MOTIVATION AND NEEDS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
MKT 402 - CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
WEEK 1
1. Definition of Motivation
In the literature on consumer behavior, there are still few discussions that talk
specifically about consumer motivation in buying a particular brand of product/service. To
overcome this, the author tries to take material from several national and international
journals which are the results of research on consumer motivation with various approaches
to motivation theory.
Motivation is a driver from within a person to do or achieve a goal. Motivation can
also be said to be a plan or desire to lead to success and avoid failure in life. In other words,
motivation is a process to achieve a goal. Someone who has motivation means that he has
the power to gain success in his life.
A glimpse of motivation is when we feel hungry or thirsty, then we will immediately
look for food or drink to relieve the hunger and thirst. Hunger and thirst are physical
conditions that cause a person to need food and drink to relieve hunger and thirst. Hunger
and thirst drive a person to look for food and drink. This impulse is called motivation. A
person's urge to consume a product/service is usually influenced by the needs that must be
met. In fulfilling needs, the level of consumer motivation varies. There are consumers who
are passive and there are consumers who are actively seeking information related to the
products/services used to meet their needs.
The above conditions create problems for producers or marketers. In order to achieve
sales targets certain, if consumers are in a passive condition, the maximum sales target will
not be achieved. So the task of producers or marketers is to create a stimulus (stimulus) to
arouse consumer motivation so that they want to fulfill their needs as expected by producers
and marketers. Manufacturers and marketers must also create a condition that can provide
comfort and satisfaction for consumers. Given that the level of consumer motivation tends to
change, producers and marketers need to know how much influence the stimulus created has
on buying decisions.
Motivation usually includes desires, hopes, needs, goals, objectives, drives and
incentives. Thus a motive is a person's psychological state that encourages, activates and
moves. This motive is what drives and channels a person's behavior, attitudes and actions
which are always related to achieving goals. (Siagian, 1995: 142).
Motivation can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is when the nature
of the work itself motivates a person, the person gets satisfaction by doing the job not
because of other stimuli such as status or money or it can also be said that a person is doing
his hobby. Meanwhile, extrinsic motivation is when elements outside the job that are
inherent in the job are the main factors that make a person motivated such as status or
compensation.
In Ujang Sumarwan (2002: 34) mentions several definitions of motivation as
follows:
Motivation can be described as the driving force within individuals that impels them to
action. This driving force is produced by a state of tension, which exists as the result of
unfulfilled need".
Solomon (1999) defines "Motivation refers to processes that cause people to behave
as they do. It occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer seeks to satisfy. Once a need
has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or
eliminate the need".
Mowen and Minor (1998) define "Motivation refers to an activated state within a
person that leads to goal-directed behavior. It concists of the drives, urges, wishes, or
desires that initiate the sequence of events leading to a behavior".
From these definitions, it can be concluded that motivation arises because of the
needs felt by consumers. Needs themselves arise because consumers feel discomfort (state
of tension) between what should be felt and what is actually felt. This perceived need
encourages someone to take action to meet needs. This is what is referred to as motivation.
According to Reksohadiprodjo and Handoko (1997: 252) motivation is a personal state
of a person that encourages the desire to carry out certain activities to achieve goals.
Meanwhile, Buhler, (2004: 191) provides an opinion on the importance of motivation as
follows: "Motivation is basically a process that determines how much effort will be devoted
to carrying out work". Consumer motivation or encouragement is very decisive for
achieving the company's marketing goals, so producers and marketers must be able to foster
the highest possible motivation for their consumers.
The definition of motivation is closely related to the emergence of a tendency to do
something in order to achieve goals. There is a strong relationship between motivational
needs, actions or behaviors, goals and satisfaction, because every change in motivation is a
result of a change in behavior.
is always there thanks to motivation. Motivation arises because of a need and therefore the
action is directed towards achieving a certain goal. If the goal has been achieved, satisfaction
will be achieved and tends to be repeated, making it stronger and more stable.
2. Motivation Model
Motivation is formed because of a stimulus or stimulus. Stimuli can come from within
a person (physiological conditions), for example, hunger and thirst will encourage the
emergence of needs (need recognition). This stimulus or stimulation occurs because of the
gap between what is felt and what should be felt. This gap causes hunger and thirst, which
encourages consumers to recognize the need to eat and drink (need recognition: unfulfilled
needs, wants, and desires).
In Ujang Sumarwan (2002: 35), it is said that every introduction of needs will cause
pressure (tension) on consumers so that there is an urge on him (drive state) to take goal-
directed behavior. These actions can be of various kinds, first consumers will look for
information about products, brands, or stores. Second, consumers may talk to friends,
relatives, or visit the store. Third, consumers may buy products or services to meet these
needs. These actions will lead to the achievement of consumer goals or fulfillment of
consumer needs (goal or need fulfillment) or consumers get incentives (incentive objects or
consumer incentives). Incentives can be in the form of products, services, information that
are seen as meeting consumer needs. Figure 2.1 shows how the motivation process occurs.
3. Needs
a. Definition of Need
The definition of need according to Ekawati (2010) is an urge that arises both from
within (internal) and from outside (external) to perform an action in order to create
satisfaction both physically and mentally. If the action is not done, it will cause discomfort,
even to death. For example, a person whose hunger needs arise, must immediately eat so as
to create satisfaction and comfort. If not fulfilled, it will cause physical pain and even death.
Needs according to Siagian (1989: 139) are an internal state of a person that causes
certain business results to be attractive. This means that an unsatisfied need creates a
"tension" which in turn creates a certain drive in a person. If a need is not satisfied, then the
person does not feel happy. The greater the The more unsatisfied the need, the deeper and
more central it becomes. An unhappy person will do one of two things: look for an object
that will satisfy the need or negate the desire. So a need is something that a person wants at a
particular moment.
In fulfilling their needs, one can do so by working. By working, a person will get
income and spend it according to the size of the needs that arise. Working is also a
manifestation of one's worship to Allah SWT, because indeed working activities are ordered
by Allah SWT for every human being to do. Work is also worth devotion to social society
and the state, because by working, the role of individuals in society and the State will be
optimized.
A person's needs can be assessed from two characteristics, namely material and non-
material characteristics. Material properties appear when related to material aspects, for
example the amount of wages received, the size of the gift from someone, how much money
must be spent when the child is sick etc. Meanwhile, non-material ones appear when
connected to non-material aspects, but will also result in the creation of satisfaction. For
example, the feeling of being appreciated by others in their social community, parents who
need love and attention from their children, students who get first place will feel like the
smartest in their class, etc.
The needs felt by consumers can arise due to factors from within the consumer
(physiological), for example hunger, thirst, sexual needs, urination, etc. And needs can also
arise from outside the consumer, for example billboards of Pitzza images on the side of the
road that arouse appetite, the aroma of goat satay that spreads from the direction of the satay
shop, causing a desire to eat consumers to taste it immediately. Advertisements for discounts
of 50%-75%, which are displayed in large letters and attractive colors in self-service outlets,
can also trigger consumers to feel from not needing to needing and finally buying products
that are discounted at that time.
In addition to primary needs, there are also secondary needs or motives. Secondary
needs or acquired needs are needs that arise as a reaction of consumers to their environment
and culture. These needs are usually psychological in nature because they are influenced by
the subjective attitudes of consumers and their environment. Secondary needs include self-
esteem, prestige, effection, and power. For example, a house is a primary need for
consumers. However, there are some consumers who build very luxurious houses, because
they want to be seen as successful and rich people. So that in choosing the location also
illustrates the upper social class (High Class). The choice of house shape and location can
also reflect the secondary needs of certain consumers.
Felt needs are often differentiated based on the nature and usefulness of the product
expected from the purchase. First, are utilitarian needs, which are needs that encourage
consumers to buy products because of the functional usefulness and objective nature of the
product. For example, a knife will provide functional uses to facilitate the work of a mother
who is cooking in the kitchen in cutting and slicing raw food ingredients. Automatically, the
mother will buy a knife, because it aims to fulfill her utilitarian needs. Because it is
impossible for mom to cut and slice with her own hands.
The second is expressive or hedonic needs, which are psychological needs such as
satisfaction, prestige, emotions and other subjective feelings. These needs often arise to meet
formal, social and aesthetic demands based on certain cultures from their environment. A
student of STAIN Kudus (consumer) must wear a headscarf when in the campus
environment of STAIN Kudus. The jilbab may not provide functional benefits to the
consumer's body in general. But the hijab is worn because of the woman's obedience to
Islamic law and the dress code at STAIN Kudus, so it will provide aesthetic and social
benefits.
4. Goals
The definition of goals is the end result that a person expects at the time of the
emergence of encouragement (motivation). In behaving to meet their needs, consumers have
a certain orientation, which is called goal-oriented behavior. Goals are also interpreted as a
way to fulfill needs. So that if there is a goal, there is a need. There are two types of goals,
namely generic product goals and specific product goals (Ujang Sumarwan: 2002).
Generic product goals are the general purpose of an action that is seen as one way of
meeting consumer needs. Meanwhile, specific product goals are the specific goals of
consumers when choosing products or services with certain brands. For example, a
consumer who states that he wants to own a house has stated his generic goal. Whereas
when someone mentions that the house to be purchased is a luxury house in elite housing
with a type 4x5, then consumers have stated their specific goals (Specific product goals).
Another example is when a mother says she will wash clothes and buy soap, then the mother
has stated her generic goal, but when she says she will buy soap, then the mother has stated
her specific product goal. buying rinso soap at the "SAFARA" store to wash clothes, then
she has stated her specific purpose.
Producers and marketers must understand how generic and specific consumer goals
are, in order to direct them in accordance with what the producer/marketer wants. For
example, when a consumer states that they are hungry (generic goal), manufacturers and
marketers of food products should be able to direct the generic goal to the specific goal of
the consumer by saying "If you are hungry....eat a fried chiken from the I Kentucky
Value Pack". With a statement like this, the marketer has directed the consumer to the
consumer's specific goal.
"If you need an energy drink, drink Pocari Sweat..... isotonic drink to replace
body ions". The sentence stating that Pocari Sweat is an isotonic drink that replaces body
ions, illustrates how producers/marketers direct consumers to the specific purpose of the
product.
5. Motivation and Needs Theory
Several theories about motivation have been put forward by experts. This is intended
to provide a description of what, how and for what to study human motivation. Landy and
Becker categorized this motivation theory approach into 5 categories, namely:
1) Need theory
2) Reinforcement theory
3) Theory of justice
4) Expectancy theory, and
5) Goal-setting theory.
a. Abraham Maslow's theory (1943; 1970)
Dr. Abraham Maslow, is a clinical psychologist who introduced a tiered theory of
needs known as Maslow's theory or Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow suggests five human needs based on the level of importance starting from the
lowest, namely biological needs, (physiological or biogenic needs) to the highest, namely
psychogenic needs (pshycogenis needs). According to Maslow's theory, humans try to fulfill
their low-level needs first before fulfilling higher needs.
a.1. Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are the basic types of human needs in sustaining life.
Physiological needs include food, water, air, home, clothing, sex, etc. Humans will not
survive without the fulfillment of their needs physiological. An economist named Engel
made a theory known as the Engel theory, which states that the more prosperous a person is,
the smaller the percentage of his income will be to just buy food, but will think of buying
comfort and well-being.
From the Susenas survey data (National Socio-Economic Survey, 1999) it is known
that the percentage of average expenditure per capita per month for food is 63%, while for
non-food is 37%. This figure shows that the expenditure of the Indonesian population that is
bought for food is 63%. This means that the Indonesian population is still struggling to
fulfill its basic needs, namely food. The 37% of non-food expenditure also includes
expenditure on housing, clothing. So that non-food expenditure is actually partly to fulfill
human physiological needs. If the figures for clothing and housing expenditure are added to
food expenditure, then the percentage figure will be even greater. This data further
strengthens the picture that most Indonesian consumers are still not prosperous. (Ujang
Sumarwan, 2002:39)
a.2. Safety Needs
Safety needs are a type of second-level need after physiological needs. The need for
security is also a need for protection for the human body. Humans need protection from
criminal interference, so that they can live safely and comfortably when they are at home or
when traveling. Physical security will cause consumers to gain a sense of
psychological/mental security, not feeling anxious and worried about being threatened
wherever they are.
From various news reports in the mass media, it is known that the crime rate in big
cities in Indonesia is very high. Conditions This encourages consumers to be more careful in
protecting themselves and their families at home and outside the home. Like the Astra
Buana Insurance advertisement which directs consumers to the need for a sense of security
and comfort, by expressing the phrase "We are here to overcome the bad possibilities that
can occur....". (Ujang Sumarwan, 2002: 40).
a.3. Social Needs (Social Needs or Belongingness Needs)
Humans also need a sense of love from others, a sense of belonging and ownership,
and to be accepted by the society around them. Social needs are Maslow's third level needs.
Social needs are needed by humans to facilitate their relationships with other humans. Like
marriage, it is a medium for fulfilling social needs and creating a family environment. The
family is also the smallest social institution capable of binding its members both physically
and emotionally. This is reflected when one of the family members is sick, then other family
members will also feel sadness and loneliness. Fellow family members will interact
continuously so that feelings of mutual need, mutual love, mutual protection, and mutual
support are formed.
The relationship between one family and another will form a broader social
relationship. This happens because there are many interests and needs in each family. These
interests and needs can be fulfilled smoothly if there is cooperation between families in
society. Sampoerna Green Cigarette product advertisements provide social and friendship
messages among many friends, with the phrase: "No Lo... No Rame......"
This ad directly reveals that people have social needs and try to fulfill them. Themes
of friendship and camaraderie are often used by advertisers in both print and electronic
media to influence consumers with a high social background.
a.4. Ego Needs (Egoistic or Esteem Needs)
The fourth level of needs is ego needs or esteem needs, namely the need for
achievement to get satisfaction and achieve a higher degree compared to other humans.
Empirically, a person is reluctant or unwilling to stop after the fulfillment of I (basic) needs,
security needs, and social needs, because a person tends to have a strong ego to be able to
reach a higher level of needs. Every human being will try to achieve better achievements,
reputation and status than before. It will even require other humans to be able to recognize
them as perfect, accomplished and successful individuals. For example, the Isuzu Panther
brand car advertisement shows the following message to its consumers: "Use
Panther....Pinter!!! The advertising message illustrates that consumers who buy and use
Isuzu Panther cars are called smart people.
a.5. Need for self - Actualization
The fifth level of need is the need for self-actualization. What is meant by self-
actualization needs is the need for an individual to make himself the best of the best because
of his potential and abilities. Every individual needs The media to express themselves in
their activities to prove to the audience that they are able to do these activities as well as
possible. Someone who is talented to be a sportsman will be encouraged to achieve the
highest achievements in the field of sports, so there are many activities that must be done,
for example by participating in sports events at the district, provincial, national, or even
international levels to test their abilities and become the champion.
Self-actualization needs also describe a person's desire to know, understand and form a
value system, so that a person is able to influence others. Self-actualization needs are the
desire to be able to convey ideas, ideas and value systems that he believes in to others. For
example, a BMW sedan advertisement gives a message as a sedan that meets self-
actualization needs with the phrase "No matter how great a person's achievements are, it is
possible for the public to misjudge who he really is. It's different if you drive a BMW 3201-
6 Cylinders. Because of the inherent love "UNMISTAKABLE" (Ujang Sumarwan, 2002: 41).
b. McClland's Motivation Theory (1961)
Another thinker and expert in the field of consumer psychology is David McClelland
who successfully developed a theory of motivation based on three basic needs. This theory
is known as the McClelland Theory of Learned Needs. In the McClelland Theory of Learned
Needs, it is stated that the three basic needs that motivate an individual in behavior are: the
need for success (needs for achievement), the need for affiliation (needs for affiliation), and
the need for power (needs for power).
b.1 Success Needs
The need for success is the human desire to achieve achievement, reputation, and a
good career. A person who has a need for success will work hard, diligently and steadfastly
to achieve the goals he wants. He will have high self-confidence, able to face all challenges
and problems in order to realize his goals. Success needs have similarities with ego needs
and self-actualization needs from Maslow's theory.
b.2 Affiliation Needs
Affiliation needs are the human desire to build relationships with others, find friends
who can accept them, want to be owned by those around them, and want to have people who
can accept them. A person who has affiliation needs will be actively involved in various
social activities and activities that involve many people. he will choose products and
services that are liked or approved by his friends and close relatives. Affiliation needs have
similarities with social needs and Maslow's theory.
b.3 Power Needs
Power needs are a person's desire to be able to control their environment, including
influencing the people around them. The goal is that he can influence, direct and organize
others. The need for success has similarities with the need for self-actualization from
Maslow's theory.
c. Herzberg's Motivation Theory (1966)
According to Herzberg (1966), there are two types of factors that encourage a person
to try to achieve satisfaction and satisfaction distancing themselves from dissatisfaction. The
two factors are called hygiene factors (extrinsic factors) and motivator factors (intrinsic
factors). Hygiene factors motivate a person to move away from dissatisfaction, which
includes human relations, rewards, environmental conditions, etc. (extrinsic factors), while
motivator factors motivate a person to strive for satisfaction, which includes achievement,
recognition, advancement in life level, etc. (intrinsic factors).
d. Douglas McGREGOR's Theory of Motivation
Another theory of motivation is the theory of motivation from Douglas McGREGOR
who put forward two views of human motivation, namely theory x (negative) and theory y
(positive), According to theory x there are four suppositions that must be held by managers,
namely:
1) employees are inherently embedded in not liking work
2) Employees who dislike their work must be supervised or threatened with punishment to
achieve the goal.
3) Employees will avoid responsibility.
4) Most employees put security above all factors associated with work.
In contrast to the negative theory (theory x) view of human nature. In theory Y there
are also four suppositions as follows:
1) Employees can view cooperation as natural as rest and play.
2) People will run direction self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the
goal.
3) The average person will accept responsibility.
4) Ability to make innovative decisions.
e. Vroom's Theory of Motivation (1964)
Vroom's (1964) cognitive theory of motivation explains why a person will not do
something that he believes he cannot do, even though the result of the work is very
desirable. According to Vroom, a person's motivation is determined by three components,
namely:
1) Expectation (hope) of successfully completing a task
2) Instrumentalist, which is a judgment about what will happen if successful in performing a
task (the success of the task to get a certain outcome).
3) Valence, which is the response to the outcome such as positive, neutral, or negative feelings.
Motivation is high if the effort to produce something will exceed expectations, while
motivation will be low if the effort produces less than expected.
f. Clayton Alderfer ERG
Clayton Alderfer came up with the ERG theory of motivation which is based on
human needs for existence, relatedness, and growth. This theory is slightly different from
Maslow's theory. Here Alfeder suggests that if higher needs are not or have not been met,
humans will return to the flexible movement of meeting needs from time to time.
6. Motivation and Marketing Strategy
After we understand the meaning of motivation and needs, how important they are in
influencing a person's behavior, then we need to know how the theories of motivation are
can be utilized in marketing strategies. Two important applications of motivation theory are
segmentation, targeting and positioning.
a. Segmentation
Marketers can use Maslow's motivation theory or the hierarchy of needs as a basis
for market segmentation. Products or services that are marketed can be directed to target
markets based on the level of consumer needs. This can be done by creating advertisements
that contain messages about consumer needs that can be met by the product or service to be
marketed. Luxury cars such as Jaguar, BMW, Mercedes, Lexus, and so on are intended for
consumers who have a need for ego and self-actualization, not to meet the basic need for
transportation. The following images illustrate the various consumer needs that are appealed
to in these advertising messages.
Anlene advertisement claims to be a milk powder with high calcium content. The
advertisement tries to communicate with consumers in two ways. First, Anlene milk is
intended for consumers who need a lot of calcium (segmentation), and second, Anlene milk
is positioned as milk that contains high calcium. Calcium is one of the nutrients needed by
the human body. The ad tries to touch on basic human needs (nutrients) that consumers need
to be healthy.
b. Positioning
Maslow's hierarchy of needs can also be used to position products or services.
Positioning is the image of the product or service that consumers want to see. The key to
positioning is the consumer's perception of the product or service. Manufacturers may want
their products or brand as a unique product in the minds of consumers. An advertisement for
a VOLVO sedan positions it as an exclusive sedan, a vehicle for consumers who are
successful, powerful, and important people with the words "Whoever sits in it, must be an
important person".
c. Motivation and Needs Measurement in Consumer Research and Marketing Research
Researchers can see, reveal and analyze consumer motivations and needs through a
series of research activities or consumer research, which can be by means of surveys,
sending questionnaires, or interviewing consumers. The results of the interviews or
questionnaires are then analyzed using either statistical instruments or the researchers
themselves. This method is known as self-report. The following is an example of a
questionnaire to reveal consumer motivation in using infant formula.
Table 2.1 shows the results of a survey of respondents in one of the urban villages in
Bogor city in 1997. approximately 25% of respondents stated that they used formula milk
for their babies because they thought it could replace breast milk. Approximately 56% of
respondents stated that the reason for the lack of breast milk production was to use formula
milk. These reasons actually describe the basic or physiological needs of the baby as
expressed by the mother. Breast milk is the basic need of the baby, when the mother cannot
provide enough breast milk, then she must look for formula milk as an addition or as a
substitute for breast milk for her baby. Respondents not only expressed basic needs as a
motivation for using formula milk. The survey results above also revealed that respondents
had other motivations for using formula milk. Approximately 35% of respondents stated that
they work outside the home, 4% of respondents stated that formula milk can show social
status, 18% stated that friends and relatives also use formula milk. These motivations
actually reveal the social needs, ego needs and self-actualization of the baby's mother
respondents.
PERSONALITY:
1. Consumer Personality
Have we ever noticed the behavior of the people around us? If we pay attention,
among their behaviors show differences between one person and another. For example:
when we hear the news that one of our friends is sick, the responses given between us and
our friends are sometimes different. The general response would be shock and sadness over
our friend's condition, but there could be those who think that illness is a common thing, so
there is no need to be sad. These different reactions show that there is no personality
between each person who is exactly the same, even if they are identical twins....
Each human being has unique characteristics and is different from one another. But
even though they are different from each other, humans also have some similarities. For
example, humans both need food, drink, shelter etc. We can classify the various similarities
and differences in personality by making groupings based on personality characteristics.
Understanding consumer personality is important for marketers, because consumer
personality is closely related to behavior. Differences in consumer personality will affect
their behavior in choosing or buying products, because consumers will buy goods that match
their personality. In short, understanding consumer personality is very useful for marketers
because it can be used as a basis for market segmentation.
Another benefit is that marketers can design communication programs that match the
characteristics of the intended consumers. Marketing communication can be considered
successful when consumers react positively to the product being communicated, the
indicator is that consumers will comment that this product is suitable or right for me. This
statement is certainly expected by every producer / marketer as an indicator of successful
marketing communication.
2. Definition of Personality
Goldon Allport defines personality as a dynamic organization of psychological
systems within an individual that determines his or her unique adjustment to the
environment. Personality is the whole of the way a person acts, socializes and interacts with
others. In general, a person's personality is determined by three things that support each
other, and are a unity, namely: (1) Genetics or heredity, (2) Environment, ranging from
culture, family environment, school, or socialization. (3) Certain situations. Each of these
influences determines the size of a person's personality change. For example: a child will
usually have a personality that is not much different from his ancestors / parents (Javanese
term: Kacang rak ninggal lanjaran). But due to the influence of the environment or certain
situations, when the child grows up, his/her personality can change and be different from the
personality traits of his/her ancestors/parents.
In Ujang Sumarwan (2002), there are several definitions of personality, which are as
follows.
a. "However, we propose that personality be defined as those inner psychological
characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person responds to his or her
environment" (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000, p. 94).
b. "Personality has many meanings. In consumer studies, personality is defined as
consistent to environmental stimuli" (Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard, 1995, p. 433).
c. Personality is defined as "the distinctive pattern of behavior, including thought and
emotion, that characterizes each individual's adaptation to the situations of his or her
life" (Mowen and Minor, 1998 p. 198).
d. Personality, which refers to a person's unique psychological makeup and how it
consistently influences the way a person responds to his/her environment. (Solomon,
1999, p. 165).
From some of the definitions of personality that have been expressed, it can be
concluded that personality is related to the differences in the inner psychological
characteristics of humans, the differences in these characteristics describe the unique
characteristics of each individual. Differences in characteristics will affect the individual's
response to the environment and become a stimulus consistently. Individuals with the same
characteristics tend to react similarly to existing environmental situations.
A person who is always quick to cry but also easy to laugh when hearing sad news
and happy news at any time and place, then that person has a unique characteristic
(personality) that distinguishes himself from others. Personality also describes a consistent
response, such as the person who always cries when hearing sad news.
3. Personality Characteristics
From the definitions and explanations of personality as mentioned above, it can be
concluded that the characteristics of personality include the following:
3.1 Personality Describes Individual Differences
In personality there are unique elements that combine into one and form consistency.
Personality consistency will be reflected in the way of thinking, arguing and behaving. Each
human being has a personality consistency that is not the same. Some humans, may have
similar personality consistency, but not exactly the same. For example, two siblings have the
same friendly and polite nature towards others, but differ in terms of patience and
thoroughness in completing a job. The older sibling is careful and meticulous in completing
the work, whereas the younger sibling is always eager to finish quickly, so he or she often
neglects to be careful and meticulous. In this case it can be concluded that the two are
different in terms of personality consistency.
3.2 Personality Shows Lasting Consistency
Human characteristics have been shaped since they were in the mother's womb.
Especially the mother's personality will be the first stimulus that will shape the child's
personality, and will continue until the child grows up. The length of time in character
formation is what causes personality to tend to be permanent and difficult to change
(Javanese term: Gawan Bayi). For example, a mother who is patient and polite will inherit
the personality traits of a child who is patient and polite as well.
When viewed from the consistency of the consumer's personality that lasts a long time,
it will indeed be difficult for producers/marketers to change it if the product offered does not
match the consumer's personality. So producers/marketers must be able to dig up
information to find out and identify consumer characteristics in consuming a product.
Furthermore, this information becomes material for making creative / innovative marketing
communications so that it can persuade consumers who are the target market.
In consuming products/services, one consumer is different from another. This is
because consumption patterns are not only influenced by personality, but also by other
factors such as attitudes, motivation, socio-culture, environment, and consumer purchasing
power. For example: two consumers who both have the same patient and polite personality,
may have different behaviors in buying a car, both model and brand. A chooses a Toyota
Avanza car because the amount of money he has is only enough to buy a Toyota Avanza car,
while B buys a Toyota Fortuner car because the amount of money he has is enough to buy a
Toyota Fortuner car.
3.3 Personality can change
Although personality is permanent and consistent, it does not mean that it cannot
change. This could be due to changes in motivation, goals, lifestyle, income, environment
and others that require it to change. For example, a person's personality during childhood
has different personality traits than when the person enters adulthood. When Mr. A was in
elementary school, he was known as a very angry and emotional child, but when he was in
high school, his angry nature disappeared and turned into a patient and polite person because
he wanted to become a psychologist. Mr. Dodi, who previously had a polite personality,
became arrogant due to his rising income and wealth.
4. Some Personality Theories
When it comes to consumer behavior, there are three main personality theories,
namely Freud's theory, Neo Freud's theory and trait theory. These three theories can be used
as an important foundation in the study of the relationship between consumer behavior and
consumer personality. Here are the basic differences between the three theories.
4.1 Sigmund Freud's Theory of Personality
Sigmun Freud proposed a psychoanalytic theory of personality. The theory is
considered the cornerstone of modern psychology. This theory states that unconscious needs
or drives, such as sex drive and biological needs are the core of human motivation and
personality. According to Freud, human personality consists of three interacting elements,
namely Id, superego, and Ego. (Ujang Sumarwan, 2002)
a. Id
The id is the biological aspect in humans from birth, which drives physiological needs
such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. The id describes the human instincts that
biologically require food, drink and sex. Humans will naturally fulfill these needs to avoid
tension, and achieve immediate satisfaction, this is what is called that the Id element will
carry out the pleasure principle (pleasure principle or immediate satisfaction).
Freud argues that the Id element will drive humans to do anything to fulfill their
physiological needs, without regard to the consequences of their behavior. The Id element is
not only present in humans but also in animals. A hungry animal will immediately look for
food and eat anything that can satisfy its stomach without regard to who it is. If a human eats
anything without regard to who owns the food and whether or not his actions will harm
other animals, then he is like an animal. So it can be said that if a human eats anything
without regard to who owns the food and without regard to how it was obtained, whether it
was good or bad, then that human is like an animal.
b. Superego
But when viewed from the aspect of perfection of creation, humans are not animals,
because humans have a second element commonly referred to as "superego". Superego is the
psychological aspect of human being that describes the nature of submission and obedience
to rules, social norms, ethics, and life values. It is this superego aspect that causes humans to
pay attention to what is good and what is bad both for themselves and their social
environment. Superego can be referred to as the aspect that serves to reduce or suppress the
biological desires (Id) that exist in humans. For example, when we make a mistake, we often
unconsciously feel guilty and ashamed, and try not to repeat it again. This is an example of
how the superego element works. The Id and superego elements are considered as drives
that humans are not aware of, but feel the consequences.
c. Ego
Ego is the third element of personality that can be realized and controlled by humans.
The ego functions as a mediating element between the Id and Superego. Ego tries to balance
what Id wants to fulfill and what is demanded by the superego in order to conform to social
norms. Ego works with the reality principle, which is trying to make sure that humans can
fulfill their physiological needs, but also not violate social rules and values. For example,
men Baligh men who want to fulfill their sexual needs can be fulfilled by getting married
according to religious rules and meeting the requirements of the law. Then it can be said that
the ego function of the man has worked well.
Schiffman and Kanuk (2000) cite the opinion of researchers who use Freud's theory in
the study of consumer behavior by saying that human motivation (human drive) is largely
unconscious, so consumers often do not know the real reason they buy a product. In fact,
what is bought and what is consumed by consumers is a picture of their personality. For
example, the food, clothing, vehicles, accessories, and services consumed really show the
personality of the consumer.
4.2 Freud's Theory and Marketing
Marketers can use Freud's personality theory in marketing communications. This is
based on the fact that physiologically and instinctively, men like women and women like
men. This basic principle is often used by marketers to design marketing communications
for their products by utilizing celebrities both male and female as models and advertising
stars. In fact, many marketers use women in skimpy clothing in their product advertisements
to further attract consumer interest. Whether we realize it or not, advertisers have influenced
the id element of consumers by exploiting the sexual potential (sexual appeal) of celebrities
who become the stars of the advertisement.
Seeing this fact, some advertising observers and educators began to be concerned
about the number of lewd advertisements, because they were considered harassing human
dignity and honor. These reactions and concerns are natural because humans have ego and
superego elements. A strong superego in advertising observers and educators will encourage
advertisers to consider norms and ethics as well as religious values in designing their
advertisements.
4.3. Neo-Freud Theory (Social Psychology Theory)
Some experts who were also Freud's colleagues disagreed with the psychoanalytic
theory that emphasized the role of sex or biological factors in the formation of human
personality. They developed a theory of personality called social psychological theory or
Neo-Freud theory. Neo-Freud's theory differs from Freud's theory in two ways:
1) Social environmental factors are influential in the formation of human personality, and not
just human instincts.
2) Behavioral motivation is geared towards fulfilling human needs.
Neo-Freud's theory is a combination of social and psychological aspects, which
emphasizes that a person will try to fulfill what society wants and vice versa, society will
help a person in fulfilling their needs. Neo-Freud's theory states that social relationships are
the key factor that dominates the formation and development of human personality as a
whole and correctly. Neo-Freudian theorists include Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Harry
Stack Sullivan and Fromm.
Schiffman and Kanuk (2000) put forward the opinions of several Neo-Freud theorists
as follows:
1. Alfred Adler argues that humans seek to achieve a variety of rational goals referred to
as a style of life and will try to overcome
Weaknesses to achieve strengths and excellence.
2. Sullivan suggests that humans continuously build relationships with other humans to
benefit from these relationships. And humans always try to reduce pressure (tension) on
themselves, such as anxiety.
3. Horney also discusses this sense of worry in humans as a result of the relationship
between parents and children, and individuals always want to overcome this worry
problem. (Ujang Sumarwan, 2002)
Horney proposed a model of human personality, which consists of three categories,
as follows:
a) Compliant is a personality characterized by one's dependence on others. He wants
others to love him, appreciate him, and need him. People with Compliant personalities
will always be close to the people around them.
b) Aggressive is a personality characterized by a motivation to gain power. This kind of
person tends to contradict others, always wants to be praised and tends to separate
themselves from others.
c) Detached is a personality characterized by always wanting to be free, independent, self-
reliant, and wanting to be free from obligations. The person usually avoids other people.
4.4 Trait Theory
Freud and Neo-Freud's theories use more qualitative approaches in identifying
consumer personalities, for example using personal observation techniques, self-reporting
of experiences by consumers (self-experience), and self-reporting by consumers reported),
from the projection technician (projective technique). Meanwhile, the trait theory uses more
quantitative approaches in measuring consumer personality.
Trait theory classifies people into their most salient characteristics or traits. A trait is
a special psychological characteristic, defined as "any distinguishing, relatively enduring
way in which one individual differs from another" (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000 p. 99).
Another definition is "a trait is any characteristic in which one person differs from another"
(Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000 p. 99) from another in a relatively permanent and consistent
way" (Mowen and Minor, 1998, p. 206). Based on these two definitions, it can be concluded
that a trait is a trait or characteristic that distinguishes one individual from another, which is
permanent and consistent. With a quantitative approach, researchers will easily identify and
group consumers into the same characteristics or traits.
According to Loudon and della Bitta (1993), trait theory is based on three
assumptions, namely: individuals have behaviors that tend to be relatively stable, each
individual behavior has a degree of difference, and if the degree of difference is identified
and measured, it will describe the personality traits of the individual. Other personality traits
are proposed by Angel, Blackwell and Miniard (1995) who state that individual personality
consists of three characteristics, namely: sociability, relaxed style, and self-control (internal
control).
5. Brand Personality
Brand personality is a condition in which consumers will try to connect their various
personality traits or characteristics with various brands and various product classes. For
example, Levi's 501 jeans are personified as "something strong, reliable, true, original for
Americans and Westerners". Nike brand shoes represent the "athlete in all consumers"
personality, and Volvo is personified as a "safety" car.
5.1 Product Personality and Gender
A number of studies have shown that place/region, gender or sex can be associated
with certain products. For example, coffee, tea, cigarettes, fragrance oils and toothpaste are
associated with masculine products. While hand body products, soaps, shampoos and snacks
are associated with feminine products. Another example, menthol-flavored cigarettes are
considered feminine products. While clove cigarettes are considered masculine products.
Some researchers also support that indeed each product in general has an association with
sex/gender.
5.2 Personality and Colors
Research results also show that consumers often associate products and services with
certain colors. This can be used as a basis for marketers, when advertising products/services
must pay attention and consider the use of certain colors. For example, the color pink is
associated with the gentle personality of young women, the color red is associated with a
brave personality, the color green is associated with a cool and patient personality, the color
blue is associated with a neutral and reassuring personality, etc. Therefore, every product
must have an identity. Therefore, each product must have a certain color identity in
accordance with the expectations of producers/marketers in directing their consumers. For
example, Cocacola products are still identical to the color red, although the design has
changed several times. The black color is often associated with something sophisticated,
elegant and prestigious, so luxury cars owned by officials often use black to impress
sophisticated, elegant and prestigious. The combination of various colors in a
product/service is a direct statement that the product/service has high performance.
5.3 Consumer Ethnocentrism as a Response to Foreign Products
Ethnocentric people tend to think subjectively. Ethnocentric consumers prefer to use
domestic products and refuse to use foreign products. While People who are not ethnocentric
will tend to think objectively in using or not using foreign products.
The level of consumer ethnocentrism in a region of the country differs from one
another, and will change quickly according to changes in cultural patterns or people's
mindsets. For example, in Japanese society, consumer ethnocentrism is still very
pronounced. This is because the elderly in Japan are still traumatized by the events of World
War II which claimed many victims, so they are still reluctant to use and consume products
from America and Germany. It is also felt that when a foreigner comes to Japan, it is
mandatory to use Japanese, and not English which is recognized as an international
language.
But for Japanese youth, with the passage of time, the shift in understanding and
mindset is less ethnocentric towards American and German products. Although in fact it is
still said to be difficult and not easy compared to young people in other countries.
The same is true in the United States. The sale of Japanese cars only targets young
Americans, because in reality, older Americans are still very ethnocentric, and seem to be
against using Japanese products. Some thoughts smacking of anti-foreign product campaigns
continue to be launched. Among them:
a. Americans should always buy American products and not imported products
b. Only products that do not exist in America may be imported.
c. American products first, last and forever.
d. Foreigners should not be allowed to sell their products in America. Even if they are
allowed, they should be heavily taxed.
e. True Americans should always buy American products
f. Buying imported products means not being American.
In Indonesia, ethnocentrism-based marketing campaigns or strategies are still being
implemented. Currently, the "love domestic products" campaign is still being launched,
despite the fact that its implementation is very difficult. This is because the quality of
domestic products for some products is still below the standard, so imported products still
dominate the Indonesian domestic market. although the campaign continues.
6. Personality and Consumer Behavior
Producers/marketers must try to know the personality of consumers and their influence
on consumption behavior. This understanding is very important so that marketers can design
marketing communications of the products offered in accordance with the conditions of the
consumer's personality. And the hope is that consumers will value the product/service as
something that matches their personality so that they will buy and use it. For example,
Gudang Garam Merah products are able to communicate that their products are only for
consumers who have taste and are brave.
6.1 Personality Traits of Innovative Consumers
The personality of consumer innovativeness characterizes the level of consumer
acceptance of new products or services. Marketers want to know how new products or
services can be accepted by consumers. Consumers have different degrees of desire to try
new things. One instrument to measure the degree of consumer innovativeness is to ask
consumers a number of questions about their acceptance of the new product / service. Every
answer consumers will be given a scale (e.g. Likert scale) to measure the level of
acceptance.
6.2 Dogmatism
Dogmatism is a personality trait that measures a person's level of rigidity in
accepting anything unfamiliar or accepting information that contradicts their beliefs.
Consumers who have a high degree of dogmatism will accept everything that is unfamiliar
with feelings of suspicion, uncertainty and unpleasantness. Consumers who have a low
degree of dogmatism will like new, more innovative products. Meanwhile, consumers with a
high degree of dogmatism tend to choose well-known brands.
6.3 Social Character
Social character is another one of the personality traits. The personality trait of social
character identifies and divides individuals into different socio-cultural types. Social
character is a personality trait that has the meaning of inner directedness to other
directedness. Consumers with inner directedness will be self-oriented in buying products
and services. They will use their values to evaluate products and services. Meanwhile,
consumers with other-directedness personalities tend to consider the values of those around
them to make them more acceptable. Other-directedness consumers are more oriented to the
people around them.
7. Cognitive Personality Factors
In recent decades, consumer researchers have become increasingly interested in
studying how cognitive personality factors influence various aspects of consumer behavior.
According to researchers, most There are no two personality traits that clearly influence
consumer behavior, namely the need for cognition and visualizers versus verbalizers.
Because in fact, there are consumers who like advertisements using pictures, while there are
also those who prefer advertisements using the presentation of words. The higher the level
of need for cognition, the higher the consumer response to advertisements that contain a lot
of information or descriptions related to the product. Meanwhile, the lower the level of
cognition, consumers tend to be more interested in the background or aspects around the
advertisement, such as attractive models or famous celebrities.
Visualizers, will respond more to advertisements that directly display real pictures of
the advertised product. Whereas Verbalizers, will respond more to advertisements that
clearly explain the advertised product through word explanations, even without pictures.
