSS framework can be used well in this study to understand women's
perceptions of the revocation of combat exemption policies and how it impacts their
recruitment, retention, and promotion within the military. An understanding of their
experiences and perceptions can contribute to an understanding of combat role
assignments to career advancement for these women.
Literature Review Related to Key Concepts
This literature review focuses on the key concepts found in the study related to
the construction of interest and the methodology chosen that includes the perception of
female naval officers about combat roles, policies and career advancement selected for
this study. Previous researchers have found both negative and positive side effects of the
revocation of combat exemption policies among female naval officers (Balano &
Rosenberg, 2007). A set of key concepts is used to determine how other researchers have
approached the problem and the strengths and weaknesses of their approach and the
reasons for the selection of key concepts. These include the history of the
implementation of combat exemption laws, the integration of women in combat and the
effects of combat experience, and the effects on promotion, retention, and recruitment.
By developing an understanding of the development process of women in combat
since 2013 and documenting those developments over time, it is possible
22
develop recommendations to positively improve social constructs and conditions for
women in combat, with a particular focus on female officers in the Navy. Changes that
could have a positive impact on men and women serving together in the military in a
combat environment can also be identified.
History of the Combat Exemption Act
The combat exemption law was implemented in 1948 when the Women's Armed
Forces Integration Act exempted women from combat positions, although many women
did not serve in the military in combat positions at the time (Schon & Rein, 1994).
Women have been contaminating to fight in battle since before the act and even after the
repeal of the law. There are several policies in place to ensure that women are given the
same rights as men to serve to their full capacity (Gibson & Clark, 1996). These policies
include disciplinary action to be taken against individuals who unfairly reject combat
positions and to establish the number of women who must be offered combat positions
when applying (Sternke, 2011). This was all done to achieve a higher number of female
officers. Kathryn Atwood notes of women who served in the military during World War
I, "During the conflicts placed before them, they not only gained the gratitude of many in
their own generation, but they proved for the first time on a global scale, the great value
of a woman's contribution, paving the way for future generations of women to do the
same." (Atwood, 2012, p. 13). Female veterans are not recognized for their contributions
to our nation's defense and are not allowed to serve in combat roles, but they play an
integral role in the U.S. military (Rainey, 2018).
23
When the combat exemption law of 1993 was repealed in 2013, women were
eligible for combat positions. It's no secret that men serving in combat are eligible for
promotion to higher ranks faster than their non-combat counterparts (O'Sullivan et al.,
2008). With exemption laws in place, women cannot partake of these benefits to earn
higher ranks before retirement (Ross & Donnelly, 2011). When the law was repealed,
women began to see the advantages of serving in combat roles. Since the repeal of the
combat exemption policy, military women have come forward to express their feelings
towards the new rights granted to them in the military community.
Results from previous studies show that most women feel positive about the
repeal of combat exemption laws. This allows them to achieve a higher status in their
unit and gives them a better pension. The main downfall is the discrimination they
continue to receive from male officers who still believe that fighting is not the place for
women (Sadler, 1999). Many male officers and enlisted men feel that women should
only be given positions related to data entry and low physical activity (Harding, 1989).
This has been a problem in the military community for decades and still affects
individual mindsets even after women begin to prove that they are just as capable in
combat positions as their male counterparts. The research studies discussed here found
both negative and positive side effects of the appointment among female naval officers.
Women's Integration in Combat and the Effects of Combat Experience
Several researchers have studied the impact of historical military policy and
women's participation in the military and its effect on family roles during cultural
24
values impact policy solutions to reconcile women's roles. Amara (2020) explores the
implications of women in combat and the status of women's integration, health, and
education in the military. Armey (2020) examines women serving in high-risk combat
jobs in Iraq and Afghanistan and the use of GI Bill allowances for higher education.
Kamarack (2016) examined the repeal of combat exemption policies and equal access to
jobs provided in the military, based on qualifications and abilities, which offer men and
women equal opportunities for advancement and retention in the military. Soules (2020)
reviewed the relationship between women's status and the lifting of restrictions on
military combat roles by conducting an analysis of women on the front lines in all
countries, not just the US military or NATO countries.
With the repeal of the combat exemption law of 1993 in 2013, women were
allowed to serve in combat positions in the military. The decision to repeal the ban was
seen as a victory by feminists who viewed ground fighting as a problem for women's
equal opportunities (Justi, 2017). "The process of integrating women first into the Navy
and later into fleet operations forces has been a long, slow, and controversial process
influenced by institutional biases, attitudes, and political and cultural trends" (Balano and
Rosenberg, 2007, p. 6). For women in the United States Navy, the repeal of the Aspin
Rule represents an opportunity to serve on most fighter aircraft and ships and increases
the number of women eligible for promotion (Jordon, 2003). This has led to women
comprising the fastest-growing U.S. military population, including
14.5% of all active-duty military, 18% of all National Guard and Reserves, and 8% of
the total veteran population (Amara, 2020).
25
Ahern et al. (2015) conducted a study in which they interviewed individuals
serving in Afghanistan and Iraq to determine the challenges they experienced when
transitioning back to civilian life. During these interviews, they found that women
described their integration more easily than their male counterparts. It was determined
that this was due to the different environments that both sexes entered when returning
home. Women are surrounded by more support than men when it comes to mental health
issues from combat, whereas men are expected to be able to better handle these issues on
their own (Ahern et al., 2015). Research by Bohm and Hannagan (2015) also found that
although women receive more support from their families and partners, they are more
likely to face discrimination in the Veterans Administration (VA). In most cases, they
reported feeling like their representatives didn't take them seriously and even neglected
their mental health because their experiences in combat were unlikely to be as bad as
their male counterparts (Mueller-McClenne, 2000).
Organizational changes, leadership, and cultural changes in the military have
been factors contributing to the integration of women in the military. Cone (2016)
examines this issue as a necessity if women want to be integrated into combat situations
without gender restrictions (Cone, 2016, p. 5). Ahern et al. (2015) explored the
challenges and experiences of veteran placement in combat tours in Iraq and
Afghanistan and their transition from military to civilian life which is important in
providing a better understanding of the experiences of men and women in the military.
26
Cone (2016) took their study a step further and interviewed men to determine
how they felt about the integration of women into leadership roles in the military. They
found two things. The first is that men's views of female officers vary greatly depending
on the branch, with the Navy and Air Force branches being the most acceptable.
The second is that most men don't mind serving under a woman if she feels she has the
right experience. When female officers were asked if they felt their male counterparts
felt they had the right experience, many reported that it didn't matter where they were on
duty or how long (Cone, 2016). Female officers are discriminated against, no matter
their experience (Jordan, 2003).
Dunn's (2015) research further explores how women feel about the environment
created by male discrimination in the workplace. Many women do not mind the tense
and sometimes inhospitable environment in which they are forced to work because they
are given the opportunity to hold positions of authority that were previously denied due
to their lack of combat experience. They have always experienced discrimination and
hostility from their male counterparts, but now come with the ability to hold positions of
power (Dunn, 2015)
The next question that many researchers want to answer is how female officers
feel about serving in battle. Enloe (2013) interviewed women who had served in combat
and those who were in a position to serve but had not yet been deployed into such
situations. When asked if they experienced fear, most reported that they were nervous but
eager to serve. They then asked the women in combat positions why they chose the
combat role. It was found that many wanted to take on combat roles and
27
military experience from this point of view (Enloe, 2013). Enloe (2013) then asked a
group of men how they felt about serving in combat and whether the decision for them to
join a combat position was theirs. In most cases, men report feeling pressured to join a
combat position by their families and recruiters. Farizo (2012) also found that men, while
feeling similar nervous emotions, felt less prepared and ready for their placement into the
battle zone.
Several studies that analyzed the various fears women had about deploying to
combat zones were explored. Erika and DiNitto (2019) found that many women were
more afraid of what would happen to them in their own camps than of the actual battles.
Hanna (2014) found the same was true during the study when women reported that the
number of assault cases at their bases made them more worried about their safety than
exposure to combat hazards. Female officers felt that they were more likely to be
targeted by their male counterparts when they were in combat positions away from U.S.
bases due to a lack of support resources at combat zone locations (Hanna, 2014). Herford
(2013) asked a group of female officers whether the revocation of the combat exemption
policy was worth the new risk, and many stated that the risk of assault was everywhere,
and that the revocation of the measure was not to blame.
When female officers who have been deployed are asked about the environment at a
combat zone base, they state that their male counterparts can belittle and demean their
authority (Eagly & Heilman, 2016). They feel more pressured to prove themselves, and they
find it harder to prove themselves because they are rarely given the opportunity. Eagly and
Karau (2002) found that most of the men they interviewed
28
would be contrary to their responses to questions about their feelings towards female
officers. Some men have reported that they will respect the authority no matter their
gender, but they later report respecting the opinion of a male officer over the opinion of a
woman (Enloe, 2004).
In addition, there are several well-documented cases that focus on the interaction
of military men and women serving in positions involving fighting in Afghanistan and
Iraq prior to the repeal of the exclusion policy and the problems that arose in these
interactions when women were only allowed to function in combat support roles instead
of fully integrated combat roles (Erika & DiNitto, Since women were allowed to serve
in combat support roles in the U.S. Army, there has been a lot of research on the impact
of integrating women into military combat positions, especially during the recent wars in
Iraq and Afghanistan. MacLean (2018) presents an analysis of how race, status, and
gender are associated with those who served during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Lindstrom (2011) investigated the effects of combat experience on female military
members in the Iraq and Afghanistan war zones and the effects of combat experience on
especially female veterans in the Army.
While the researchers focused on the integration of women into combat roles,
there was little focus on understanding how changes in gender combat policy were
perceived by female officers who had been assigned to combat positions in the U.S.
Navy. Notably, there is a lack of research on how female naval officers who have served
in combat view the impact of their service on their career advancement and whether there
is an impact on their retention in the navy.
29
Therefore, it is important to understand how female naval officers have been
integrated into the combat role of the navy and understand how the revocation of the
combat exemption policy has affected their recruitment, retention, and promotion in the
military. A better understanding of women's unique phenomena in situations such as
combat experience in war zones and their perceptions can influence social work theory
and be beneficial for policymakers to improve conditions within the military as the
number of women serving in the armed forces continues to increase.
Ford-Torres (2018) found that men are more likely to be sent to combat zones
than women, even if they are in the same position. Ford-Torres (2018) analyzed statistics
about women and men in the same military positions who had served in combat.
Men are twice as likely to be deployed than women (Rafels, 2001). Women who are
deployed are more likely to serve in locations that are considered less dangerous or
hostile (Renate, 2014). When asked about this discrimination, many women stated that
they don't care where they are deployed if it is in a combat area. Being allowed to serve
in combat allows them to be considered for higher promotions, no matter the location
(Kamarck, 2016).
Effects on Promotion, Retention, and Recruitment
When the combat exemption policy was lifted, the new ability to take advantage
of greater promotional opportunities by serving in combat was greeted with great
enthusiasm and desire by women. Unfortunately, Asch et al. (2012) found that this is not
always a positive experience. In most cases, the women they interviewed stated that they
were still missed out on promotions that they felt were more suitable than men
30
colleagues who beat them. They still feel discriminated against for being women in the
"male position" (Asch, 2012).
Balano and Rosenberg (2007) also found this to be true in their study. They
conducted interviews between women and men who were stationed together on the
submarine over the course of three months. Many men stated that they had witnessed
discrimination against female officers and even enlisted crews under them would
undermine their judgment simply for being female (Balano & Rosenberg, 2007).
Bohm and Hannagan (2015) found that female naval officers felt pressure to be
better than their male counterparts, but many did not mind. It gave them a chance to
prove themselves, and they felt that when they finally earned the respect of their enlisted
crew, it created a closer bond between the units.
Creswell (2013) found that when women were promoted, they were treated
differently than male officers. Female officers are more likely to face rejection from their
enlisted members, and their authority is more likely to be questioned. King (2013) found
that many women are unhappy to interact with most male members in their units, as they
are often rude. This causes them to take more disciplinary action against their enlisted
members. Disciplinary action from female officers does not always prove to be effective
and often has the opposite desired effect (Koenig & Eagly, 2014).
Koenig and Eagly (2014) found that female officers who took too many actions
against those who did not respect their position were more likely to create a hostile
environment, but those who did not take enough action had to deal with members of their
units who did not respect their authority.
31
Female officers reported feeling that they had to choose which battles to fight
with members in their units who disrespected them (MacLean, 2018). Pederson (2016)
also reported similar findings in their study when they stated that female officers
reportedly felt that if they demanded too much respect, they would be labeled as angry
people and called names behind their backs. Strong's (2013) research explores how
women feel about gaining positions of authority and whether any of the discrimination
they encounter is worth their promotion. Most women stated that they didn't mind
having to deal with additional discrimination and hostility from their male counterparts
because they had worked hard for their promotion. Wildermuth (2016) explores how
male officers feel about women in positions of authority, and mostly gives positive
feedback. When investigated further, most men had no problems with women in higher
positions. Their problem lies in women in combat zones (Vendrzyk, 2015).
Now that women are allowed to serve in combat positions, they are promoted
more often. Kaplan and Donovan (2013) found that women have been promoted twice as
often since lifting the combat exemption policy, allowing women to retire with higher
pensions. When Lyon and Pagnucci (2018) conducted their research, they found that
women in the military worked harder than ever to achieve their promotions before
retirement. Prior to repealing the law, most women did not remain in active duty for
eight years (Lyon & Pagnucci, 2018). Most women report feeling that the military offers
them more than the opportunity to receive an affordable education. After 2012, statistics
show that more women remain on active duty for a longer period of time to receive their
pensions after retirement (Meadows et al., 2016).
32
Percy et al. (2015) also found that with more women choosing combat positions,
the percentage of women graduating from college when applying has decreased. They
believe this is due to the higher demands of combat positions and the lack of free time to
spend on courses. Rainey (2018) attributed this decline to more women converting their
military enlistment into full-time careers that would have given them a better retirement
plan if they stayed for a full twenty years. Serrato (2013) conducted several interviews
on different groups of women to compile their retirement plans to determine the
statistical differences between women in the military before and after the revocation of
the combat exemption policy. Throughout the interview process, Serrato (2013) found
that 51% more women plan to retire at their twentieth mark to receive a pension, and
23% more women plan to retire after their twentieth mark to receive a higher percentage
of their base salary as their retirement pension.
To fully determine how the repeal of the law affects pensions in military women,
a study was compiled on medical dismissal and disability payments. Although this is not
considered a pension, disability pay may be the only type of salary a particular member
can receive after being released from the inability to work again (Smith & Rosenstein,
2017). In Walker's (2017) study, it was determined that 23% more women were
medically discharged due to combat conditions. Prior to 2012, medically discharged
women were most likely to have physical work-related accidents. After 2012, women
were allowed to enter combat positions and deployed to war zones (Walker, 2017).
Deployments to war zones have led to an increase in mental health problems and severe
injuries in women, forcing them to retire early without retirement. When Enloe
33
(2015) asked female members if this knowledge influenced their decision to join a
combat role, reporting that most women were worried about their safety but not enough
to reconsider their position. They stated that their male counterparts took the same risk,
and they should accept that risk as well.
Enloe (2015) examined their research to determine how women's recruitment has
changed after the repeal of the combat exemption policy. It has been reported that steps
have been taken to encourage more women to enroll in combat positions to cover the
lack of women in roles due to the law (Yeung et al., 2017). Enloe (2015) found that
although these measures were reportedly in place, some recruiters did not openly
encourage women to enroll in combat positions. Yeung et al. (2017) also found this to be
true in their study. It is reported by 78% of female officers that they feel pressure to take
on non-combat positions by their recruiters (Justi, 2017). 38% of those statistics stated
that their recruiter was a woman.
Women in the military feel the decision to encourage them to take on non-
combat roles is based on their appearance (Justi, 2017). They feel that if they look small
and too feminine, they are more likely to be offered positions with fewer physical
requirements, where if they show up at their appointments in more masculine clothing,
they are offered more physical work. McNulty (2012) found in their study that more
physical work does not necessarily mean combat positions. Lim (2011) found that
although women are starting to gain more rights in the military and have the ability to
qualify for more positions, they are not always offered or given those positions.
34
When enlisting in the military, a recruit is asked to write down their top position
they would like to receive (Patton, 2002). After evaluating their scores, recruiters will
select jobs based on the position and the individual's needs within that field. Men are
twice as likely to accept a combat position as women (McNulty, 2012).
Fraley (2011) conducted a study to see if female and male high school students were
equally targeted for recruitment in the military. Male high school students are twice as
likely to be targeted by recruiters than females (Fraley, 2011). Male high school students
also reported feeling more pressure from recruiters to join, while female students felt they
were only given a choice. When asked if it bothers them in the way they are targeted
differently than their male counterparts, most female students feel it gives them the
opportunity to do their own research and decide based on what they know and want and
not just what the recruiter tells them (Gooch & Quinn, 2001).
Even with the difference in how men and women are recruited into the military,
the female enrollment rate has risen by 58% (Justi, 2017). The number of women in
combat positions has also continued to increase every year since the repeal of the combat
exemption policy. Vendrzyk (2015) believes this is due to the policies that are in place to
help women achieve this position and their struggle to implement it properly. Most
female officers reported having to force their higher-ups to maintain policies in order for
them to succeed in their fields (Vendrzyk, 2015). Female officers were forced to seek
help outside of their command when they met resistance because of their position. Of the
women interviewed who reported having to seek help from their chain of command, only
half reported success in their efforts (Harris, 2009).
35
While the researchers focused on the integration of women into combat roles, there was
little focus on understanding how changes in gender combat policy were perceived by
female officers who had been assigned to combat positions in the U.S. Navy. Notably,
there is a lack of research on how female naval officers who have served in combat view
the impact of their service on their career advancement and whether there is an impact on
their retention in the navy.
Therefore, it is important to understand how female naval officers have been
integrated into the combat role of the navy and understand how the revocation of the
combat exemption policy has affected their recruitment, retention, and promotion in the
military. A better understanding of women's unique phenomena in situations such as
combat experience in war zones and their perceptions can influence social work theory
and be beneficial for policymakers to improve conditions within the military as the
number of women serving in the armed forces continues to increase.
Summary and Conclusion
The main themes in the literature reviewed relate to key variables including the
history of the implementation of combat exclusion policies, the integration of women in
combat and the effects of combat experience, and the effects on promotion, retention,
and recruitment. U.S. Navy-specific research by Smith and Rosenstein (2014) has shown
gender differences in career intent and influence by male and female counterparts while
also examining female retention in combat specialties and why retention is higher for
men. They found men and women leaving the Navy because
36
service impacts in the Navy, which include possible deployments and mobilizations in
families and separations, divorce rates.
Meadows et al. (2016) look at ways to improve retention of female officers in the
Navy and detailed factors that the military can leverage to improve retention of female
officers by encouraging female officers to overcome the fear of long-term separation
from a family unit perspective to address the retention of female officers.
Several researchers have studied the impact of historical military policy and
women's participation in the military and its impact on family roles while cultural values
influence policy solutions to reconcile women's roles. Amara (2020) explores the
implications of women in combat and the status of women's integration, health, and
education in the military. Armey (2020) examines women serving in high-risk combat
jobs in Iraq and Afghanistan and the use of the GI Bill's benefits for higher education.
Kamarack (2016) examined the repeal of combat exemption policies and equal
access to jobs provided in the military, based on qualifications and abilities, which offer
men and women equal opportunities for advancement and retention in the military.
Soules (2020) reviewed the relationship between women's status and the lifting of
restrictions on military combat roles by conducting an analysis of women on the front
lines in all countries, not just the US military or NATO countries.
In addition, there are several well-documented cases that focus on the interaction
of military men and women serving in positions involving fighting in Afghanistan and
Iraq prior to the revocation of the exclusion policy and the problems that
37
arise in these interactions when women are only allowed to function in combat support
roles instead of fully integrated combat roles (Erika & DiNitto (2019). Since women
were allowed to serve in combat support roles in the U.S. Army, there has been a lot of
research on the impact of integrating women into military combat positions, especially
during the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. MacLean (2018) presents an analysis of
how race, status, and gender are associated with those who served during the wars in Iraq
and Afghanistan. Lindstrom (2011) investigated the effects of combat experience on
female military members in the Iraq and Afghanistan war zones and the effects of
combat experience on especially female veterans in the Army (Lindstrom, 2011).
While the researchers focused on the integration of women into combat roles,
there was little focus on understanding how changes in gender combat policy were
perceived by female officers who had been assigned to combat positions in the U.S.
Navy. Notably, there is a lack of research on how female naval officers who have served
in combat view the impact of their service on their career advancement and whether there
is an impact on their retention in the navy. Therefore, it is important to understand how
female naval officers have been integrated into the combat role of the navy and
understand how the revocation of the combat exemption policy has affected their
recruitment, retention, and promotion in the military.
A better understanding of the unique phenomena of women in situations such as
combat experiences in war zones and their perceptions can influence social work theory
and be beneficial for policymakers to improve conditions in the military as
38
The number of women serving in the armed forces continues to increase. The study may
also help fill in the gaps in the literature on how changes in gender combat policy are
perceived by female officers assigned to combat positions in the U.S. Navy.
Through developing an understanding of the process of implementing women in combat
since 2013 and documenting those developments over time, it is possible to develop
recommendations to positively improve social constructs and conditions for women in
combat, with a particular focus on female officers in the Navy. Changes that can
positively impact men and women serving together in the military in combat
environments can also be identified to promote social change. Others who may find the
research significant include federal, state, and local community leaders, military leaders,
and policymakers.
Chapter 3 provides the research design and rationale with a discussion of why the
rationale was chosen. The role of the researcher will be described as well as the personal
or professional relationship with any participant, any biases, or ethical issues and how
this will be addressed. In addition, the discussion of the methodology, with a focus on the
logic of participant selection so that other researchers may be able to replicate the
research.
Finally, a discussion on instrumentation for data collection, data analysis plans and
handling trust issues and ethical issues.
39
Chapter 3: Research Methods
The main objective of this study is to explore the perception of female naval
officers about the concept of revoking combat exclusion policies. This study was
conducted using generic qualitative investigations that allowed researchers to gain an
understanding of the subjective experiences of participants (Percy et al., 2015). A generic
qualitative approach is appropriate when investigating research that gets individuals
reporting on their opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or subjective reflections about things in the
outside world (Percy et al., 2015).
This chapter provides details about the research design and rationale with a
discussion of why the rationale was chosen. The role of the researcher will be described,
in addition to personal or professional relationships with any participants, and any biases
or ethical issues and how this will be addressed. A discussion on the methodology will be
given, focusing on the logic of participant selection so that other researchers may be able
to replicate the study. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the ethical
considerations of the research and a summary of the main points of the chapter. The
results of the study will be presented and discussed in Chapter 4.
Design and Research Rationale
The research question that guides this research is: What are the perceptions of
female naval officers about the revocation of combat exclusion policies on their
recruitment, retention, and promotion?
This study uses a generic qualitative approach to explore female naval officers'
perceptions of these experiences. Generic approach offers room to grow
40
new methodologies and to engage in rigorous discussions that cross disciplinary and
methodological boundaries (Kahlke, 2014). The generic qualitative approach examines
perceptions, opinions, or beliefs about a particular issue without the philosophical
construction of this approach (Percy et al., 2015). The generic approach also offers
space to develop new methodologies and to engage in discussions about rigor that cross
disciplinary and methodological boundaries (Kahlke, 2014). The generic qualitative
methodology was chosen because the research question sought to understand the
perceptions of female naval officers who had experienced combat duty and the impact
of these experiences on their retention and promotion. Since the focus of this study is to
gain a deeper understanding of subjective experience in order to provide a complex
understanding of the processes involved, a generic qualitative methodology is the
method chosen for this research question (Creswell, 2007).
In addition, according to Lim (2011), the use of a flexible methodological
approach is useful for those who conduct research on a topic or in a field where few
theories or empirical studies are available, as is the case with this topic. The specific
generic approach is the one developed by Percy et al. that examines perceptions,
opinions, or beliefs about a particular issue without the philosophical construction of this
approach (Percy et al., 2015). The data analysis in this qualitative study focuses on
inductive analysis by setting aside all pre-understanding and analyzing data collection
from interviews with female naval officers individually. After all the data were analyzed,
the recurring patterns and themes were synthesized into a composite synthesis to
interpret the meaning and implications of their perception of the effects of the
41
combat exclusion policies on their recruitment, promotion, and retention by following
twelve step-by-step analyses (Percy et al., 2015).
The study draws on the approach proposed by Enloe (2015) including examining
conflict, war, and issues of security and insecurity should be observed with 'feminist
curiosity' and studying war and conflict as experience. FSS researchers suggest that
women's experiences and narratives are an integral part of global conflicts and
hierarchical institutions, and are useful for listening to and characterizing women's
perceptions (Harding, 1989). Furthermore, shared understanding or normality is at the
heart of feminist intervention in the study of security and feminist theory begins by
examining women's experiences. This theory can access a diverse range of contexts of
women's lives while still being in tune with the contextual nature of "normality". (Enloe,
2015). Feminist theory has focused on the intersection of gender with class, nationality,
race, and other markers of identification to inform the conceptualization of women's
experiences and subjectivity (Harding, 1989).
The Role of the Researcher
What inspired me to conduct this research study was my interest in gaining
insight into the perceptions of other female naval officers who have served in combat
roles about how the revocation of combat exclusion policies affects their recruitment,
retention, and promotion. For the past 35 years, I have served in the United States Navy
as an enlisted air traffic controller, a naval intelligence officer, and I currently serve as
an intelligence officer in the Navy reserve. I have also been deployed in the combat zone
to Djibouti where I served in a combat role. I have personally observed some
42
a phenomenon that I researched and felt was important to research and provide
recommendations to improve the retention of female naval officers in the Navy.
Therefore, my primary role as a researcher is to accurately describe the
participants' experiences in relation to the topic under investigation: the perception of
female naval officers about how the revocation of combat exemption policies has
affected their recruitment, retention, and promotion. To maintain awareness of potential
biases, I noted bias before and during data collection (see Patton, 2002).
In addition, in analyzing the transcribed or printed interview data, the data was analyzed
objectively by me. In addition, I have an understanding and am open to accepting
different beliefs that help in mastering potential biases.
Methodology
Cynthia Enloe has shown that gender analysis is necessary to gain an
understanding of the motivations, costs, and consequences of military conflicts (Brooks
et al. 2012). It is important to understand women's views and take women's experiences
seriously. People in the field of war must be properly contextualized and historicized
because each setting has its own gender phase that is influenced by its own gender
history (Brooks et al.2012). Participants are instruments through which their life
experiences are lived. Using in-depth interviews, participant data will be collected and
organized for further analysis and interpretation (Brooks et al.2012).
Participant Selection Logic
This study consisted of a sample size of ten participants selected through targeted
sampling (Creswell, 2009). Questions often arise in using lower samples
43
size; however, Lichtman (2006) identified that eight participants in a generic qualitative
study were able to provide rich data to gain an understanding of the experience being
studied in depth. Lichtman (2006) also states that due to the fact that the goal in
qualitative research is to describe and understand as opposed to generalizing, there are
no concrete rules regarding the number of participants that the researcher should enroll.
The participants included women serving in combat roles in the Navy as the main
source of data. There are individual interviews of female naval officers who have served
in at least one combat zone to gain a broader view of the issue.
Instrumentation
The interviews collected were recorded and transcribed to ensure accuracy and
analyzed through thematic inductive analyses appropriate to the design of this study
(Patton, 2002; Berg & Lune 2012). Thematic analysis entails sweeping across data sets,
which can be obtained through transcribed interviews, to find recurring patterns of
meaning (Braun & Clark, 2006). Thematic analysis has several different models which
include inductive analysis, theoretical analysis, and thematic analysis with content
comparison (Percy, et al., 2015). It has been concluded that thematic inductive analysis
will be used in this study because this analysis is data-driven and will not attempt to
incorporate data into predefined categories (Percy et al., 2015). Thematic inductive
analysis personalizes the data from each participant for analysis, then the data is
synthesized together to identify repeating patterns, and finally tries to interpret the
meaning regarding the research question (Percy et al., 2015). Thematic inductive
objectives
44
Analysis is to identify themes in the data to form a synthesis of the collected data referring to
the research question.
Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection Procedures
Data collection occurred during the spring of 2022. All data collected from
participant resources is collected with explicit permission from participants and is fully
compliant with the guidelines of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) number 02-11-22-
0332282. The data was collected by myself during interviews with ten participants who
are currently on active duty in the Navy, in the active reserve for the Navy, or who have
retired from naval service. I advertise my intention to do my studies on the U.S. Naval
Academy's female officer forum and on the women's active and reserve officer forum via
Facebook. Interviews are conducted individually, and data is recorded via video.
The use of interviews and observations is common in qualitative research,
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). They are one way to get an insider's perspective on the
problem being studied. The interaction between the researcher and the participant
through the interview was, "the establishment of a human-to-human relationship with the
respondent and the desire to understand rather than explain" (Fontana & Frey, 1994, p.
366). Interviews with participants are semi-structured because they provide consistent
topic investigation with participants and basic introductory questions, but also provide
the flexibility to engage in natural conversations that provide deeper insights. This will
make the interview more honest, morally sound, and reliable, because it treats the
respondent as an equal, and allows him or her to express personal feelings, and therefore
presents a more "realistic" picture (Fontana & Frey, 1994).
45
Data Analysis Plan
Before using data analysis, I transcribed all interviews into a Microsoft Word
document where each interview was a separate document to ensure the accuracy of the
data analysis. Then, I used the Thematic Inductive Analysis method for data collection.
Because it does not attempt to fit the data into pre-existing categories, the data is
analyzed individually while looking for recurring patterns and themes using an inductive
approach (Percy et al., 2015). Thematic Inductive Analysis attempts to interpret the
meaning of the data for the research question under investigation (Percy et al., 2015).
During the data analysis process, I became familiar with the content of the interview.
Through various steps of data analysis, I read and reread the data coding to identify
themes through the process (Percy et al., 2015). In particular, a step-by-step guideline for
using Thematic Inductive Analysis for data has been outlined (Patton, 2002; Berg &
Lune 2012; Percy et al., 2015, p. 80:
1. Review the data collected from each participant that highlights any
sentences, phrases, or paragraphs that seem meaningful.
2. Review the highlighted data and use the research questions to decide if
the highlighted data is relevant to the question.
3. Eliminate all data that is not related to the question.
4. Code each piece of data as a means to track individual data items.
5. Group related or connected data items in some way and start developing
patterns. For each different pattern seen, explain it in a phrase or statement
that summarizes it.
46
6. When a pattern appears, identify the data items that fit a particular
pattern. Place them in pre-assembled groups that embody that pattern.
7. Take all the patterns and look for the emergence of the theme. When a
meaningful theme appears across the pattern, assign a more abstract
descriptor to the theme.
8. Organize the theme in a kind of matrix with a corresponding supporting pattern.
9. For each theme, write a detailed abstract analysis describing the scope
and substance of each theme.
10. Complete for each participant.
11. Then incorporate data analysis for all participants including consistent
patterns and themes across participant data.
12. Finally, the data is synthesized together to form a composite synthesis of the
collected data regarding the question being studied.
As the principal researcher, I will keep all relevant signed documentation (informed consent
and demographic questionnaires) and research data collected on a personal USB Drive
stored in a secure area (locked filing cabinet) in my office for a period of seven years,
after which all data will be destroyed.
Trust Issues
Internal credibility or validity is established through triangulation, data collection,
and member checks to help achieve the accuracy of the participant's perspective.
Triangulation according to Patton (2001) includes reflectivity in
47
the researcher's perception of the phenomenon, which includes self-awareness of the
researcher's intention about those studied (Patton, 2001, pp. 494-495). The design of the
study as described by Maxwell (2013) specifically seeks to minimize the threat of
validity with "evidence, not methods" (Maxwell, 2013, p. 128). I used the evidence
obtained during the study to address threats to validity. According to Moustakas (1994)
quoting Husserl, "there is a challenge to ensure that my perception does not affect the
participant's perception of his or her own experience (Moustakas, 1994, p. 57). Internal
validity is inherent in the correctness of participants' words regarding their perception of
the phenomenon.
Transferability (External Validity)
Transferability is understood as the extent to which a sample represents the focus
population as well as indicating that the sample has the experience and knowledge to
provide meaningful data for research (Patton, 2002). The study included female naval
officer participants who were on active duty or in the Navy reserve and who were at least
25 years old. Because the focus of this study is to gain an understanding of the
perceptions of female naval officers and about how the revocation of combat exemption
policies has affected their retention and promotion, participants must have undergone at
least one combat tour and also served at least four years in the Navy. Thus, the
participants have the insights and experience necessary to provide meaningful data about
their experiences.
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Reliable
Data triangulation is a strategy that helps with the reliability of data analysis. The
convergence of conclusions is expected to be consistent from the participant's
perspective and if not, an explanation is presented as a result of the study. The main or
underlying problem with dependencies is "consistency among procedures and if with the
design of the research question and the design features of the study correspond to them"
(Miles & Saldaña, 2013, p. 312). Data coding is reviewed and revised during the
research process to address the threat of dependency validity. Dependency is overcome
by obtaining the same results from the same participants.
Confirmation
Members check the truth they feel is the basis of quality. Miles and Saldaña
(2013) state that the quality of qualitative studies depends on the "value of truth" (Miles
& Saldaña, 2013, p. 312). Guba and Lincoln (as cited by Creswell (2007) offer a
perspective on validation, which involves alternative terms for qualitative researchers to
address beliefs. Confirmation can be handled by sharing the results of the study in
different regions of the country or university, but this research will only be able to be
generalized if future research is conducted on a quantitatively larger sample population. I
relied on participants to lend credibility to this study by sharing their perspectives with
other female officers.
49
Ethical Procedures
When conducting research, it is very important for researchers to be aware of
ethical considerations during all phases of research (Creswell, 2009). For this study, I
protect the confidentiality and identity of the participants and ensure that each participant
is aware of the research, its objectives, and has the autonomy of participation. In
addition, I protect all data (transcribed interviews, electronic recorded interviews), signed
documents, and demographic questionnaires and will continue to protect them using
secure, locked storage and maintain them for the five years required before destroying
the information.
Summary
Chapter 3 presents the procedures used in the research study. This chapter
reviews: research methodology, research design, sample size, target population, research
questions, data collection, and data analysis. This study uses generic qualitative
investigation as a philosophical theme and uses Thematic Inductive Analysis in
analyzing and interpreting the data collected during this study. The purpose of this study
was to understand the perceptions of female naval officers who had experienced combat
duty and the impact of these experiences on their retention and promotion. The study
relies on lived experience to gain a deeper understanding of how female naval officers
view the impact of the revocation of combat exemption policies on their promotion and
retention in the U.S. Navy.
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Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of this generic qualitative study was to explore the perceptions of
female naval officers to learn about the impact of the revocation of combat exemption
policies on their careers, retention, and promotion. This study was conducted to
understand how gender combat policy changes are felt by female naval officers. The
research questions used to formulate the interview questions for this study were: What
are the perceptions of female naval officers about the revocation of combat exemption
policies on their recruitment, retention, and promotion?
Chapter 4 includes a description of the demographic characteristics of participants
in the study and the application of the data analysis procedures described in Chapter 3
and a discussion of the confidence of the research results. The data analysis for Chapter 4
is organized based on research questions and concludes with a summary.
Settings
All participants for my study met the criteria set out in Chapter 3. There are no
personal or organizational conditions that affect the participant. There was also no
experience at the time of the study that affected the interpretation of the research results.
Demography
All participants for this study met the criteria described in Chapter 3. Participants
included 10 female naval officers: four officers in reserve, four retired officers, and two
active naval officers with an estimated age range between 33 and 62 years and an
average age of 48.4 years. The age range is an estimate, based on the commissioning date
and years in service. Participants have a variable designation (occupation) in
51
Navy. As mentioned in Table 1, participant names were replaced with alphanumeric
codes P1 to P10 to ensure confidentiality in interview transcripts, file names, and during
this study.
Table 1. Participant Demographics
Participants Condition Marker Rank Years of
service
P1 Suggestions Nurse Corps LT (O-3) 12
P2 Pension GURL Captain (O-6) 30
P3 Suggestions Intelligence
War
LCDR (O-4) 20
P4 Pension NFO Captain (O-6) 26
P5 Active Duty Logistics LCDR (O-4) 15
P6 Pension NFO Captain (O-6) 25
Page7 Active Duty Cryptology
Perang
LCDR (O-4) 15
P8 Suggestions Public Affairs LCDR (O-4) 14
P9 Pension Human
Resources
Captain, (O-6) 25
P10 Suggestions Intelligence
War
CDR (O-5) 20
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Data Collection
There were 10 participants who conducted interviews and data were collected.
Interviews are conducted individually and recorded through video interviews scheduled
on the Zoom platform. I asked participants to record the interview on Zoom and let them
know when I was recording and when the recording was stopped. All participants
agreed to record their interviews with the interview scheduled to last one hour. The
length of the participant's interview time varies between 40 to 50 minutes.
The transcription for each interview is completed through the Otter platform
which develops speech-to-text transcription and translation applications using artificial
intelligence and machine learning. The transcription is saved as a Microsoft Word
document and there is no variation in the data collection of the plan presented in Chapter
3. I conducted interviews with additional participants, who would be 11 participants.
However, he decided after the interview was over that he did not want his information to
be included in the research. I thanked him for his participation and removed the
interview and interview transcript for this participant. No other unusual circumstances
were encountered during the data collection part of this study.
At the end of the rest of the interview, I thanked the participants and let them
know that I would email their transcripts for their review. Audio and transcripts are
stored electronically on a password-protected device within a password-protected
account. Within 48 hours of each participant's interview, I sent an email along with the
interview transcript. Participants are asked to review their transcripts and confirm if they
are accurate. The email also included some items that were in the
53
consent form, including research objectives, participant rights, and confidentiality. The
process of reviewing participants' transcripts takes about an hour to complete. The
participants had three days to respond to me by email. All participants replied that they
were happy with their transcripts.
Data Analysis
Data for each participant were analyzed individually to interpret the meaning of
the main research question used to formulate the interview question: What are the
perceptions of female naval officers about the revocation of combat exclusion policies on
their recruitment, retention, and promotion? During the data analysis process, each
interview transcript is reviewed by the researcher to become familiar with the content of
the interview.
Throughout the 12-step model of thematic inductive analysis as defined by Percy
et al. and described in Chapter 3, I read and reread the data coding to identify themes
through the process (Percy et al., 2015, p. 80). Steps in the model are used to ensure the
accuracy of the findings. Specific models are followed, and their use is described below:
Data was collected from each participant and reviewed by highlighting any
sentences, phrases, or paragraphs that seemed meaningful to the study. Then the
highlighted data is reviewed with a research question to determine if there is a
relationship with the research question. If the highlighted data is not related to the
interview question, the highlight color of this data is changed to a different color to
separate it from the original highlighted data. The original data highlighted was then
reviewed and analyzed as it was related to the research question, but other data were also
54
It is reviewed during the data analysis process to determine if there is any information
related to the interview questions. Some data unrelated to the interview questions were
used for the demographic section of the participants. Different cases were used to
reinforce data that were closely related to the research question and using these cases in
my findings helped eliminate any bias that may have occurred during the data analysis
process.
The highlighted data related to the interview questions are encoded by making
annotations in the transcript. This information is then transcribed into a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet and organized through questions and responses from each participant with
the initial code. Once all the data is encoded, the associated code is grouped on a
spreadsheet. In grouped codes on a spreadsheet, there are several patterns or categories
that appear. For example, the importance of diversity and the phrase, 'we have a stronger
team in the end when we are not all the same' was encoded three times in an interview
with P1. Once grouped, the code from the transcript is summarized into nine codes.
After completing this process with an interview transcript from P1, the process is
completed for each participant's transcript. There were 80 codes from all participant
transcripts reviewed to develop patterns from the connected code data groups.
Throughout the inductive data analysis process, the data from each participant
was compared with the previously analyzed data. New codes are added to the spreadsheet
and grouped by existing patterns/categories if related. New patterns are created to reflect
new data that is not related to existing patterns. Direct quotes from each
55
Participant transcripts are added to spreadsheets to support data extrapolation and
inductive analysis. By continuously analyzing the data, categories are developed with
similar themes identified for each question.
With interviews with P4, the researchers noticed 'women have to work hard to
prove themselves' codes and integration patterns repeatedly emerged from the
participants' data. It was also observed that each participant reiterated that 'work-life
balance' and 'having a family and a naval career' were consistent challenges. The
interview process continues because at this point, active officers have not been
interviewed. P5 and P7, as active officers gave similar responses to previously
interviewed participants who were members of the reserve military or retired. Active task
participants also shared that 'women should always prove themselves' and this phrase was
consistently repeated by the remaining participants. Since there was no additional
information, codes, patterns, or themes derived from the current data, data saturation was
met at the 10th participant.
All themes and patterns are explained and supported by excerpts from participant
interviews. In total, there are 15 main themes emerging from the data. There was one
finding related to Q1 and three findings related to Q2 that did not match the main theme
and pattern. These findings were reviewed to determine how they support other findings
for this study. It was found that one finding related to Q1 supports the idea that women
are capable, and that differences make teams stronger. The three Q2-related findings
align with the idea that serving in combat zones is a challenging experience. Different
cases were used to reinforce the data that were closely related to the research question.
Although researchers strive to remain impartial
56
During the data analysis process, using different cases may have helped eliminate bias in
the analyzed data. As the final step in the data analysis process, the data is synthesized to
form a composite synthesis for each question.
Proof of Trust
Researchers used a reproducible method to improve four components of trust.
The four components of trust include credibility, known as internal validity;
transferability, which is analogous to external validity; Reliability, also known as
reliability, and confirmation, is a concept such as objectivity.
Credibility
The results in this qualitative study are credible to the extent that they represent the
participant's perspective. I adhere to the proper measures provided in Walden
University's IRB research guidelines to ensure the highest level of academic standards
and ethics is maintained. Credibility can be susceptible to errors in data transcription and
relies on honest responses by participants, therefore, several data sources such as
interviews, document analysis and reflection field notes are used to promote triangulation
and thus achieve credibility and consistency (Copeland & Agosto, 2012).
The researchers asked participants to engage in a transcript examination of their
members to ensure the accuracy of the data transcription and if any corrections were
necessary. This procedure also gives participants a second chance to review and reflect
on their responses without the limitation of the time the interview is recorded.
Participants are assured their identities will be kept confidential which contributes to the
honesty of participants.
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The convergence of participants' responses on consistent meanings during further data
analysis contributed to the verification of credibility.
Transferability
To facilitate the assessment of future researcher transfers and to ensure
transparency, inclusion criteria are explained and adhered to during the interview and
recruitment process. In addition, in order to properly capture insights regarding the
study participants' experiences, direct quotations are provided from the transcript to
allow comparison with other sample responses.
Reliable
To address the primary or underlying problem with dependencies, there is
"consistency among procedures and if by design the research questions and study design
features correspond to them" (Miles & Saldaña, 2013, p. 312). Data coding is reviewed
and revised during the research process to address the threat of dependency validity.
Dependency was handled using the same procedure with each participant and checking
members' transcripts which did not result in a change in response.
Confirmation
Confirmation is used to describe the objectivity and correctness of the data or the
degree of neutrality and lack of bias on the part of the researcher in reviewing the
participant's transcripts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Confirmation can be handled by sharing
the results of the study in different regions of the country or university, but the research
will only be generalized if future research is conducted on a larger sample population
58
Quantitative. I will rely on the participants to lend credibility to this research by sharing
their perspectives with other female officers.
Result
During my studies, I sought to address gaps in practice by exploring the
perceptions of female naval officers about the revocation of combat exemption policies
on their recruitment, retention, and promotion. Through one-on-one interviews with eight
open-ended questions, data was collected that provided researchers with enough insight
to answer the main research questions for the study.
The main question used to guide this research is: What are the perceptions of
female naval officers about the revocation of combat exclusion policies on their
recruitment, retention, and promotion? As mentioned in the data analysis section of this
chapter, the results used to answer each interview question are organized by interview
questions (see Table 2). Theme discussions include relevant sections of active, reserve,
and retired duty participants, with each description assigned a separate sub-section. The
discussion of each theme ends with a third sub-section, where composite descriptions of
both groups are compared to show how themes arise to answer research questions.
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Table 2. Theme Summary, Based on Participant Responses
Question Theme
1. What is your perception of the rapture
policy?
Women are capable; Must work hard to prove
yourself
2. What combat duty experience do you have? Challenging experience; Learning experience
3. Can you describe any experiences or
obstacles you believe are related to the
policy change and how it might have
happened
affecting your tasks?
Gender-based discrimination;
Work/Life Balance; Make the most of
the situation
4. What opportunities have you experienced
Complete or not complete the combat tour?
Additional job opportunities
5. What experiences related to a change in
combat exemption policy you have that
would affect your decision not to retire or
retiring from the Navy?
Work/Life Balance
6. What is your perception of how the combat
exclusion policy is implemented by
Navy?
Implementation is not widely known
7. Do you have any suggestions on a better way
implement a combat exclusion policy?
Better communication; Inherent sexism;
Diversity makes us stronger
8. Is there anything else you want to do
add?
Gender-based discrimination; Work/Life
Balance
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Interview Question 1
The first interview question is: What is your perception of the policy repeal? Two
main themes emerged for this interview question.
Theme 1: Capable Women
Data related to this question show that active-duty, reservist, and retired
participants are eager for combat exemption policies to be lifted and anticipate the
opportunities available to women. All participants supported the repeal of the policy and
the majority responded that "women are equally capable of doing combat work" and that
"we have stronger teams in the end when we are all not equal."
P3 noted, "While there are some plausible reasons for restrictions in areas like
Navy SEALS, diversity is key, and the repeal of the policy provides a new round on the
types of duties that women can be eligible for." In previous deployments, she noted,
"opportunities in the United States are available to women, but after those policies, there
have been combat deployments for women to locations like Afghanistan, Iraq, and
Djibouti."
P7 said, "I don't understand why there was an exclusion policy in the first place
and argue that the U.S. is very conservative, with the insistence on protecting a woman at
all costs, to replenish the world." P7 further noted that "there is a place for women in
every field, every position in the military, and every position in politics. Countries where
women are active in military roles and policies result in more peaceful countries." (P7,
Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
P8 noted "I don't understand what that policy means, because it never dug it up,
but the Navy is moving in the right direction with the revocation of the combat
exemption policy."
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She expressed appreciation for the opportunity for herself and said, "it feels like more
barriers that are removed for women will result in better training, and better career
opportunities, and this should result in progress for the entire service." (P8, Zoom
interview, April 6, 2022).
Theme 2: Must Work Hard to Prove Yourself
P1, a reservist described an experience in which she was a surface warfare officer
on active duty on a naval ship in the Suez Canal and the port pilot refused to deal with
her because she was a woman. P1 said, "He overcame this issue with the support of his
male executive officers who helped him transit." P1 expressed respect for the surface
warfare community that has, "more brains than muscles and supports women who work
hard and prove themselves."
P2 revealed there are many jobs closed to women, with many limitations on
career fields, such as the general unlimited line designation (GURL) (1100). This is his
career field, which does not have a war pointer, and the job is quite limited as no specific
skills are required for this job, rather the candidate must be a "generalist" and have
general knowledge of a subject or be ready to attend training or frequently complete on-
the-job training to meet the requirements of the job duties. P2 said, "If we don't succeed
in a position, the result is a poor evaluation, which will then limit promotion and thus
limit other career enhancement work." As for his duties as an indefinite general line
officer, P2 noted, "every job can be very different, and he has to work hard to make
things from scratch from position to position and consistently work harder than the
people around him to prove himself."
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P4 was told, "You took a quota (place) from a man who deserves that place more
than you." This happens many times throughout his career in the aviation community to
the head of a department, usually in O-4, the rank of Lieutenant Commander or up to 8-
10 years of naval service. For the record, P4 was the first female naval aviation officer in
the P-3 squadron and recounted that there were only seven squadrons that initially
allowed women to be assigned to them before the combat exemption policy was lifted.
At the time, she said, "I feel with seven locations, there are more options available to
women in the Navy than there are available to women in other services."
Summary of Results for Interview Question 1
Participants felt the repeal of the combat exemption policy was mostly positive
with the consensus that the policy should be lifted sooner. They considered that although
physical differences between men and women did exist, women were also capable of
doing combat work. All participants reported that they had experienced some degree of
gender discrimination. They consider themselves to need to work harder than their male
counterparts to be accepted and succeed in their careers.
Interview Question 2
The second interview question is: What combat duty experience do you have?
Two main themes emerged to answer this interview question.
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Theme 1: Challenging Experiences
While combat experience varied for participants, the dominant type of combat
support provided was post-9/11 and included support to locations in the Persian Gulf,
Afghanistan, and Djibouti.
The P4 and P10 did provide support to Bosnia in the mid-1990s, before the repeal
of the combat exemption policy. This support involves limited ground surveillance by
participants aboard naval aircraft and flights to areas where missiles are trained on those
aircraft during flight. In both cases, participants received dangerous duty, or combat pay
for their missions flown by land in Bosnia, Albania, or Montenegro.
Data from seven out of ten participants noted their combat experience was
challenging, with P1 and P5 noting a preference for Navy combat duty as a
representative of the shared combat environment. This preference is mainly due to
familiarity with their main job of surface warfare and supplies in the Navy. P5 noted,
"Personnel in positions in supply job designators receive very specific Navy training and
I feel more comfortable performing the duties required of a Navy supply officer because
that's what I'm trained to do."
P1 explained, "Everyone knows their work and supports each other on ships in
the Persian Gulf. In George Washington, which is a large aircraft carrier, more like a city,
everyone is focused on their work and the area they work in and never have any
difficulties. It wasn't until I went to the minesweeper and reported to
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The brotherhood that I experienced in a challenging environment in the surface warfare
community." (P1, Zoom interview, March 2, 2022).
P5 described some of his experiences while stationed in Afghanistan by saying,
"he helped train Afghan military personnel on logistics and found this challenging
because of the Army-centric focus and the Army's requirements to drive, shoot, save
combat lives, which are not usually part of the training the Navy requires. P5 also
recounts that, "Afghans in the areas she worked in were not interested in working with
female officers and thus she expressed a preference for Navy work and combat
experience over shared service opportunities because, "everyone knows their jobs in the
Navy." (P5, Zoom interview, March 28, 2022).
P3 and P10 were deployed to Djibouti and shared that the experience was
challenging because they left their families. P3 noted, "traveling across Africa as part of
my job responsibilities poses risks that are not addressed or prepare Navy deployment
training to deal with them. These risks include traveling throughout Ethiopia, Kenya, or
Somalia in areas with Armed Embassy personnel in hard vehicles or special forces and
there is often a requirement to carry weapons. It's something as a mother of three, I'm not
used to doing it." (P3, Zoom interview, March 9, 2022).
Theme 2: Learning Experience
Data from P6 and P7, both deployed to Afghanistan, speak of positive learning
experiences from their time in the country. P6 is the executive officer of the Provincial
Reconstruction Team in charge of the engineering project. He also works with
government officials to teach budgeting and long-term development
65
infrastructure. He noted, "It was a very good experience, I learned a lot during my time
in Afghanistan and even took a civil affairs course to qualify for the job. I'm very happy
that I took this course because it helped me a lot in the projects I worked on while in the
country." (P6, Zoom interview, April 4, 2022).
P7 worked as a senior gender advisor to the Afghan Minister of Defense when
deployed to Afghanistan. She shared, "from this experience I learned that Afghan women
have been in combat roles in Afghanistan for decades. I had the added opportunity to
meet with the only female general in the Afghan National Army who is a paratrooper and
manages an elite group of women Special Forces in Afghanistan, such as the Mossad. It
is a unique experience to see women empowered in a Muslim country." Despite the risks
associated with his time in the country, P7 said, "it was an amazing learning experience
where I felt I could really make a difference. (P7, Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
Summary Results for Interview Questions 2
Participant support in combat areas included deployments to the Persian Gulf
with aircraft carriers, Afghanistan, and Djibouti for joint support operations with Army
and Air Force colleagues, and two participants supporting the Bosnian conflict in the
mid-1990s, prior to the repeal of the combat exemption policy. All participants shared
that although the experience in battle was challenging, there were also many
opportunities to learn and make a difference in their area of specialization.
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Interview Question 3
The third interview question is: Can you describe any experiences or obstacles
you believe are related to policy changes and how they may affect your duties? Three
themes emerged to answer this interview question. Theme 1: Gender-Based
Discrimination
With the policy change, more opportunities to deploy to combat zones with Army
elements are available to active duty personnel and Navy reserves.
Participants such as P3 and P10, both reservists, found themselves deployed to a shared
service environment in Djibouti with an Army's male-dominated population where
female acceptance is often challenging.
P3 noted, "the Army colonel he worked with often underestimated the reserve
training that the Navy provided before deploying to combat zones. She needs 12-14
hours of work a day, even on Saturdays and Sundays and this creates enough challenges
for her to communicate with her husband and three children, given the 7-8 hour time
difference between Djibouti and her home in the US. The hope is to work on hours like
this even though the operational tempo doesn't require hours like this or if something
happens. After the colonel leaves, the new colonel in charge changes the schedule to an
8-hour workday during the week, half a day on Saturdays and Sundays, as needed, but
most personnel can take the time to reconnect with family, exercise, or simply relax. This
creates a much better work environment for everyone" (P3, Zoom interview, March 9,
2022).
67
P10 also worked for an Army colonel. He recounted, "he reduced my civilian
career in the Intelligence Community" and noted that when he was ill since starting the
malaria tablet regime, a requirement to be deployed to Djibouti, he would say to him,
"You, always look horrible and always sweat and blush." Or, he noted, "A male Army
major who was also a reservist and lawyer in his civilian career received constant praise
from Army colonels. While P10 was attending training in Kenya, the Army colonel tried
to remove P10 from his position and send him home.
However, P10 said, "The Major General in charge of the facility did not allow the
colonel to complete this act but gave the P10 the opportunity to move to another
organization in command. He noted that he filed an equal opportunity complaint against
the Army colonel for discrimination and after a thorough investigation, the investigator's
decision was that he had discriminated against the P10 as well as other women in the
organization, and thus he was asked to leave command early. (P10, Zoom interview,
March 31, 2022).
Theme 2: Work/Life Balance
After 9/11, the now-retired P2 was offered the opportunity to go to the Pentagon
as an executive assistant to an Admiral, which would probably help him advance in his
career. However, her husband, who was also a naval officer, was deployed to the Persian
Gulf. P2 said, "I chose the role of supporting the deputy policy role to have a home life
with my two daughters aged seven and nine."
P8, a reservist, noted that training for combat zones changed after a policy change
that allowed "for men and women to be fully prepared to go to the
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war zone." He was deployed to Kabul and traveled to Kandahar and Bagram. Although
there was training preparation on what to expect on the ground, he noted, "there was no
adequate training to prepare him away from his family." She shared, "It's very emotional
to call back to my husband and four children via FaceTime or talk on the phone. They
would go for two weeks without speaking because it was easier that way. It was
challenging to leave, but he noted within the military there are bonds formed through
friendships with the people you serve together. However, when you come back home,
you think you come home with exactly the same thing you left 10 months before, and it's
not the same at all." (P8, Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
The P10 also spoke about the experience in its placement to Djibouti, which is a
mandatory requirement, due to the implementation of the policy.
He said, "If I refuse to be deployed, I could risk being separated from the Navy's
reserves. I had just returned to the United States from a remote field location in Australia
as a Department of Defense (DoD) civilian and was informed by my reserve unit that I
had been selected to deploy to Djibouti in six months. My car and household items
haven't arrived from Australia, and I've just bought a house to share with my new
daughter, daughter-in-law and granddaughter." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022).
He noted the extreme challenge of balancing his civilian work and the responsibilities
required by managing the necessary requirements before deployment. This includes
revising his will, drafting a power of attorney because he will be abroad for more than a
year, and so much preparation in case something happens to him while deployed. He
noted, "Stress is challenging for me and my family. My 22-year-old daughter has to
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being my power of attorney to act on my behalf when I am deployed, maintaining all the
important paperwork in case something happens to me, while also raising her newborn
baby. It surprised him." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022).
Theme 3: Make the Most of the Situation
P6, now retired, shared that with every experience he tries to take it calmly and
learn from any situation. He doesn't have any specific details or experiences to relate to
from his combat tour that he wants to share, but he said, "when given lemons, he makes
lemonade."
P7, an active officer, studied Dari before being deployed to Afghanistan in his
role as a gender adviser where he had to convince men that it was good to put women
into different roles to serve in the military. She explained, "I have to talk to Afghan
families and ensure the safety of Afghan women serving in the military.
One area where women serve is as a Scan Eagle or drone pilot. In this position, the
females will report to a safe base and fly the drone against the target of interest. The job
is not sexy enough for men, but women get more kills than men. I made the most of this
situation and tried to make a difference. I have to talk to the family and make sure they
know that their daughter will be safe in the job they will be doing in the military." (P7,
Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
P10, a reservist also shared that he has taken advantage of the combat situation by
using his civilian skills to set up a threat finance cell and utilizing contacts from his
civilian government work to assist this effort which resulted in a designated target to be
appointed.
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by DoD. This was a major achievement, and he received many awards from the
command and the Navy for his work in this field.
Summary of Results for Interview Questions 3
Three dominant themes in response to this question. Gender-based discrimination
is prevalent in the Navy, and it is often necessary for women to go beyond simply doing
a good job and 'prove themselves' to be accepted in a predominantly male environment.
Additionally, the work-life balance that includes serving in the military and raising a
family is a challenging experience. If the couple is a dual military with a husband and
wife serving, it is very difficult. One partner must make sacrifices for the other to
complete their orders or placement while the other partner must be available to care for
the children. 'Taking advantage of any given situation' is the main theme that shows the
tenacity of participants to succeed in whatever situation they encounter while deployed.
Interview Question 4
The fourth interview question is: What opportunities do you experience by
completing or not completing a combat tour? One main theme emerged to answer this
interview question.
Theme 1: Additional Job Opportunities
With the exception of P5 and P8, all study participants mentioned additional job
opportunities had been made possible for them by completing a combat tour. P5 felt that
there was no opportunity from the policy that helped his career in the field of logistics.
He shared that he did not
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had good experience in Afghanistan and stated, "I know I can't handle a situation like
Afghanistan anymore."
P8 explained that he had lost his job while deployed, returned to the marriage in
chaos and experienced the stress of being deployed alone with the unit. As a result, he
"found the whole experience challenging and stressful and it didn't help him advance his
career. He lacked the resilience and coping mechanisms when deployed to Afghanistan
as a public affairs officer and this made the experience quite challenging and, "he would
not have voluntarily returned." (P8, Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
P1 recounts, "As a surface warfare officer in the region deployed forward, this
gave me the opportunity for leadership experience that is still beneficial to me today in
the civilian sector. An experience where even if you fail, it builds your leadership and
increases the trust of others." (P1, Zoom interview, March 2, 2022).
P2 noted, "I gave support to the colleagues involved in support for Desert Storm
and mobilized the USS Comfort after 9/11 and took advantage of the limited
opportunities at higher ranks when nothing else was available. Even though my
designation is constantly changing, I can make a difference in the supporting role." (P2,
Zoom interview, March 7, 2022).
P3 shared, "There were several large-scale planning exercises that I participated
in when deployed to Djibouti that allowed me to travel in Africa, experience some
training opportunities, and be able to travel to Seychelles, Madagascar, Kenya, Tanzania,
and Ethiopia, all as part of his job duties. This opportunity or this deployment location
has
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not available to him before the revocation of the policy." (P3, Zoom interview, March 9,
2022).
P4 explained, "There is more credibility to complete the combat tour. He further
elaborated; This is evidenced by the combat ribbon displayed on his uniform. The
combat award on your chest shows that you have made the right tour." By successfully
completing a career-enhancing tour, it helped him land the staff position he wanted and
eventually a position in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as an exchange
officer. She shared that this job was very rewarding and she enjoyed the most of her
career, mainly because of her acceptance and respect as a female officer by foreign
officers and aircrew. "There was no need to prove myself on that tour because I was
respected as a woman because of my experience and qualifications." (P4, Zoom
interview, March 28, 2022).
P6 shared, "combat experience makes him more competitive for promotion to O-
6, Navy Captain and his combat tours also give him credibility to get another job. This
was very important because I left the aviation field and was selected for the position of
staff officer to continue his career while my husband, who was also a Navy pilot,
changed his aircraft platform due to the closure of several bases. The platform of his
plane changed and he
The change to the position of staff officer allowed both of them to remain in the Navy
and continue their careers and remain in a joint location to raise their two children." (P6,
Zoom interview, April 4, 2022).
P7 has the opportunity to complete graduate school after completing his tour in
Afghanistan. He recalled, "The tour helped him get promoted to Commander (O-5) on a
temporary basis
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also gave him the opportunity to receive gender counselling training in Sweden and have
the opportunity to work with the Afghan people, which is a valuable experience."
P9, a retired pilot, recounted his experience of returning home after a
deployment to Afghanistan and being seen as a war hero. He said, "I was honored in my
hometown at an air show and had to participate in the Blue Angels flight
demonstration." The placement also helped him get a job as a training officer in the
reserve which in turn allowed him to transition to a human resources officer and remain
in the Navy until retirement. (P9, Zoom interview, April 11, 2022).
P10 shared, "I used my civilian experience to train others in the military and this
combination of civilian and military experience resulted in a promotion to O-5
(Commander) in the reserve." He shared that he was also promoted to GS-15 in his
civilian work, experienced additional training opportunities, and also had the opportunity
to talk about his placement experience, and mentor/share his experience with other
officers in his reserve unit." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022).
Summary of Results for Interview Questions 4
All but two participants expressed the sentiment that many job opportunities,
promotions, training, and competitiveness for other opportunities of completing a combat
tour were the main themes for this question. Two participants who did not feel there
were any additional opportunities available to them from completing the combat tour did
not have a good experience and one experienced significant problems with work/family
balance after returning from his combat tour.
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Interview Questions 5
The fifth interview question is: What experiences related to combat exemption
policy changes do you have that will influence your decision not to retire or retire from
the Navy? One main theme emerged to answer this interview question. Theme 1:
Work/Life Balance
Four (P2, P4, P6, P9) of the ten participants had retired and stated that they were
in a natural place in their careers to retire, but work/life balance was a key factor.
P2 retired from the Navy but worked for an additional 15 years as a DoD civilian
before retiring from this second career. He said, "I teach yoga now and love it."
After more than 20 years in the Navy, P4 wanted to enjoy time with her husband and son
and stated, "I don't want to devote my life to being a flag officer and living in the
Pentagon. The Navy is still a boys' club, and I spend my time."
P6 was at a natural end point in his 25-year career in the Navy and wanted to do
something different. He said, "I'm tired of physical readiness tests and weighing and need a
change."
P9 noted that his decision to retire was not related to the combat exemption
policy, but he had a distinguished career and after more than 20 years, it was a natural
end to his time in the Navy. He stated, "Draining the family to move every few years
becomes too much as my children grow up and are more involved in school activities. I
want to be a part of their lives."
P3, who has reached the 20-year mark in his backup career and has young
children said, "Family life is very important and I'm not sure if I'm willing to roll the dice
to see if I'm over
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Ascend in the battle zone again. I can't be mobilized by accident until 2023 and at that
point, I'll probably have a conversation with my family about whether to stay in the Navy
or retire." (P3, Zoom interview, March 9, 2022).
P8 stated, "I was in San Diego in 2010, I had a baby. And then in 2012, just
before I left command, I had another baby. Those were the two lowest fitness reports
(Navy evaluations) I've ever had in my entire career. As women, we always have to
constantly prove ourselves and so I think a lot of us don't just sit on top of our winnings,
we come out and make things happen because we have to. I have a lot of things to do and
I'm just getting started. The sky is the limit and I have no plans to retire." (P8, Zoom
interview, April 6, 2022).
P9 shared, "I was shocked in 2018 to realize all the women deployed with me
were divorced or in the process of divorcing after they returned from combat zone
mobilization." To help other service members, he launched a podcast, focusing on the
stories of the Naval Reserve and the National Guard. He ran the podcast for two years
and at that time, he saw the same trauma and challenges that he also experienced in the
battle zone. He noted, "So many people echoed that back to me in that podcast story and
it was very validating and at the same time, very sad." (P9, Zoom interview, April 11,
2022).
P10 shared that there are more opportunities now for women than ever before, but
"I'm too old to take advantage of them and mobilization is difficult for my family and
makes balancing a civilian career a challenge. As I approach the end of a long and
diverse career, I am happy to see that policies are changing, and that women are now not
a minority in the
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The Naval Academy and in other positions throughout the navy, like when I first
started my career in 1986." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022).
Summary Results for Interview Questions 5
Work-life balance is the main theme for this question as the main reason for
retiring or expressing a desire to retire from the Navy. The underlying themes of gender-
based discrimination and the challenges of combat deployment are also present in the
results for this question.
Interview Questions 6
The sixth interview question is: What is your perception of how the combat
exemption policy is implemented by the Navy? One main theme emerged to answer this
interview question.
Theme 1: Widely Unknown Implementations
Eight out of ten participants felt the Navy could do a better job of communicating
the impact of combat exclusion policies. P2 shared, "The Navy could have
communicated the change better, rather than changing my designation overnight, which
severely limited my career."
P3 noted, "Either I didn't read my email, or I missed the notification, but it looks
like the policy is there. There was so much talk about whether it would be revoked or not
and opinions on whether it would happen, then it was there and now everything is fine."
P4 shared, "The Navy can do a better job with implementation. For example, the
Navy lowered the score for pilotability from 9 to 3 for
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Accommodate more women in the flight path. This is causing a huge ownership problem
for women in aviation programs and makes it much harder for women in flight training
to prove themselves." (P4, Zoom interview, March 28, 2022).
P5 said, "I didn't pay much attention to how the policy was implemented but
noted with a major policy change, logistics was a big part of that rollout and the change
shouldn't have been done overnight, but it seems to be working now." (P5, Zoom
interview, March 28, 2022).
P7 stated, "With the exception of the media, I did not know that it was widely
known that the combat exclusion policy had been implemented. I feel like if the Navy
really believes in him, they will advertise it extensively. I doubt that recruiters are widely
advertising or encouraging women to be in some roles that they were not allowed to do
before the policy was lifted. There are some high-profile jobs like women on submarines
and I don't think women are encouraged to do any special operations." (P7, Zoom
interview, April 6, 2022).
P8 noted that the implementation of the policy, "does not receive the same
emphasis as sexual violence awareness and there is no campaign to promote it or explain
what it means for the service." He shared that he was unaware of the implications of the
change, but that, "seems to be working now."
P9 recounts that, "It didn't have a major impact on the program I was running at
the time, but the policy change took a few years before the rest of the Navy caught up.
However, the infrastructure is not in place within the Navy to logistically support policy
changes at the time of implementation." (P9, Zoom interview, April 11, 2022).
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P10 shared that he was unaware of how the policy would be implemented or the
implications of the change, but felt the policy change seemed to be working now.
There were two positive comments from P1 and P4 with P1 noting that he felt that the
Navy and Air Force were the best at implementing policies stating, "The law says there is
something we have to do, and we follow our civilian leadership. We're going to make a
few mistakes along the way, but the Navy isn't stuck in the Stone Age for an
implementation like the Marine Corps." (P1, Zoom interview, March 2, 2022).
P4 was pleased with the opportunities the Navy gave him because of the policy
and said, "The Navy has the advantage of having so many fields open to women, and
more opportunities than any other service."
Summary Results for Interview Questions 6
Participants did not feel that the implementation of the combat exclusion policy
was widely known. The consensus from the participants was that communication and
advertising about the implications of the policy repeal was minimal, but there have been
improvements within the Navy over the years.
Interview Questions 7
The seventh interview question is: Do you have any suggestions on how to better
implement the combat exclusion policy? Three main themes emerged to answer this
interview question.
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Theme 1: Better Communication
P2 suggested the Navy could release a bulletin that would be one of the means
to improve communication, along with education and mentoring to make the
implementation of the new policy more effective.
P4 advised the Navy, "Stop talking about it and just do it, implement the policy
because people will find problems until something becomes the actual policy. There
needs to be a total integration representative gimmick like all women's ships or women's
submarines." He went on to share, "There is a need to have the best people in the best
positions with the best skills to overcome the challenges of today's world. Integration and
implementation—just do it!" (P4, Zoom interview, March 28, 2022).
P5 recommends a slow and thoughtful implementation approach to evaluate the
best actions on the logistics side and for better perception and understanding of the
policy, he emphasized that, "logistics should be part of the policy implementation plan."
(P5, Zoom interview, March 28, 2022).
P8 believes, "Communication and education are key around the distinction made.
Beyond the fact that the SEAL community is now open to female applicants, more
education regarding the opportunities available to women can serve to provide better
communication about what is expected and allow the Navy to have the best people in a
position to tackle the world's challenges." (P8, Zoom interview, April 6, 2022).
P10 argues, "A phased approach may work better for implementation. Such an
approach would consider ship logistics and berthing requirements as part of the
implementation process. A key element of this approach is communication to
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Let men and women know what that policy means and will mean for the future. This
approach may have prevented some women from being placed in positions where they
are social experiments." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022). This statement is
related to an earlier comment in an interview that recounted an example where women
were placed on surface ships without proper berths or separate bathroom facilities. The
presence of women encouraged surface ship command officers to create their own spaces
to facilitate women. This action often raises problems involving male officers being
removed from their cabins to accommodate the presence of female officers and male
officers expressing their contempt for their female colleagues for this act and their
presence on the ship which is all male.
Theme 2: Inherent Sexism
P6 thinks, "There are a lot of problems in the Navy that are not specific to policy.
I think many of them are more specific to deep-rooted belief systems and just inherent
sexism. Women have to start from scratch and prove themselves in every job and policy
is easier to change than people think." (P6, Zoom interview, April 4, 2022).
P7 expresses the following, "The Navy is not prepared for women who are
breadwinners and have children. The Navy is not prepared for men who have wives who
are in the military or have full-time careers. And I feel like the Navy and the military in
general are very much geared towards men who have wives who live at home. They need
to do a better job of trying to reach women on platforms where women are active, if they
are active.
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serious about the complete integration of women in the navy." (P7, Zoom interview, April 6,
2022).
Theme 3: Diversity Makes Us Stronger
P1 tells the story of when she was at the U.S. Naval Academy (USNA), in the
late 1990s and the percentage of women was about 10%. USNA Class of 2021 includes
327 women (27%) and a total of 451 minority mid-level officers (37%) (USNA Public
Affairs, 2021). P1 feels the addition of more women creates a stronger team with more
female colleagues to support each other, thus creating a stronger team when everyone is
not all the same. He further noted, "When minorities are not small, it is normalized, and
diversity makes us stronger." (P1, Zoom interview, March 2, 2022).
P3 agrees with this line of thinking by connecting that, "Women can do any job
we think of." However, he also expressed some concern by stating, "There are some jobs
that may not be the best for women because they may harm men who may want to
become knights and to protect women. Women can be on ships in combat positions but
may not be prepared to be on the battlefield. On the contrary, on a warship, everyone is
doing their job and it is a completely different situation with Afghanistan." (P3, Zoom
interview, March 9, 2022).
Summary Results for Interview Questions 7
Three themes emerged in response to this question for suggestions to improve the
implementation of combat exclusion policies. This includes the need for better
communication, more education, and mentoring on policy, as well as taking a multi-
phase approach to the implementation of new policies that may prove more
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effective. Although not related to the policy, participants expressed the belief that sexism
was prevalent in the Navy and the military in general with traditions and policies that as
one participant noted, "Aimed at men who have wives who live in the home." Finally, the
importance of diversity is emphasized, which makes the team stronger.
Interview Questions 8
The eighth interview question is: Is there anything else you would like to add?
Two main themes emerged to answer this interview question.
Theme 1: Gender-Based Discrimination
Half of the participants added that one of the biggest problems for female naval
officers is gender-based discrimination and the need for women to prove themselves to
their male counterparts. P1 noted, "he is still traumatized by the events that caused him to
leave active duty and the unfair treatment between himself and his male commander in
fraternal situations, which resulted in him leaving activity duty. The male commander
was allowed to remain on active duty and retired with full benefits and he left the service
and then rejoined the Corps of Nurses in reserve, an area completely different from the
surface warfare career he had chosen after receiving his commission. (P1, Zoom
interview, March 2, 2022).
P4 stated, "Although things have improved over the years, there still needs to be
continuous improvement in conditions, uniforms, and consistent patterns of improvement
so that women feel accepted and do not feel the need to prove themselves."
P5 shared, "Equality is key, and we still have to prove ourselves, but it will be
very helpful for women to meet the qualifications as men. For example, if a woman
leaves
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into combat units, the level of training must be the same as that of men. The Navy
should not diminish the superiority of SEALS to allow the entry of women." (P5, Zoom
interview, March 28, 2022).
P7 related "Women are not looking for equality, but equality, which is different
and finding a special formula for the Navy to recognize that and allow us to grow as
much as men do is key. It would be nice to see more women in senior leadership
positions and for women to 'forget' our impostor syndrome." (P7, Zoom interview, April
6, 2022).
P8 shared his experience when he was deployed on a Navy ship as a surface
warfare officer, "When you're the only woman on that ship and you're the only woman
that the all-male crew sees month after month and we don't pull into port while it's
walking, there's so much focus and attention on those women. They can't blend in with
the male crew and every act is highlighted and magnified." He shared, "There seems to
have been a tipping point on both of my deployments with an all-male crew that we
never integrated. This is not seen in the continued deployment to Afghanistan because
the personnel are more integrated, and the environment is co-ed." (P8, Zoom interview,
April 6, 2022).
P9 stated, "Dealing with change is very difficult for everyone, for organizations,
for people, for everything. Some policies are launched better than others. I feel like as a
woman, I have to get better to be as good as a man. If that feeling doesn't change, then
female friction will always be a problem for the navy." (P9, Zoom interview, April 11,
2022).
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P10 noted, "Even today, a woman has to work harder to be accepted as a man –
even if she has higher qualifications. Therefore, justice and equality need to be
emphasized and maintained consistently."
Theme 2: Work/Life Balance
P2 relates, "Raising children and trying to serve your country is difficult. These
difficulties increased during COVID and there were major issues with childcare, while
female service members were still expected to serve and continue the journey. Family
challenges will continue in today's environment. I just hope women continue to be
successful out there." (P2, Zoom interview, March 7, 2022).
P6 noted, "The navy should offer some flexibility by balancing family life. It's
hard to work with a degree and raise kids—in active duty or in reserve, the same thing.
There has to be a choice, because this is not just a woman's problem—it also affects
men with families." (P6, Zoom interview, April 4, 2022).
P10 shared, "Change is difficult for all organizations and the Navy is no different.
The policy launch must be timely to reach not only the head of the organization, but also
the deck plate sailors. A variety of media sources are needed to influence the level of
change required for diversity and inclusion needed for the Navy today. In order for the
Navy to retain qualified personnel, there must be recognition of work/life balance issues
that affect women in service, as well as men." (P10, Zoom interview, March 31, 2022).
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Summary of Results for Interview Questions 8
Two themes of gender-based discrimination and work/life balance were noted.
Gender-based discrimination and the need for women to prove themselves to their male
counterparts are still prevalent in the navy and the equality of women in senior positions
will help equality for women in the service. Work/life balance and the need to offer
options to balance family life while continuing to serve in the navy are the main themes
in responding to this question.
Summary
The main question used to guide this research is: What are the perceptions of
female naval officers about the revocation of combat exclusion policies on their
recruitment, retention, and promotion? This key question was answered by asking eight
interview questions from ten participants in the study. As noted in Table 2 below, the
findings suggest that participants felt the revocation of the combat exclusion policy
positively with the consensus that the policy should have been lifted sooner. All
participants reported that they had experienced gender-based discrimination to some
degree. They consider themselves to need to work harder than their male counterparts to
be accepted and succeed in their careers. It was noted by several participants that equality
of women in senior positions will help equality of services for women.
All participants shared that although the experience in battle was challenging,
there were also many opportunities to learn and make a difference in their area of
specialization. In addition, the work-life balance that includes serving in the military and
raising a family is seen as quite a challenging experience.
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Work-life balance is also a major theme for retired participants or those who are
still in reserve or on active duty and express a desire to retire from the Navy.
There is a need to offer options for balancing family life to military members who still
want to continue serving in the navy. The underlying themes of gender-based
discrimination and the challenges of deploying combat are also presented as reasons for
wanting to retire. When asked about the implementation of the combat exemption policy,
the consensus from the participants was that the communication and advertising
implications of the revocation of the policy were minimal, but there have been
improvements within the Navy over the years. There is a need to improve
communication, more education, and mentoring about such policies, as well as take a
multi-phase approach to the implementation of new policies, which may prove to be
more effective.
Chapter 5 covers the discussion, interpretation, and implications of these results.
It begins with a review and discussion of the findings presented in this chapter.
Furthermore, it includes the interpretation of the findings and how they confirm, reject,
or extend the conclusions of previous researchers. Chapter 5 then includes a discussion
of the limitations of the research, followed by recommendations based on the findings
for leaders,
practitioners, and future researchers. The summary and closing remarks conclude this study.
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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
The demographics of military service are changing today with women making up
24.8% of the naval officer corps in 2020 (US DoD, 2020). This is an increase of 4.8%
from 2018 (Council on Foreign Relations, 2018). Given the increase of women in A.S.
ini military service, it is important to understand how female naval officers have been
integrated into naval combat roles and how they view the impact of these new roles on
their recruitment, retention, and promotion.
The purpose of this study is to explore the perception of female naval officers
who have been assigned combat duty about how the revocation of combat exclusion
policies has affected their recruitment, retention, and promotion within the military. The
purpose of this study is to increase understanding of the unique phenomenon of women
in historical experiences of gender and stress, such as combat experiences in war zones.
The findings, as noted in Table 2, show that participants feel the revocation of combat
exemption policies positively, resulting in many opportunities and benefits for their
careers.
All participants reported that they had experienced some degree of gender-based
discrimination and felt the need to work harder than their male counterparts to be
accepted and succeed in their careers. All participants shared that although the
experience in battle was challenging, there were also many opportunities to learn and
make a difference in their area of specialization. Work/life balance was also a key theme
for participants preparing to retire or expressing a desire to retire from the Navy. There
are also underlying themes of gender-based discrimination and challenges
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Combat placement is presented as a reason for wanting to retire. There is an ongoing
need to improve communication, more education, and mentoring on war exclusion
policies, as well as take a multiphase approach to the implementation of new policies on
women.
This chapter contains a discussion of the findings presented in Chapter 4 and
includes interpretations of the findings juxtaposed with existing literature and theoretical
frameworks. The limitations faced during the study are presented in this chapter as well,
followed by recommendations to leaders and researchers for future research. The
summary and closing remarks conclude Chapter 5 and the research.
Interpretation of Findings
After analyzing data from participants, I was able to gain better insights into the
perceptions of female naval officers about the impact of the revocation of combat
exemption policies on their careers. Using the lens of the research literature and the
work of FSS Cynthia Enloe, including and her attention to feminist theory and the need
to observe with 'feminist curiosity' the study of war and conflict as experience, the
findings of my research have some similarities and differences with previous studies.
The findings showed that participants felt the revocation of the combat exclusion
policy positively with the consensus that the policy should be lifted sooner. This supports
previous research studies and directly correlates with Sadler's (1999) study which
discussed the achievement of higher status and better retirement were the positive
benefits of serving in combat, and the negative effects included receiving continued
discrimination from male officers (Sadler, 1999). All participants reported that they
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have experienced gender-based discrimination to a certain extent which corresponds to
the Dunn study (2015), in which they stated, "They have always experienced
discrimination and hostility from their male counterparts, but now come with the ability
to hold positions of power" (Dunn, 2015).
In addition, "The process of integrating women first into the Navy and later into
fleet operations has been a long, slow, and controversial process influenced by
institutional biases, attitudes, and political and cultural trends" (Balano & Rosenberg,
2007, p. 6). Participants in my study echoed this sentiment and considered themselves to
need to work harder than their male counterparts to be accepted and succeed in their
careers. Some participants noted that women's equality in senior positions will help
equality of service for women across the Navy.
All participants shared that although the experience in battle was challenging,
there were also many opportunities to learn and make a difference in their area of
specialization. The participants were mostly positive about their combat experience and
noted that the experience was challenging especially for the shared duty experience in
Afghanistan and Djibouti, and they expressed a preference for the deployment of the
Navy in their designation specialization but no concerns were expressed regarding
personal safety or possible assault in joint combat duty. While Erika and DiNitto (2019)
found that many women were more afraid of what would happen to them in their own
camps than of actual combat, this was not the case with the participants in this study.
Hanna (2014) found the same was true during the study when women reported that the
number of assault cases at their base made them more worried about their safety than
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exposure to combat hazards. Female officers felt that they were more likely to be
targeted by their male counterparts when they were in combat positions away from U.S.
bases due to a lack of support resources at combat zone locations (Hanna, 2014).
There were no instances in which female naval officers who participated in the study
expressed fear or concern for their own personal safety while serving in a combat duty
capacity.
Meadows et al. (2016) looked at ways to improve retention of female officers in
the Navy and detailed factors that the military can leverage to improve retention of
female officers by encouraging female officers to overcome the fear of long-term
separation from a family unit perspective to address the problem of female officer
retention. Work-life balance, which includes serving in the military and raising a family,
was a theme that resonated with the participants and is still quite a challenging
experience.
The U.S. Navy-specific research by Smith and Rosenstein (2014) showed gender
differences in career intent and influence by male and female counterparts while also
examining the retention of women in combat specialties and why retention is higher for
men. They found men and women leaving the Navy due to the impact of service in the
Navy, which includes placement and mobilization that may be inflicted on families and
separations, divorce rates. While work-life balance is the main theme for retired,
reservists, and active duty participants, and all participants expressed a desire to remain
in service and retire from the Navy. Table 1 includes years of service for each participant
with the least number of years of service being 12 years and the highest number of years
of service being 30, with an average of 20.2 years of service for all
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Participants. These findings support statistics showing that more women remain on
active duty for a longer period of time to receive their pensions after retirement
(Meadows et al., 2016).
Prior to the repeal of the policy, female veterans were not recognized for their
contributions to our nation's defense and were not allowed to serve in combat roles, but
they played an integral role in the U.S. military (Rainey, 2018). Participants recognise
the implications of the repeal of policies and opportunities provided to them, often to
advance their careers or achieve higher rankings, or opportunities for additional training
and travel. However, there is a consensus from participants that the communication and
advertising implications of the policy revocation are minimal. There is still a need to
improve communication, more education, and mentoring on such policies, as well as take
a multi-phase approach to the implementation of new policies, which may prove more
effective in enhancing the role of women officers in the Navy.
The study is based on the work of FSS Cynthia Enloe and her work on feminist
theory in international relations, and feminist geography and emphasizes the need to
examine the military and conflict in a non-traditional way (Enloe, 2015). Enloe (2015)
proposes including an examination of conflict, war, and issues of security and insecurity
that should be observed with 'feminist curiosity' and study war and conflict as
experience. The experiences of the participants in my study provided unique insights into
their perceptions of the positive revocation of combat exclusion policies and provided
insights into diverse experiences in combat zones in Afghanistan, Djibouti, Bosnia, and
the Persian Gulf. Some participants referred to their combat experience
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as a challenge, but also a learning experience that further shapes their careers by
providing credibility for having completed combat tours, additional leadership and
educational opportunities, travel, and advancement. Participants' combat experience did
not affect retention as Table 1 depicts years of service for participants and all expressed a
desire to remain in service and retire to receive retirement benefits.
The participants conveyed work-life balance as an issue that also impacts men with
families as well and revealed the challenges of raising a family while still serving their
country.
Study Limitations
In addition to the limitations cited in Chapter 1, the qualitative nature of this
study also limits its findings. Although the participants provided a lot of depth and detail
regarding their experiences, no correlation or causality formed from these results.
Additionally, while previous studies on different branches of the military or different
locations may have the same findings as this study, these findings may not be generalized
to all branches and groups of the military. Certain nuances between military groups and
branches can lead to different experiences for female soldiers and different perceptions
of recruitment, retention, and promotion in the military. There are also limitations due to
limited research in the field for female naval officers' perceptions of combat role policy
and career advancement. There were only ten participants and all volunteers from various
military occupations, but none of the participants from the submarine warfare
community, which is a relatively new career field for women, after the repeal of the
exemption policy.
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Additionally, as a female naval officer, I use a variety of strategies to overcome
any bias that may affect the results of the research. To help stay impartial during the
interview, I followed the interview guidelines (see Appendix A), remained neutral, and
spoke in a positive tone when interacting with interviewees (see Creswell, 2012).
Participants reviewed their interview transcripts and confirmed the accuracy of their
transcripts and were offered the opportunity to recommend changes to their transcripts.
All participants were satisfied with their transcripts.
Recommendations
Additional research is needed to explore the perception of female naval officers
and the impact of combat exclusion policies on their careers, retention, and promotion.
My study was limited to 10 participants and did not include women from the submarine
warfare community, a relatively recent job designation that became available to female
naval officers in 2010 and is estimated to take until about 2026 before a woman can lead
a U.S. Navy submarine (McDermott, 2018). Additional research will also be needed
when female naval officers are accepted into the SEAL community.
Information from my research provides insights from participants about combat
exemption policies, promotions, retention, and pensions. If surveys or interviews are
conducted on a larger scale by the Navy, leaders can use this information to improve
communication, provide more education, and mentorship on policy to improve
understanding and build better cohesiveness for female naval officers.
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Implication
The findings from my research reveal several themes that affect female naval
officers serving on combat tours after the revocation of combat exemption policies. By
developing an understanding of how the policy is perceived, documenting
recommendations to positively improve social construction, conditions for female
officers in the Navy can be developed. These changes can positively impact men and
women serving together in the military in combat environments and can also be
identified to promote positive social change and increase diversity and inclusion within
the U.S. Navy.
The consensus from the participants was that communication and advertising
about the implications of the policy repeal was minimal, but there have been
improvements within the Navy over the years. More advertising by the Navy to women's
forums about the benefits of experiences in new communities will encourage women to
take roles, such as submarines and SEALs that were not available to women before the
policy was lifted. A phased approach to rolling out new policies and having logistics,
such as separate berthing facilities, before introducing policies will also reduce the
potential impact of introducing women into new roles or work areas.
Gender-based discrimination and the need for women to prove themselves to
their male counterparts are still prevalent in the navy and the equality of women in
senior positions will help equality for women in the service. Sustained improvement in
conditions, uniformity, and consistent patterns of emphasizing inclusion and diversity so
that women feel accepted has the potential to impact some prevalent sexism and sexism
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gender discrimination noted by participants to promote positive social change for female
service members in the Navy.
The emphasis on work/life balance and the need to offer service members options
to allow them to balance family life, while continuing to serve in the Navy are key
themes that have potential implications for positive social change. This should be
explored by the Navy to recruit and retain highly trained professions in the service of
their country.
Conclusion
During my study, I explored female naval officers' perceptions of the repeal of
combat exclusion policies to help fill gaps in the literature about how changes in gender
combat policy are perceived by female officers assigned to combat positions in the U.S.
Navy. Overall, the revocation of the combat exemption policy was felt positively with
the consensus that the policy should be lifted sooner. All participants reported that they
had experienced gender-based discrimination to some degree and expressed the need to
work harder than their male counterparts to be accepted and succeed in their careers.
The participants shared that their combat experience was challenging but
provided many opportunities to learn and make a difference. Work-life balance is a key
theme for retired participants or those who are still in reserve or active duty and express a
desire to retire from the Navy. The underlying themes of gender-based discrimination
and the challenges of deploying combat are also presented as reasons for wanting to
retire.
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In summary, female naval officers did view combat exclusion policies positively
but could integrate more effectively if they did not experience the challenges posed in
this study. These findings emphasize the need for better communication, more education,
and mentoring on policy, as well as taking a multi-phase approach to the implementation
of new policies. There is a need to offer options for balancing family life to service
members who still want to continue serving in the Navy and the equality of women in
senior positions will help equality of service for women and promote positive social
change for women serving in the Navy.
