UNDERSTANDING CONSUMER PERCEPTION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
MKT 402 - CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
WEEK 2
A.
Relationship between Perception and Behavior Consumers
Consumer perceptions when making purchases are often influenced by various factors
such as experience, current needs, values and expectations.
Consumers as a smart market market can certainly interpret their experiences when
making purchases, so that they are able to form perceptions of them. In addition, the hope of
immediately being able to fulfill needs also causes consumers to take ways that they feel are
more satisfying.
Further exploring perception according to (Sangadji and Sopiah, 2013. p. 64),
perception is a process that arises due to sensation, where sensation is the activity of feeling
or the cause of an exciting emotional state. Sensation can also be defined as the rapid
response of our receiving senses to basic stimuli such as light, color and sound.
Perception is also influenced by internal factors in the form of experience, current
needs, values and expectations or expectations as well as external factors in the form of
product appearance, stimulus properties and environmental situations. (Risyanti, 2005. p.
67)
To find out why consumers accept or reject a product or brand, marketers must pay
close attention to consumers' views of the brand/product, even if those views are highly
implausible. This requires knowledge of the dynamics of human perception as well as an
understanding of the physiological and psychological rules that determine the selection,
organization and interpretation of sensory stimuli.
According to Kosasih, et al. (2013) in Miauw (2016) consumer behavior is about how
individuals, groups, or organizations choose, buy, use and how goods, services, ideas or
experiences satisfy their needs and wants. Based on these views, it can be understood that
consumer behavior is the behavior shown by individuals, groups, or organizations as
consumers in searching for, buying, using, evaluating and spending products or services that
are expected to satisfy needs.
According to Lamb, Hair and Mc.Daniel stated that consumer behavior is the process
of a customer in making decisions to buy, use and consume purchased goods and services,
as well as the purchase of goods and services including factors that influence purchasing
decisions and product use. (Rangkuti, 2002. p. 91)
According to Engel, Blackwell and Miniard, consumer behavior is an action that is
directly involved in obtaining, consuming and spending products and services including the
decision process that precedes and follows this action.
Consumer behavior can be summarized from all of the above definitions as the study
of the decision-making process by consumers in choosing, buying, using and utilizing
products, services, ideas or experiences in order to satisfy consumer needs and desires.
There are several things that influence consumer behavior, namely:
1. The consumer is king, he has the full ability to filter all attempts to influence with the
result that everything done by the company must be tailored to the motivations and
behavior of consumers
2. Consumer motivation and behavior can be understood through research. Things related
to motivation and behavior can be known through research, so this research is used as a
reference in making marketing programs, advertising planning, promotion planning so
that things that happen in the future can be predicted.
B.
Elements and Aspects Perception
Consumers are highly selective of the stimuli they recognize. Consumers
subconsciously regulate the stimuli they recognize in that they broadly interpret the stimuli
subjectively. On a practical level, the stimuli will create a response in attitude. The
consumer's attitude then forms an element and aspect of perception. In essence, attitude is an
interrelation of various components, where these components according to Allport (in
Mar'at, 1991) have three components, namely:
1. Cognitive Component
Namely a component that is composed on the basis of knowledge or information that a
person has about the object of his attitude. From this knowledge, a certain belief about the
attitude object will be formed.
2. Affective Component
Affective relates to feelings of pleasure and displeasure. So it is evaluative in nature
which is closely related to cultural values or value systems.
3. Conative Component
It is a person's readiness to act in relation to the object of his attitude. Baron and
Byrne, as well as Myers (in Gerungan, 1996) state that attitude contains three components
that form the attitude structure, namely:
a.
Cognitive Component (Perceptual Component) A component related to knowledge,
views, beliefs, which are things related to how people perceive attitude objects.
b.
Affective Component (Emotional Component)
Components related to feelings of pleasure or displeasure towards the attitude
object. Pleasure is a positive thing, while displeasure is a negative thing.
c.
Conative Component (Behavior Component or Action Component)
Components related to the tendency to act towards the attitude object. This
component shows the intensity of attitude, which shows the size of the tendency to act
or behave towards the object of attitude.
Rokeach (Walgito, 2003) provides an understanding that perception contains a
cognitive component and also a conative component, namely attitude is predisposing to
respond and to behave. This means that attitude is related to behavior, attitude is a
predisposition to do or behave.
From this limitation, it can also be stated that perception contains a cognitive
component, an affective component and also a conative component, which is a willingness
to act or behave. A person's attitude towards a The attitude object is a manifestation of the
correlation of the three components that interact with each other to understand, feel and
behave towards the attitude object. The three components are interrelated and consistent
with each other. So, there is internal organization between the three components.
C.
Consumer Imagery
Consumer imagery refers to consumers' perceptions of all components of products,
services and brands and how consumers evaluate the quality of marketers' offerings.
Products and brands have symbolic images and values for consumers based on the unique
benefits these products claim.
The following describes consumers' perceptions of products, brands, services, product
quality prices, retail stores and manufacturers.
1. Brand Image
The desired outcome of brand image is a distinct image that a brand occupies in the
minds of consumers. This position should be unique and represent the core benefits that the
brand provides. Most novelties fail because they are perceived as "Me Too" offerings that
offer consumers a unique advantage or benefit over competing products. The core of the
marketing concept is to create products that fulfill consumer needs. However, as more and
more brands in a particular product category are effectively fulfilling consumer needs,
Consumers often rely primarily on brand image and the benefits it claims in their purchase
satisfaction. Moreover, in today's highly competitive market, a distinctive brand image is
very difficult to create and maintain. For example, BlackBerry has been a very successful
and market-dominating product, and was probably the first smartphone to be introduced.
However, consumers find many new smartphones more fun and exciting than BlackBerry,
which they think is suitable for business and not for personal use and multitasking. If it is to
remain a viable competitor in the smartphone market, BlackBerry must broaden its appeal.
A unique perceived image leads to brand loyalty, where consumers buy the brand
consistently and do not try or switch to another brand. Consumers often find products that
have been around for a long time boring, especially when newer alternatives are introduced.
2. Package Image
In addition to the product name, look, and features, packaging also conveys a brand
image. A study identified several holistic package designs (gestalt), each conveying a
prominent and distinct brand impression. For each package type, the study also identified
brand personality features that consumers associate with.
3. Service Image
Compared to manufacturing companies, services marketers face some unique issues in
positioning and promoting their offerings. Since services are intangible, images become a
key factor that differentiates a service from its competitors. So, the goal of marketing is to
enable consumers to associate a particular image with a particular brand name. Many service
marketers have brought back strategies to provide customers with visual images and
tangible reminders of their service offerings. Many service companies feature real service
employees in their advertisements (as tangible cues) and use people-focused themes to
differentiate themselves.
The design of the service environment is an important aspect of the service positioning
strategy and sharply influences consumer impressions. For example, targeting the dynamic
and tech-oriented Generation Y, many stores significantly increase the sensory stimuli
provided in-store, including live DJs, dim lighting, scented environments, loud ultra-modern
music, flat-screen TVs and live models. Some Apple stores are open 24 hours and are
designed to keep Apple users there even if they don't buy products. As such, stores include
long tables and chairs with electrical outlets and wireless online access so that Apple users
can work alone and also interact with other users. One study suggests that the level of
arousal in the store environment should match shoppers' expectations to avoid perceived
overstimulation.
4. Perceived Price
Trusted pricing is the way marketers price products and create an image that impacts
consumer decision-making. An example would be giving a 20% discount at their store. The
slogan tends to communicate "value" to customers, through the perception of increased
savings and the lowest price. The way consumers perceive a product as fair/unfair, the
perception of price fairness leads to customer satisfaction and subsequent satisfaction. Prices
are high, medium or low and even very low, when prices are within the range of market
prices e.g. seasonal prices. Very high, when the price is near the outer limit of the range, but
within reasonable limits. Extremely high, prices are such that they are well above the
consumer's perceived plane of reasonableness.
D.
Sensory Dynamics of Perception
In this section, perception is described as how we see the world around us and what
responses we give to it. A person's perception does not just arise, but there are certain stages
or processes that must be passed by someone to be able to perceive. According to Sunaryo
(2004), perception goes through three processes, namely:
1. Physical (natural) processes, in the form of receptor stimulus objects or sensory
organs.
2. Physiological processes, in the form of brain sensory nerve stimulus.
3. Psychological processes, processes in the brain so that individuals realize the stimulus
received.
In line with this, Bimo Walgito (2002) suggests the processes of perception are as
follows:
1. An object or target causes a stimulus, then the stimulus is captured by the sensory
organs. This process takes place naturally and is related to the physical aspect. The
process is called the natural process.
2. The stimulus of an object received by the sensory organs, then channeled to the brain
through the sensory nerves. The process of transferring the stimulus to the brain is
called the psychological process, which is the normal functioning of the sensory
organs.
3. The brain then processes the stimulus until the individual realizes the object received
by his sensory organs. This process is also called a psychological process. In this case,
there is a process of perception, namely a process in which individuals know and
realize an object based on the stimulus that hits their sensory organs.
Then in more detail Gibson (1990) argues that the process of perception includes
receiving stimuli (inputs), organizing stimuli and translating or interpreting stimuli that have
been organized in a way that can influence behavior and shape attitudes.
In terms of psychology, it is said that a person's behavior is a function of the way he
perceives. Therefore, to change a person's behavior, one must start by changing his or her
perception. In the process of perception, there are the following three main components:
1. Selection is the process of filtering by the senses against external stimuli, the intensity
and type of which can be many or few.
2. Interpretation, which is the process of organizing information so that it has meaning for
someone.
3. Interpretation and perception are then translated into behavior as a reaction (Depdikbud,
1985. in Soelaeman, 1987).
So, the process of perception is doing selection, interpretation and rounding of the
information that arrives. Although many different stimuli reach us about the same issue,
what we can perceive is limited at any given moment. What we perceive depends not only
on the stimulus, but also on cognitive processes that reflect one's interests, goals and
expectations at the time. This perceptual focus called "Attention".
Attention has the function of having and directing the stimuli that reach us, so that we
do not receive them chaotically. Attention is influenced by several factors, namely external
factors and internal factors. External factors are factors contained in the observed object
itself, namely intensity, or size, contrast, repetition and repetition movement; while internal
factors are factors that come from within the individual observer, namely motives,
willingness and expectations (Dirgagunarsa, 1996. p. 107).
Perception is complex. There is no one-to-one relationship between the messages that
occur outside "Out There" - in the vibrations of the air and in the black marks on the side of
paper - and the messages that eventually enter our brains. We can illustrate how perception
works by describing the three steps involved in this process. These stages are not completely
separate from each other. In reality, they are continuous, intermingled and overlapping with
each other.
1. Occurrence of Sensory Stimulation
In the first stage, the sensory organs are stimulated. Despite having the sensory
ability to perceive stimulus, we don't always use it.
2. Stimulation of the Sensory Apparatus Organized in the Second Stage Stimulation of the
sensory apparatus is organized according to
various principles. One principle that is often used is the principle of proximity: people
or messages that are physically similar to each other are perceived together or as a unity.
3. Sensory Stimulation Interpreted and Evaluated in Step Three
Interpretation-evaluation is a subjective process that involves evaluation on the
part of the receiver. Interpretation-evaluation is not solely based on external stimuli, but
also heavily influenced by past experiences, needs, desires, value systems, beliefs about
what should be, physical and emotional states at the time.
Perception is the source of our knowledge of the world. We want to recognize the
world and the environment that surrounds us. "Knowledge is Power," says Udai Pareek
(1996). Without knowledge, we cannot act effectively. Perception is the primary source of
that knowledge. Pareek's (1996) definition of perception includes several aspects or
processes. Pareek goes on to explain each process as follows:
1. Process of Receiving Stimuli
The first process in perception is receiving stimuli or data from various sources.
Most data is received through the five senses. We see something, hear it, smell it, taste
it or touch it, so that we learn other aspects of it.
2. Process of selecting stimuli
Once received, the stimulus or sense is received, two sets of factors determine
the selection of that stimulus, namely internal factors and external factors.
a.
Internal factors that influence perception, namely factors contained within the individual,
which include several things, among others:
1) Physiological, information enters through the sensory organs, then the information
obtained will influence and complement the effort to giving meaning to the surrounding
environment. The sensory capacity to perceive each person is different so that each
person's interpretation of the environment will also be different.
2) Attention, individuals need a certain amount of energy to pay attention or focus on the
physical form and mental facilities that exist in an object. Each person's energy is
different so that each person's attention to the object is also different and this will affect
the perception of an object.
3) Interest, perception of an object varies depending on how much energy or perceptual
vigilance is mobilized to perceive. Perceptual vigilance is a person's tendency to pay
attention to certain types of stimulus or can be said to be interest.
4) Unidirectional needs, this factor can be seen from how strongly an individual looks for
objects or messages that can provide answers according to him.
5) Experience and memory, experience can be said to depend on memory in the sense of
the extent to which a person can remember past events to recognize an stimulus in a
broad sense.
6) Mood, emotional state will affect a person's behavior, this mood shows how a person
feels at any given time can affect how a person receives, reacts and remembers.
b.
External factors that influence perception are characteristics of the environment and the
objects involved. These elements can change one's perspective of the surrounding world and
affect how one perceives or accepts it. Meanwhile, the external factors that influence
perception are:
1) The size and placement of the object or stimulus, this factor states that the greater the
relationship of an object, the easier it will be to understand. This shape will affect
individual perceptions and by looking at the shape of the size of an individual object it
will be easy for attention in turn to form perceptions.
2) The color of the object, objects that have more light, will be easier to be perceived
when compared to those with less.
3) The uniqueness and contrast of the stimulus, an external stimulus whose appearance
with the background and surroundings is completely beyond the expectations of other
individuals will attract a lot of attention.
4) Intensity and strength of the stimulus, external stimulus will give more meaning if
more often noticed and compared to those that are only seen once. The strength of the
stimulus is the power of an object that can affect perception.
5) Motion or movement, individuals will pay a lot of attention to objects that provide
movement within the range of view compared to objects that are silent.
3. Organizing Process
The stimuli that have been received are then organized in a form. There are three main
dimensions in the organization of stimuli, which are as follows: (Pareek, 1996. pp. 18-20).
a.
Grouping, several factors are used to group the stimuli, including:
1) Similarities, stimuli thatsimilar stimuli are grouped together.
2) Proximity, things that are closer to each other are also grouped together.
3) There is a tendency to complete things that are considered incomplete.
b.
Forms arise and background, in looking at stimuli or symptoms, there is a tendency to focus
on certain symptoms that arise prominently, while other stimuli or symptoms are in the
background.
c.
Perceptual stability, there is a tendency to stabilize perception and changes in context do not
affect it.
4. Interpretation Process
After the stimulus or data is received, the receiver then interprets the data in various
ways. It is said that perception has occurred after the data is interpreted.
5. Checking Process
After the data has been received and interpreted, the receiver takes some action to
check whether the interpretation is correct or incorrect. The data or impressions can be
checked by asking others.
6. Reaction Process
The final stage is to act in relation to what has been absorbed. This is usually done if
someone does something in relation to their perception.
CONSUMER ATTITUDES:
A.
Structure Models Attitude
Attitudes have an important role in predicting a person's behavior in real life,
including in predicting consumer behavior. Each of us has certain attitudes towards things
related to our behavior as consumers, such as attitudes towards advertising and the buying
process.
An attitude is a learned tendency to behave consistently, either favorably or
unfavorably with respect to an object. So, there are several keywords that must be
remembered related to attitudes, namely attitudes have objects; attitudes are tendencies that
can be learned; attitudes are always consistent; and attitudes occur in a special situation.
Psychologists call attitude a psychological co nstruct, a mental and emotional entity
that exists in individuals and at the same time gives certain characteristics to the individual.
It can be said that attitude is something that It is complex because it is formed from a variety
of experiences that crystallize in each person.
It is stated that attitude is a certain state of mind in an individual related to a value that
has long settled in him and is expressed in certain thoughts, feelings and tendencies. In this
case, other people, places, things or events that become objects of attitude will in turn
influence individual thoughts and actions. Simply put, attitudes in psychology are
understood as feelings that individuals have about themselves and the world around them
(Maio & Haddock, 2009).
More specifically, in the study of social psychology, attitude is understood as a form
of attitude evaluation towards certain objects with varying levels, ranging from very bad to
very good. The most recent opinion about attitudes is that individuals may be trapped in two
conflicting or even ambivalent attitudes towards an object because they hold positive
attitudes and negative attitudes at the same time (Festinger, 1955).
There are several models of attitude structure known in the psychological literature.
These attitude structure models consist of: (1) Three-component attitude model; (2) Attitude
model of various attributes; (3) Model of the trying to consume; (4) Model of attitude
towards advertising.
The three-component attitude model is very popular among psychology and education
researchers. The three components are:
1. The cognitive component, namely knowledge and perceptions obtained through a
combination of direct experience with the attitude object and related information from
various sources.
2. The affective component, which is the consumer's emotions or feelings about a
particular product or brand.
3. The conative component is a person's tendency or tendency to take certain actions or
behave in a certain way related to the attitude object.
In terms of consumer behavior, the conative or psychomotor component is the
tendency of consumers to choose or buy certain products. Another term that is often used to
explain a meaning similar to conation or psychomotor is behavioral intention.
An attitude model with multiple attributes is a model that examines the composition of
consumer attitudes regarding product attributes or beliefs about the selected product. This
model consists of:
1. Attitude towards the object model. In this case, the attitude serves as an evaluation of the
product, specific beliefs and product evaluation
2. Attitude towards behavioral models, namely attitudes towards behavior or actions related to
an object, not attitudes towards the object itself (Mathras et al., 2016).
The attitude model to trying to consme is an attitude model related to efforts to try to
consume products that producers offer to consumers. In the context of this theory, actions
and outcomes are uncertain, but instead reflect the consumer's attitude to try to consume or
buy.
In an attempt to consume or buy, there are often personal barriers or environmental
barriers that prevent individuals from showing a desire to act or a desire for results. There
can also be a situation where the individual does not want to try to buy or consume or fails
in the attempt to consume then there are two situations, namely: First, failing to notice or
ignoring the option to buy or consume. Second, making a conscious effort not to consume,
for example trying to sacrifice oneself not to consume now but to consume at a later time.
B.
Model of Attitude toward Advertising
The attitude model towards advertising is one of the attitude structure models that is
highly considered by experts in analyzing how consumers ultimately decide to choose and
buy a product or brand.
The attitude model towards advertising states that the formation of consumer behavior
takes place through a number of stages and processes, namely:
1. Consumers form various feelings or affections and judgments or cognitions due to
exposure to advertisements.
2. These feelings and judgments in turn influence consumers' attitudes towards
advertisements and beliefs about brands acquired through repeated exposure to
advertisements.
3. Consumer attitudes toward advertising and beliefs about
The brand influences the consumer's attitude towards the brand.
4. Consumer socialization has also shown itself to be an important determinant of
consumer attitudes towards advertising (Schmitt et al., 2003).
A number of studies have shown that attitudes toward specific advertisements depend
on attitudes toward advertising in general. MacKenzie and Lutz (1989) through the
cognitive and affective structural model mentioned that attitude towards advertising in
general exerts an important influence in line with the existence of several variables such as
ad credibility, ad perception, attitude towards advertisers and finally mood.
Ad credibility is an important variable that influences consumer attitudes towards the
advertisement itself. Advertising credibility means the extent to which consumers perceive
the messages conveyed in advertisements to be trustworthy, and is generally based on the
trust of a consumer who places it on a particular advertising source.
In order to maintain the credibility of advertisements, there are 10 ways offered by
advertising experts, namely:
1. Never pull ads in a short period of time because getting new customers through ads
takes a long process.
2. Give the customer a strong satisfaction guarantee by offering money back for any
reason if the customer is not satisfied. Don't confuse the issue by promising a
replacement or an optional plan to be mentioned later.
3. Call customers who feel happy working with you. Obviously, make customers feel
secure with their choice of cooperation. In this way, it is likely that customers will
provide support.
4. Use detailed case histories. Serious sales candidates want to know about all potential
sales. Therefore, never hesitate to explain in detail the specific cases related to sales
potential to salespeople because it is very helpful for the sales process.
5. Write down all the awards and recognitions you get from anywhere because it can put
you in an honorable position that generates trust from others. This is important
because customers really admire and appreciate sales or producers who are smart and
get awards from many parties.
6. Prepare and offer a certificate about the product signed by the relevant authority. This
is important because it can bring credibility to your product and advertising. In some
studies, the use of product certificates from relevant authorities can increase the
credibility of a company's advertising.
7. Provide key statistics about your customers. Describe in detail the problems they face
and Also, explain how your business can help them solve their problems. This is
because the good and positive experiences of other customers can encourage new
customers to try.
8. Attach newspapers or media that report about your company and products to customers
so that they are convinced and believe in their credibility. The influence of credible
mass media coverage can generate customer trust in your products and company. This
has been proven in various studies on sales and advertising.
9. Use endorsements from celebrities even if they never use your company's products.
That's because celebrities have a special place in the public or potential customers.
Utilizing the popularity of celebrities in increasing the credibility of products and
companies has been done for a long time in the world of sales and advertising.
10. Know your brand or product well. Because, by knowing well the products of your
company, it will make it easier for you to advertise and promote credibly.
C.
Issues in Attitude Formation
An important question to ask regarding attitudes is whether they can be molded or
engineered? The concept of attitude relates to learned tendencies and is the basis for
everyone's behavior. By In other words, a person's behavior is based on the attitude towards
the attitude object.
How are attitudes formed? There are several explanations for how attitudes are
formed. First, an explanation based on habituation theory or in the language of psychology
known as conditioning (Salkind & Rasmussen, 2008).
In the conditioning perspective, learning occurs due to repeated exposure to a
stimulus. Every individual has a great opportunity to develop a positive attitude towards
behavior that brings rewards continuously. For example, every time a child is given candy
when he has the courage to answer a question correctly, his courage to answer on other
occasions will continue to occur many times.
In the context of consumer behavior, every time a buyer gets a discount for buying a
product, his decision to buy the same or similar item again at another time will be repeated.
Attitudes are also formed through the process of modeling or imitation. In this
modeling perspective, we develop attitudes towards objects or other people or things
because we see other people we admire or trust. For example, we buy a certain brand of bag
because our father used to buy the same brand for a long time.
Another way of forming attitudes is through cognitive learning, which is problem-
solving or finding logical conclusions based on the information we acquire. Often attitudes
follow the decision to buy or consume a product, for example buying a name products
without any attitude towards them but because they are the only products available.
The more information consumers get about a product or service, the more it will shape
consumer attitudes towards it, both positive and negative attitudes.
Consumers only use limited information, for example only 2 or 3 beliefs about
products and services will dominate in attitude formation. Therefore, marketers must focus
on key points that are the core of the product or service that provides bargaining value and
competitiveness in product and service competition (Alexander Haslam, 2004).
D.
Attitude Change Strategy
Attitude change is an important issue in psychology because it occupies a central
position in the study of human behavior, including those related to consumer behavior.
Talking about attitude change, it means a change from a situation without an attitude
towards an object to a certain attitude towards the object. Consumers usually decide to buy
new products that are associated with other goods that have a very positive brand name.
A very positive consumer attitude towards a brand is often caused by a sense of
satisfaction that is felt repeatedly when buying other goods or other products from the same
brand or company.
From a classical conditioning point of view, an established brand name is an
unconditioned stimulus that gains a positive brand attitude after a long period of positive
reinforcement. A new product that is associated with an old brand that has already received
positive judgment is a conditioned stimulus.
There are two conditions that must exist if we want an attitude change. First, the
attitude object no longer provides satisfaction as before. In this case, attitudes can change
when consumer aspirations change. Second, attitude change occurs when one of the attitude
elements (affection, cognition and behavior undergo a change).
Attitude change can also be done through affection (efforts to influence feelings) in
this case through conditioning mechanisms. For example, developing positive feelings
through attractive gifts, positive music or emotion-laden symbols.
Feelings towards an advertisement or communication can also influence attitude
change. If someone likes an advertisement then of course there is a high chance of liking the
advertised item.
Utilizing celebrity figures that are highly favored by the public. Merely exposing an
advertisement starring a public figure to consumers can create a positive attitude.
COMMUNICATION AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR:
A.
Communication Models
A model is a representation of an object, thing or idea in a simplified form from
natural conditions or phenomena. The model contains information about a phenomenon
created with the aim of studying the actual system phenomenon, while the theory of
consumer behavior is a study of a person's actions towards a product, service, brand or
company. In communication and consumer behavior, there are several communication
models that must be understood, including formal and informal communication as a synergy
as stated by Effendy (2005) that formal communication systems usually follow lines of
authority as outlined in the organizational structure, while informal systems (not formal) are
social relationships that can have the power to determine the authority transmitted through
the formal system can be accepted. So that the position of authority in formal and informal
systems is as follows:
1. Formal Communication
According to Mulyana (2005), formal communication is communication according to
the organizational structure, such as downward communication and upward communication
and horizontal communication. Then according to Blake and Haroldsen (2005), the
characteristics of organizational communication and formal channels have many similarities.
The characteristics of formal communication channels according to Shibutani in Blake and
Haroldsen (2005) are:
a.
Communication channels function by standardizing all reports coming from various
sources so that they can be checked for accuracy.
b.
The source of the message is recognizable and certainly trustworthy. So it can be
explained that formal communication channels are characterized by stable rules for their
work, rules and sanctions are clearly arranged, and can be followed by different people.
Participants are recognizable and trustworthy and responsible and there are accurate lines
of communication.
2. Informal Communication
According to Mulyana (2005), informal communication does not depend on
organizational structure. Then DeVito (2011) states that informal communication is socially
approved communication whose orientation is not to the organization but more individually.
The communication models carried out by consumer behavior are as follows:
1. Consumer participants as sources and recipients of messages where there is effective
communication through a source to convey messages to recipients with the intention of
disseminating information related to a community need.
2. Obtaining information where consumers receive information and pay attention to
information and understand it. Information that can be obtained by seeing, hearing,
feeling, smelling and touching.
3. Supply and demand where supply is a fundamental that describes the total amount of
certain goods or services available to consumers that can relate to the amount available
at a certain price is a situation where a person behaves proactively to disseminate
information about a product or service that they experience. Meanwhile, demand is
where a person uses communication to obtain information about the total amount of
goods and services that consumers want to buy at various price levels.
4. Communication based on consumer needs in behavior for business people to know
consumer needs well, then the products created are certainly more targeted or in other
words in accordance with consumer demand so that a good communication relationship
is established through needs which include physiological needs, security needs, needs,
and needs to feel belonging, the need for self-esteem, and the need to self-actualize.
5. Customer service by thinking positively in communicating, where service officers are
the spearhead of service companies that will deal directly with consumers / customers.
This service officer must not only be able to act as a communicator or mediator, but at
the same time must be able to instill a positive image for the company and must also
have the ability to help the company understand that customers are an important asset
that must be maintained and maintained. Therefore, whatever the customer's request,
how the customer's attitude and behavior, serve the customer by always thinking
positively by being friendly, making a good initial impression, it will affect the
communication relationship at a later stage.
Some communication models according to experts that have been put forward are as
follows:
1. Characteristics of Aristotle's Communication Model
Aristotle's communication model is one of the linear communication models aimed at
describing or explaining the public speaking process. This model is the first communication
model and is a widely accepted communication model among other communication models.
Model Aristotle's communication model is known as a speaker-centered communication
model because the speaker is seen as an active party and plays an important role in the
public speaking process, namely sending messages to the audience. Aristotle's
communication model has several characteristics, including:
a.
Centered on the sender of the message.
b.
The audience is passive.
c.
Not too focused on intrapersonal communication or interpersonal communication.
d.
Focus on audience interaction in communication.
e.
There is no concept of feedback.
f.
There is no concept of communication failure.
g.
Communication is one-way.
h.
Can only be used in public speaking.
2. Lasswell Communication Model
Developed a communication model known as the Lasswell communication model.
Lasswell's communication model is one of the linear communication models or one-way
communication models and is a very influential communication model. Lasswell's
communication model was originally developed to analyze mass communication, especially
the study of propaganda media, this model is also used to analyze interpersonal
communication or group communication which is the target of message dissemination. In
addition, Lasswell also brought the concept of an effective communication process.
According to him, there is a relationship between the presentation of facts and how
these facts can cause different effects. Lasswell's communication model has several
characteristics, namely:
a.
Communication is one-way.
b.
Inconsistent because it only states the concept of effect.
c.
Does not include feedback.
d.
Ignoring possibility existence of barriers to communication.
e.
It is considered very general and only covers traditional themes.
f.
It is the basis of propaganda because it focuses more on output.
g.
Generally used for persuasion media.
3. Shannon and Weaver Communication Model
Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver (1948) developed one of the linear
communication models called the Shannon and Weaver Communication Model. According
to this model, there are three kinds of communication problems, namely technical problems,
semantic problems and effectiveness problems.
a.
Technical problem, which is a problem caused by the channel.
b.
Semantic problems, which are problems due to differences in interpreting the
messages sent and received.
c.
The problem of effectiveness, which is the problem posed as the recipient's reaction to
the message conveyed.
This model was originally intended to improve technical communication, especially
telephone communication with the aim of maximizing telephone capacity and minimizing
interference. But in its development, this model was then applied to all forms of
communication to develop effective communication.
4. Berlo's Communication Model
David K. Berlo formulated a linear communication model which is a development of
the Shannon and Weaver communication model. David K. Berlo's communication model is
called the SMCR (Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver) Communication Model. According
to Berlo, there are several factors that influence the various components owned by
individuals in communication that make communication take place more efficiently. These
factors are communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social and cultural systems. Berlo's
communication model has several characteristics, namely:
a.
Focus on the encoding and decoding process.
b.
Communication components are influenced by several factors.
c.
No concept of feedback.
d.
The effects of communication cannot be known.
e.
There is no concept of interference or noise or various other obstacles to the
communication process.
f.
Communication is one-way.
g.
Both messengers and receivers are similar when it comes to the factors that influence
them.
5. Barnlund's Communication Model
Dean C. Barnlund introduced a transactional communication model for the basis of
interpersonal communication that describes the process of sending and receiving messages
that occur simultaneously between communication participants. Barnlund's communication
model is known as the Barnlund Transactional Communication Model. This model is a
response to the static linear communication model to a dynamic communication model and a
two-way communication model. Barnlund's transactional communication model describes a
continuous communication process where the sender and receiver exchange roles and
exchange places equally. Ongoing messages take place with constant feedback provided by
the communication participants. The feedback given by one party is the message for the
other party.
6. Osgood and Schramm Communication Model
Schramm's Communication Model which describes the communication process takes
place in two directions, either the sender of the message or the recipient of the message can
change roles in sending and receiving messages. Messages are sent after the encoding
process, therefore the sender of the message is also called the Encoder. Meanwhile, the
recipient of the message or receiver is also called a decoder because the message that has
been encoded by the sender of the message then undergoes a decoding process carried out
by the recipient of the message or receiver. Schramm's communication model is adapted
from the theory proposed by Ryan A. Osgood, hence this communication model is called the
Osgood and Schramm Communication Model or the Encode-Decode Communication
Model. Through this model, Osgood replaced the linear communication model with a
circular communication process model and Schramm added the concept of field of
experience to it.
Communication models that have been formulated by experts, where this
communication model can be classified into 3 (three) types of communication models,
namely:
1. Linear Communication Model
It is a very simple communication model that illustrates communication takes place in
one direction. The message flow is described as direct from the message sender to the
message receiver. In the linear communication model there is no concept of feedback and
message recipients are passive in receiving messages. Communication models that refer to
linear communication models include Aristotle's communication model, Lasswell's
communication model, Berlo's SMCR communication model and Shannon and Weaver's
communication model.
2. Transactional Communication Model
It is a communication model that emphasizes the importance of the role of the
message sender and message receiver in a two-way communication process. The
transactional communication model relates communication to social context, relationship
context and cultural context. In this model, it is described that we communicate not only as a
place to exchange messages but to build relationships. Communication models that refer to
the transactional communication model include Barnlund's transactional communication
model.
3. Interaction Communication Model
It is a communication model that describes communication that takes place in two
directions. Generally, this interaction communication model is used in new media such as
the internet or modern communication media. Communication models that refer to the
interaction communication model are the Osgood and Schramm models. Experts have
introduced a variety of communication models in an effort to describe and explain the
communication process and the various factors that affect the flow and effectiveness of
communication.
B.
Components of Communication
The components of communication consist of five parts, namely communicators,
messages, media, communicants and effects (Onong, 2009). The communication process is
part of the communicator to convey messages to communicators, so as to create an equation
of meaning between the communicator and the communicator. This communication process
aims to create effective communication (in accordance with the purpose of communication)
and also includes a process of conveying information from one party to another where a
person or several people, groups, organizations and communities create and use information
to connect with the environment and other people.
According to Suranto A.W (2005), identifying the components of communication
consists of:
1. Communicator or Message Sender
Communicators are individuals or parties who act as message senders or sources. The
source of the message is processed through consideration and planning in the mind,
continuing to the process of creating the message.
2. Message or Information
Messages or information, some also refer to as ideas, ideas, symbols, stimuli which
are essentially a component that becomes the content of communication where the message
is an information created by the communicator and will be conveyed to the communicator or
audience.
3. Media or Channel
Is a means used to convey messages from communicators to communicants. There are
various kinds of media including print, audio and audio-visual media, cellphones and others.
4. Communicator or Receiver
It is the recipients of messages where communicants not only receive messages, but
also analyze and interpret messages, so that they can understand the meaning of the
message.
5. Feedback
Feedback is often called a response. Messages received, analyzed, interpreted by
communicants will certainly encourage communicants to react. The reaction that arises is
called a response or feedback.
The communication process in consumer behavior has communication components
that integratively play a role in accordance with the characteristics of the component itself.
Where the components of communication in consumer behavior include the following:
1. Source/communicator, which is something that has a need to communicate and a desire to
share its own situation, both emotional and informational with others. In the context of
communication where the communicator is an individual who create, formulate and deliver
messages to consumers.
2. Encoding, which is an internal activity in the communicator in creating messages through
symbols, both verbal and non-verbal, which are arranged based on grammatical rules and
adapted to the characteristics of the communicator. Encoding is the act of formulating the
contents of the mind into symbols, words and so on so that the communicator feels
confident in the message being compiled and how it is conveyed to consumer behavior.
3. Physical means of delivering messages from sources to recipients or connecting to several
people so that the context in communication in consumer behavior, channel users through
the media solely because the situation and conditions do not allow face-to-face
communication. For example, someone wants to convey information to another person, but
the two people are far apart, so a communication channel is used so that the desire to convey
information can be carried out which in principle, as long as it is still possible to carry out
face-to-face communication, then face-to-face interpersonal communication will be more
effective.
4. The message is a set of symbols, through a combination of both that represent the
communicator's special circumstances to be conveyed to the other party. In communication
activities, the message is a very important element Important. The message is conveyed by
the communicator to be received and interpreted by the communicator or audience.
Communication is effective when consumer behavior is carried out for the communicator to
interpret the meaning of the message as desired by the communicator.
5. Communicant as someone who receives, understands and interprets messages. The
interpersonal communication process, the recipient is active, in addition to receiving
messages, also performs the interpretation process and provides feedback. Based on
feedback from the communicant, a communicator will be able to know the effectiveness of
the communication that has been carried out, whether the meaning of the message can be
understood together by both parties, namely the communicator and the communicant.
6. Decoding is an internal activity within the receiver, through the senses, the receiver gets
various kinds of data in "Raw" form in the form of words and symbols that must be
converted into experiences that contain meaning. Gradually starting from the sensation
process, which is the process in which the senses capture stimuli. For example, the ears hear
sounds or sounds, the eyes see objects and so on.
7. Interference (noise), interference or noise or barriers are diverse, so they must be defined
and analyzed. Noise can occur in any component of the communication system. Noise is
anything that interferes with or disrupts the delivery and reception of messages, including
physical and psychological ones. The context of communication always occurs in a context
There are at least three dimensions: space, time and value. In order for interpersonal
communication to run effectively, the issue of communication context should be a concern.
That is, communicators and communicants need to consider the context of this
communication. If the components of interpersonal communication are described in a chart
or model, it will show a model of interpersonal communication. This communication model
is included to simply describe the interpersonal communication process so that it is easier to
understand. In the communication component of consumer behavior, it can be concluded
that the whole is a process of exchanging meaning between people who communicate with
each other. From the source and receiver of the message, then encoding to create a message,
then conveyed to the recipient either directly or indirectly. After that, decoding to
understand the message, then conveying a response to what was conveyed. Not only that,
noise and the context of communication are also included in the process of people
communicating.
8. A response is what the receiver has decided to make as a response to the message.
Responses can be positive, neutral, or negative. The response is positive if it is in
accordance with what the communicator wants. Neutral means that the response neither
accepts nor rejects the wishes of the communicator. It is said to be a negative response if the
response given Contrary to what the communicator wants. In essence, the response is
information for the source so that he can assess the effectiveness of communication to
further adjust to the existing situation.
C.
Effectiveness Research Advertising
Advertising research is a method for assessing and evaluating the efficacy of
advertising and is useful for understanding in general how advertising works and how
consumers use and respond to messages conveyed by advertisements. Advertising at this
time plays an important role for companies in marketing the goods and services produced.
The increase in advertising expenditures made by companies shows that advertising is
considered an effective tool to persuade buyers in marketing strategies. Advertising is one of
the marketing tools most widely utilized by industries or companies. In America, 126
companies set aside a budget of more than 100 million dollars per year for advertising
expenditures (Belch and Belch, 1995). Purchasing information through marketing
communications can be done using advertising. Advertising is a form of non-personal
presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by a designated sponsor for a fee.
Where the ability of advertising to create a favorable attitude towards a product may often
depend on the consumer's attitude towards the advertisement itself. In addition, advertising
also costs a lot of money, therefore advertisements must be designed in such a way as to
create a good impression careful consideration so that the objectives to be achieved through
advertising can be effective.
Measuring an advertisement must be done regularly and continuously, because the
effectiveness of advertising can be known by doing research. One model that can be used to
measure the effectiveness of advertising because advertising is one of the marketing tools
and means of illumination that plays an important role and is part of the life of
communication media that is vital for the development of the business world, so in choosing
advertising media, companies must also be more observant and make considerations in
choosing media tools that will be used as an effective marketing tool for the company. There
are 3 criteria that can be used to measure the effectiveness of advertising, namely: sales,
recall and persuasion. Advertising effectiveness related to sales can be known through
research on sales impact, while advertising effectiveness related to recall and persuasion can
be known through research on communication impact.
Based on ad testing, there are several main methods of ad pre-testing in
communication impact research, a research conducted before the ad is put into the media
and after it is printed or broadcast, as follows:
1. The consumer feedback method involves asking consumers for their reactions to the
proposed advertisement.
2. Portfolio testing, this method involves asking consumers to view and listen to a
portfolio of ads for as much time as they need.
3. Laboratory testing, this method uses equipment to measure the physiological reactions
of heart rate, blood pressure, eyeball dilation, body skin response, sweat output to
advertisements.
For other methods, there are many that are carried out, including in the form of
cooperation in the tourism sector, one of which is a product originating from the tourism
sector and tourism business activities. The amount of competition today is needed to
increase efficiency and information about the products owned, a strategy is needed that is
able to direct the company to be more advanced, through measuring the effectiveness of
advertising is something that is important for the image or prestige of a company whether
advertising or promotion that has been done to market products is functional and effective.
An example of how to create advertising research:
The objective of advertising research itself should concentrate on the optimum
utilization of advertising budget, choice of media in carrying out the advertising campaign,
influence of advertising on the target audience. To bring cost-effectiveness in advertising,
advertising research is a detailed study of a particular subject that leads to a successful and
effective campaign. This research will also determine the success advertising campaign by
measuring the impact on its audience.
The advertising research process is as follows:
1. Target markets are needed to research the habits and preferences of target potential
customers or consumers before launching an advertising campaign. To identify who
customers or consumers are, what problems they have, and what benefits and types of
messages to communicate with consumers.
2. Responses to advertisements to understand how consumers in the target demographic
respond to advertisements, as well as to assist in creating strong and effective
advertising campaigns. Through this research, consumers will be shown different
advertisements through their opinions related to the products shown, whether
consumers will consider buying them, and how well consumers understand the
products after seeing the advertisements.
3. Results and success through research to measure the success of each advertising
campaign. Understanding the impact of advertising on sales, consumer perception, as
well as return on investment, can help create better and more effective advertising and
can also be used to compare advertising across different media or markets.
Advertising research or research can be done as follows:
1. Product Comparative Research
The attitude of the target group towards a particular product or brand is very
important, it is done to study consumer behavior. Product appeal must be designed by
considering it as a favorable factor of a product and must carefully consider consumer
attitudes. For example, to illustrate the appeal of advertising products, take the example of
canned fish brands in certain market segments. The product features of canned fish are
highlighted, given that the market segment and the product must be positioned accordingly.
Then the features of canned fish can be seen as follows:
a.
Quality is guaranteed.
b.
The meat of this fish is hygienically processed.
c.
Fish contains 18% protein consisting of essential amino acids.
d.
The fat content is 1-20% fat, which is easily digested and can be used directly by body
tissues.
2. Advertising Message Research
Advertising messages are essential for creating impact and projecting products in the
market. Consumer attitudes and message effects can be identified and measured. Advertisers
should be able to find the salient characteristics of a particular market segment and design
product appeals and messages accordingly.
D.
Emotional Appeal in Ads
Emotional appeal in advertising is an attempt to evoke positive (humor, love, pride
and pleasure) or negative (fear, guilt and shame) emotions in advertising that will motivate
consumer behavior. Emotional appeals sometimes evoke positive or negative emotions that
will motivate audiences. Positive emotional appeals can be in the form of humor, love and
happiness. Whereas negative emotional appeals can be fear, guilt and shame. An emotional
appeal seeks to influence the feelings or emotions of the audience. Understanding the use of
advertising appeal above, the tendency to use emotional appeal is mostly done by
advertisers in an effort to shape the image, values of the products offered. These
advertisements tend to be very informative and provide consumers with a number of
information about important product attributes or features that will lead to positive attitudes
from consumers and can be used as a basis for rational buying decisions.
Emotional appeal in advertising based on its definition is as follows:
1. Attractiveness in advertising, according to Jefkins (1996) is the most persuasive sales
messages directed at the most potential customers for certain goods or services at the
cheapest possible cost. Meanwhile, advertising is news that conveys messages (to persuade
or encourage) about the goods and services offered to a group of consumers with an appeal.
Advertising is a creative effort made by advertisers to motivate behavior or influence
consumer attitudes towards a product. Advertising appeal aims to elicit a certain response
from consumers and motivate behavior or influence consumer attitudes towards a product.
2. Emotional appeal in advertising is an advertising appeal that focuses more on psychological
needs. These needs include the need to love and be loved, the need to have friends and other
emotional needs. Meanwhile, emotional appeal is an advertising appeal whose main purpose
is to obtain a positive emotional response from consumers.
3. Emotional and rational appeals simultaneously in advertising, that emotional and rational
appeals in advertising are basic ideas or ideas about a product conveyed through advertising,
the purpose of emotional and rational appeals in advertising is to elicit emotional and
rational responses from consumers through an advertisement so as to motivate behavior or
influence consumer attitudes to buy a product brand.
