CONCEPT OF CONSUMER MOTIVATION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
MKT 402 - CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
WEEK 1
A.
Motivation as Encouragement Behavior
According to (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007), "Motivation can be described as the
driving force within individuals that impels them to action", which means that motivation is
the driving force within a person that will force them to take an action. (Setiadi, 2003)
defines consumer motivation as a condition in a person's personality that encourages
individual desires to carry out activities in order to achieve a certain goal, with the existence
of motivation in a person, it will show a goal-directed behavior to achieve satisfaction goals.
Motivation arises because of the needs felt by consumers, while the need itself arises
because consumers feel discomfort (state of tension) between what should be felt and what
is actually felt. This perceived need will encourage someone to take action to meet these
needs (Sumarwan, 2002).
In the field of marketing motivation is the considerations and influences that
encourage people to make purchases (Sigit, 2002). Motivation is divided into two, namely
rational and emotional motivation.
1. Rational motivation, purchases based on the facts shown by the product to consumers
and are functional and objective product attributes, for example product quality, product
price, availability of goods, efficiency of the use of these goods can be accepted.
2. Emotional motivation, in making purchases related to feelings, pleasures that can be
captured by the five senses, for example by owning certain goods can increase social
status, the role of the brand will make buyers show their economic status and is
generally subjective and symbolic.
Consumer motivation must be able to increase purchasing productivity and provide
satisfaction to consumers. In a motivation there are also several that contain principles,
including:
1. The principle of participation is an attempt to provide opportunities for consumers to
submit ideas, recommendations in the decision-making process.
2. The principle of communication is to provide clear information about the objectives to
be achieved, how to do it and the obstacles encountered.
3. The principle of recognition is to give appropriate and reasonable rewards and
recognition to consumers for their achievements.
4. The principle of delegated authority, is to give consumers the freedom to make
decisions and creativity as freely as possible but there are still limiting rules.
5. The principle of reciprocal attention, is to motivate consumers by expressing the
company's wishes or expectations while trying to meet the needs that consumers expect
from producers.
Factors that influence consumer motivation towards a product purchase decision
include: product, price, service and location (Engel, Blackwell and Miniard, 1994).
1. Product, is anything that can be offered for use or consumption (Kotler, 2001). The
elements directly related to a product are quality, features, options, style, brand,
packaging, size, product lines, product items, warranty and service. Product quality is
how well the product performs and how long it performs. Buyers will admire products
that are well made and can appreciate quality and performance (Kotler, 2001), while
according to (Sofjan, 2002) product quality will indicate the size of the product's
durability, the trustworthiness of the product, the accuracy of the product, and the
quality of the product (precision), easy to operate and maintain and other attributes that
are valued. Most products provided in the market initially start from one of four quality
levels, namely low quality, average (medium) quality, good (high) quality and excellent
quality.
2. Price, consumer motivation in purchasing a product is also influenced by the price of
the product, for example, a consumer with economic considerations will choose a
product price that suits his ability. Discounts (discounts) are modifications to the base
sales price to reward customers for their actions, such as early payment, purchase
quantity and off-season purchases (Kotler, 2001). These actions are carried out with the
intention of attracting consumers to remain customers and want to take actions that can
bring benefits to the company.
3. Service, success in marketing products is largely determined by whether or not the
services provided by a company in marketing its products. Services in marketing a
product include services when making offers, services in purchasing, services when
delivering products sold and so on. Service is also one of the factors that will motivate
consumers because this involves the atmosphere in the place, both in terms of service
and customer satisfaction friendly saleswoman service, facilities provided and so on.
4. Location, location has a real influence on consumer choice of a product. In general,
consumers will choose a dealer who is close to where they live, the location of the
dealer is critical to the survival of the dealer concerned, what also needs to be
considered regarding location is its strategic location, both in terms of transportation
which illustrates the ease with which the location is reached.
B.
Theories of Motivation
According to (Kotler, 2005), there are 6 (six) theories of motivation, namely:
1. Content Theory, this theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the factors that
exist in consumers that can lead to certain behaviors. The difficulties in applying this theory
are:
a.
Consumer needs vary widely.
b.
The realization of needs is an action that varies greatly from one consumer to another.
c.
Consumers are not always consistent with their actions.
2. Process Theory, this theory emphasizes how with what purpose each consumer is motivated.
According to this theory, needs are only as one element in a process of how the consumer
behaves. The basis of process theory regarding motivation is the existence of expectations,
namely what consumers believe and what is obtained from their behavior.
3. Reinforcment Theory, this theory explains how the consequences of past behavior can
influence future actions in the learning process cycle. According to this theory, consumers
behave in certain ways because they have learned that certain behaviors will produce
unpleasant consequences and consumers will master behaviors that will produce pleasant
consequences.
4. Freud's Motivation Theory, Sigmund Freud assumed that the psychological forces that shape
a person's behavior are largely unconscious and that a person cannot fully understand his
own motivations. When a person observes a particular brand, he reacts not only to the
product's stated capabilities, but also to other less conscious cues such as shape, size,
weight, material and color as well as the brand name. A technique called laddering makes it
possible to trace a person's motivations from stated instrumental motivations to more
terminal motivations. Marketers can then decide at what level they will develop their
message[ and appeal.
5. Hezberg's Motivation Theory, Federick Herzberg developed two theories that distinguish
dissatisfaction (dissatisfer) from satisfaction (satisfer). The absence of a dissatisfier is not
enough to motivate a purchase, so there must be a satisfer. Herzberg's theory has two
implications. First, sellers should do their best to avoid dissatisfaction. Second, sellers
should identify each of the major satisfiers or motivators of purchase in the market and then
supply them.
6. Abraham Maslow's Motivation Theory Abraham Maslow, a clinical psychologist,
formulated a theory of human motivation based on a universal hierarchy of human needs.
Maslow proposed five human needs based on their level of importance starting from the
lowest, namely biological needs (physiological or biogenic needs) to the highest, namely
psychogenic needs (psychogenic needs). According to Maslow's theory, humans try to fulfill
their low-level needs first before fulfilling higher needs. The following is a hierarchy of
needs theory according to Abraham Maslow:
a.
Physiological Needs, these needs are needs in maintaining life and clear evidence will
appear in their fulfillment of clothing, food and shelter.
b.
Safety Needs, its manifestation will be seen in the need for security of life, security of
property and fair treatment.
c.
Social Needs, these social needs are the most important needs to be considered
immediately after the need for security and psychological needs have been met.
d.
Esteem Needs, these needs are more egoistic and are closely related to one's status.
The higher a person's status, the higher their need for recognition, respect and prestige.
e.
Self-Actualization Needs, this type of need is the highest need, namely to show
maximum achievement without demanding too much reward from the organization.
The motivation that exists in consumers will manifest a goal-directed behavior that
achieves the goal of satisfaction.
C.
Theories of Personality
Personality is defined as the inner psychological characteristics that determine and
reflect how a person responds to their environment. The emphasis in this definition is on
internal traits or obligations, namely qualities, traits, character traits, ability to influence
people and special temperaments that distinguish one individual from another. Personality
tends to influence a person's choice of products. It is these traits that will influence how
consumers respond to marketers' promotional efforts, and when, where and how they
respond.
consume certain products and services. Basic personality traits:
1. Personality reflects individual differences, because the inner characteristics that make
up an individual's personality are a unique combination of factors, no two individuals
are exactly the same. Personality is a useful concept because it allows us to categorize
consumers into different groups on the basis of one or more traits.
2. Personality is consistent and enduring, a personality tends to be consistent. Although
marketers cannot change consumers' personalities to suit their products, if they know,
then they will be able to try to attract the attention of their target consumer groups
through relevant traits that characterize the personality of the consumer group in
question. While consumers' personalities may be consistent, their consumption behavior
often varies greatly due to the various psychological, socio-cultural, environmental and
situational factors that influence behavior.
3. Personality can change, personality can undergo changes in certain circumstances. Due
to various life events such as birth, death and so on. A person's personality changes not
only in response to sudden events, but also as part of a gradual process towards
maturity.
The personality theories that serve as the theoretical basis in the study of the
relationship between consumer behavior and personality are as follows:
1. Freud's Theory of Personality Sigmund Freud proposed a psychoanalytical theory of
personality. This theory states that unconscious needs or drives, such as sex drive and
biological needs are the core of human motivation and personality. According to Freud,
human personality consists of three interacting elements, namely:
a.
The id, is the biological aspect of the human being that exists from birth, which drives
physiological needs such as hunger, thirst and sexual appetite. The id describes the
instincts of humans who biologically need food, drink and sex. Humans will naturally
fulfill these needs to avoid tension and seek satisfaction as soon as possible. This is
what is called that the Id element will carry out the pleasure principle or immediate
satisfaction.
b.
Superego, is the psychological aspect of the human being that describes the human
nature to submit and obey the social norms, ethics and values of society. Superego
causes humans to pay attention to what is good and what is bad for a society and their
behavior is adjusted to what is good according to their social environment. Superego is
the tendency of human nature that Superego always wants to do good in accordance
with the norms and ethics, as well as the rules that exist in society. Superego can be
considered as an element that functions to reduce or suppress the biological desires (Id)
that exist in humans. When we make mistakes, we often unconsciously feel guilt and
shame. This is an example of how the superego element works to suppress the Id
element, so that we do not repeat the wrongdoing again. Id and superego are considered
as unconscious drives by humans.
c.
Ego, is an element that can be realized and controlled by humans. Ego will function as a
mediator between Id and superego. The ego tries to balance what the Id wants to fulfill
and what the superego demands in order to conform to social norms. The ego works
with the reality principle, which is that it seeks to enable humans to fulfill their
physiological needs but in accordance with the rules of good and bad according to
society.
2. Neo-Freud Personality Theory, this theory is a combination of social and psychology. This
theory emphasizes that humans strive to fulfill what society needs and society assists
individuals in fulfilling their needs and goals. Neo-Freud's theory states that social
relationships are the dominant factor in the formation and development of human
personality.
3. Trait Theory, this theory classifies people into their most salient characteristics or traits. A
trait is a special psychological characteristic, which is defined as "any distinguishing and
relatively enduring way in which each individual differs from others". According to
(Loudon and Della Bitta, 1993), trait theory is based on three assumptions, namely (a)
individuals have behaviors that tend to be relatively stable, (b) people have a degree of
difference in these behavioral tendencies, (c) if these differences are identified and
measured, then these differences can describe the personalities of these individuals.
4. Self-Concept Theory, according to this theory, humans have a view or conception of
themselves, in the form of an assessment of themselves. With this, each individual functions
as a subject and object of perception. Self-concept theory views that each individual has a
concept of himself based on who he is (actual self) and a concept of who he wants to be
(ideal self).
D.
Factors Personality
Personality is a factor that can influence consumer purchasing decisions for a product
or service. Everyone has a different personality that influences their buying behavior,
understanding the personality characteristics of consumers will be very valuable for
manufacturers in producing a product. There are several factors that can affect a person's
personality, including:
1. Genetic factors (heredity), genetic factors play an important role in determining
personality, especially in relation to the unique aspects of the individual. This approach
argues that heredity plays an important part in determining one's personality.
2. Environmental factors, the environment that is exposed to us plays a considerable role
in shaping our personality. Environmental factors have an influence that makes a person
the same as others because of the various experiences he has experienced.
3. Situational factors, situations influence the effects of heredity and environment on
personality. An individual's personality, while generally steady and consistent, can
change in different situations.
4. Cultural factors, traditions or culture of a society will influence the personality of each
member, both regarding the way of thinking (such as how to look at things) and
behaving. The influence of culture on personality can be seen from the difference
between modern society, whose culture is relatively advanced (especially science and
technology) with primitive society whose culture is relatively simple.
CONSUMER RESEARCH:
A.
Definition of Consumer Research
Consumer research may be defined as the systematic gathering, recording and
analyzing of data about consumers. David L.K. and Albert Bitta, 1994). Consumer decisions
to buy or use a product do not just appear, but go through a decision process that influences
purchasing decisions. Based on Engel, et al. (2006) there are five stages of the process in
making purchasing decisions made by consumers, including need recognition, information
search, alternative evaluation, purchase decisions and results.
Consumers when making purchasing decisions often depend on their behavior. A
study of consumer behavior suggests that "People often buy products not for what they do,
but for what they mean". This means that consumers buy a product not only because they are
pursuing its functional benefits, but more so because of its meaning. It also seeks certain
meanings (such as self-image, prestige and even personality). Most consumers may not be
able to jump higher or run faster, despite wearing Nike, Reebok or Adidas. However, quite a
number of people are loyal to these well-known brands.
Consumer behavior and its changes need to be considered in relation to making
purchasing decisions. One way to find out consumer behavior is to conduct consumer
research. For example, consumer research related to behavior about making decisions to buy
or not a product. Here are some reasons why consumer research is important, namely to find
the optimal target market, understand the condition of old customers, find out who new
consumers are, ensure spending on research, measurable and accountable and the right way
to do consumer research.
1. Types of Research
a.
Basic Research
According to Sukmadinata in Trianto (2010: 168) basic research, also called
pure research or fundamental research, is research intended for the development of a
science and is directed at developing existing theories or discovering new theories.
Basic research is more directed at knowing, explaining and predicting natural and
social phenomena. The result of Basic research may not be directly utilized, but it is
very useful for a better life. The purpose of basic research is to increase knowledge
with basic principles, scientific laws and to improve scientific search and
methodology.
b.
Application Research
Applied research or applied research according to Sukardi in Trianto (2010: 168)
is carried out with regard to practical realities, the application and development of
science produced by basic research in real life. Applied research serves to find
solutions to certain problems. With the aim of solving problems so that research
results can be utilized for the benefit of humans both individually or in groups as well
as for industrial or political purposes and not for scientific insight alone.
2. Principal Research Activities:
a.
Establishing Theory
Theory is a logic flow in which concepts, definitions and propositions are
systematically arranged. According to Sugiyono (2016) the theoretical basis needs to be
upheld so that research has a solid foundation and is not just an act of trial and error. The
existence of a theoretical basis is a feature, that the research is a scientific way of obtaining
data and the results expressed are not just unfounded prejudices.
The discipline of consumer behavior has provided a framework for understanding the
consumer decision-making process. Peter and Olson (2010) put forward the Consumer
Analysis Model (A Framework for Consumer Analysis) which he calls the Three Elements
of Consumer Analysis. The three elements are: consumer affect and cognition, consumer
behavior and consumer environment. This model reveals how each of the three elements is
related. Understanding each element is very important in order to understand consumers
well and help in developing strategies to influence consumers.
Peter and Olson (2010) suggest that affective and cognitive from consumers are
consumers' mental responses to the environment. Affective is the consumer's feeling
towards an object, for example whether he likes or dislikes a food product. Cognitive is
consumers' thoughts, their beliefs about a food product. Cognitive also includes the
knowledge possessed about a product and stored in memory. Some of the elements of
affective and cognitive discussed by Peter and Olson (2010) are consumer knowledge and
involvement with the products, consumer attention and understanding as well as attitudes
and intentions (attitudes and inetntion).
According to the Threecomponent Attitude Model (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2010; and
Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard, 1995), attitude consists of three components, namely
cognitive, affective and conative. Cognitive is the knowledge and perceptions of consumers
obtained through experience with an attitude-object and information from several sources.
This knowledge and perception usually takes the form of beliefs, namely consumers believe
that the product has a number of attributes. Cognitive is often referred to as consumer
knowledge and beliefs. Affective describes the emotions and feelings of consumers,
Schiffman and Kanuk (2010) call it "as primarily evaluative in nature", which shows an
immediate and general assessment of a product, whether the product is liked or disliked; or
whether the product is good or bad. Conative shows a person's actions or behavioral
tendencies towards an object (Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard, 1995), conative is related to
the actions or behaviors that will be carried out by a consumer (likelihood of tendency) and
is often referred to as intention.
Solomon (2009) calls the tricomponent model the ABC Attitude Model. A expresses
attitude (Affect), B is behavior (Behavior) and C is belief (Cognitive). Attitude expresses
feelings a person towards an attitude object. Behavior is a person's tendency to do
something, while cognitive is a person's belief in an attitude object. The ABC model
assumes that affective, cognitive and behavior are related to each other. So, a person's
attitude towards a computer product is not only described by his knowledge of computer
product attributes (cognitive), but is described by his feelings (whether he likes the product)
and his tendency (whether he will buy the computer).
1) Cognitive Component
The cognitive component of an attitude describes the knowledge and perceptions
of an attitude object. This knowledge and perception can be obtained from direct
experience of the attitude object and information from various other sources. These
knowledge and perceptions are usually in the form of beliefs, meaning that consumers
believe that an attitude object has several attributes and that specific behavior will lead
to specific results.
2) Affective Component
Affective describes a person's feelings and emotions towards a product or brand.
These feelings and emotions are an overall evaluation of the attitude object (product or
brand). Affective expresses the consumer's assessment of a product whether it is good
or bad, "Liked" or "Disliked". A person's feelings and emotions are mainly shown
towards the product as a whole, rather than feelings and emotions towards the attributes
of a product. These feelings and emotions are described by the expression of these two
adjectives, which are different for evaluating a product.
3) Conative Component
Conative is the third component of attitude which describes the tendency of a
person to take certain actions related to the attitude object (product or brand). Conative
can also include behavior that actually occurs. The conative component in consumer
research usually reveals a consumer's intention to buy.
b.
Establishing Data and Instruments
The instrument can be said to be the initial stage in data collection. According to Ibnu
Hajar (1996: 160) data collection instruments are measuring instruments that can be used to
obtain quantitative information about objective variables and characteristics. The data in
question includes:
1) Quantitative data is a type of data related to the number or quantity in the form of
numbers, so the data is calculated and symbolized in the form of certain measures.
2) Qualitative data is a type of data related to quality values such as very good, good,
medium, good enough, less and so on.
3) Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio data (based on the measurement scale).
4) Primary data (directly from observations) or secondary data (taken from other data
sources).
Research instruments have several types that differ from each other, including:
1) Tests, can be in the form of a series of questions, exercises, worksheets and so on that
have the purpose of measuring skills, intelligence, abilities and talents possessed by an
individual or group that is the subject of research.
2) Questionnaire or questionnaire, is a data collection tool through a number of written
questions.
3) An interview is a question and answer activity between two people to obtain information
or ideas on a particular topic and allows for more in-depth interviews.
4) Observation is a direct observation activity using all five senses. Observation can be
done through tests, questionnaires, various images to sound recordings.
5) Graded or rating scale, is an objective measurement made on a scale or level. This
instrument is useful for obtaining a quantitative description of certain aspects in the
form of an ordinal scale such as very good, good, medium, not good and very bad.
6) Documentation, is an activity to obtain data through research activities on written
objects such as books, magazines, diaries, artifacts, videos and so on.
7) Forum Group Discusion (FGD), also known as focus group discussion, involves
collecting data from several groups at the same time. The advantage is the high level of
credibility and originality, although there are some challenges such as being too costly,
time-consuming and labor-intensive.
8) Experimentation, is the collection of data by conducting several experiments in the
laboratory and testing several reactions that occur in the object of research and usually
by pure and applied science researchers.
c.
Establishing Analysis Tools
According to Irwan Gani and Siti Amalia (2014) statistical science when associated
with analytical tools can be divided into several groups, namely based on the type of test,
based on parameters and based on the number of variables. Each statistical classification has
its own uses.
1) By Testing Type
a)
Descriptive statistics is a field of statistics that formulates data through grouping,
determining values and statistical functions through the use of various forms of tables.
The most commonly used descriptive statistical analysis tools include frequency and
distribution tables, percentage tables and cross tables.
b)
Inferential statistics is a field of statistics that focuses on determining decision making
and conclusions about the population estimated from samples using certain statistical
tests. The analytical tools used are the difference test, relationship test, influence test
and group test.
2) Based on Parameters
a)
Parametric statistics are statistical tools related to inferential statistics (decision making
on the basis of certain problems) that discuss population parameters, such as averages,
proportions and so on. The characteristics of parametric statistics are interval data types
and ratio, and normal or near normal data distribution. The analytical tools are time
series, correlation and regression.
b)
Non-parametric statistics are inferential statistical tools that do not discuss the estimated
parameters of a population. The characteristics are that the type of data used is nominal
or ordinal, the data distribution (population) is unknown or not normal. The analytical
tools are khai kuadrat, t test, z test, one way anova, and correlation.
3) By Number of Variables
a)
Univariate analysis is an analytical tool that only measures one variable for n samples,
such as distinguishing the level of consumer satisfaction before and after using certain
beauty products (one variable) in the city of Depok (n samples). The analytical tools
include t-test, z-test and ANOVA.
b)
Multivariate analysis is an analytical tool that can make measurements of two or more
variables for n samples. Analytical tools may take the form of regression, correlation,
factor analysis and so on.
d.
Establish Reporting
The final result of the main research process is reporting, where this reporting can be
in the form of research results, conclusions, or recommendations research that will later be
used as a consideration in making decisions or solving certain problems.
B.
Consumer Research Process
Conducting consumer research requires a process and stages that include determining
the topic, identifying problems, formulating problems, hypotheses, analyzing data,
conclusions and suggestions. Consumer research focuses on consumers with all their
activities both alone and with groups.
1. Research Stages
According to Kerlinger (2000) defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical
and critical investigation of an initial hypothesis about phenomena. In general, there are 5
steps in the research stage, namely:
a.
Determine research objectives and formulate research problems.
b.
Determining the research approach, at this stage the activities carried out include
finding the theory underlying the formulation of problems and hypotheses. In general,
there are four research approaches, namely: quantitative approach, qualitative
approach, pragmatic approach (pragmatig approach / mixed method) and advocacy
approach (advocacy / participatory approach).
c.
Formulating a research design, at this stage the activities carried out are to create a
research design hypothesis (for quantitative research), determining data collection
methods, designing data collection tools and measurement scales, selecting and
determining the number of respondents and planning data analysis methods.
d.
Data collection (fieldwork), the most important things in conducting data collection are
surveyors (for those using surveys) and interviewers (for those conducting interviews).
e.
Preparing and analyzing data, the data that has been collected is then edited, coding is
done (giving code to represent each response to the question), transcribed and stored.
The data is then processed using software so that it can be analyzed.
2. Establishing Analysis Tools
Consumer research then requires analytical tools that will be used to test the initial
hypothesis design. Analytical tools such as statistical methods (which have been highly
developed) are very helpful in ensuring that the final research results resemble what is
described in the hypothesis. Although the use of statistical methods is commonplace,
research still seems to forget the basic assumptions that apply to these statistical tools. So
that the results of the analysis are considered wrong by the rules of statistics themselves.
3. Establish Reporting
Preparing the report, the report format generally includes the objectives and problems
researched, research methods used, key findings, and conclusions and suggestions. Written
reporting should follow a common reporting design. A structured presentation will make it
easier for readers to understand the content of the research. The process of determining a
research report requires writing standards. The following presents the link between the
research steps and the format of the research report content of the causal research design.
C.
Collection Method Data
In planning the collection and use of data, determine the type of data, including in
determining a representative sample design in accordance with the research objectives and
conclusions to be drawn. Regarding the sampling technique to be used, whether to use
probability sampling, improbability sampling or a combination of both, depends on the
statistical inference to be made. Instruments for data collection, such as questionnaires, need
to be designed and then evaluated before use. Only valid and reliable instruments are used
to collect primary data.
1. Data and Questionnaire Instrument
Questionnaire is another term for questionnaire, which is a form of data collection
instrument that is flexible and relatively very easy to use (Azwar, 2009). According to
Arikunto (2010) when viewed from how to answer the questionnaire can be divided into two
types, namely:
a.
An open-ended questionnaire is a questionnaire that provides an opportunity for
respondents to answer in their own words.
b.
A closed questionnaire is where the researcher has provided a choice of answers and
the respondent just has to choose the one that suits the conditions experienced.
2. Data Typology
According to Vidler (1997) typology is a study of the combination of elements that
makes it easy to get a classification of architectural types through certain types. The
following is a grouping of data according to its characteristics:
a.
Primary and Secondary Data
Primary data is data obtained from the first source such as the results of
questionnaires or interviews. Secondary data is primary data that has been further
processed and presented in the form of tables or diagrams.
b.
Internal and External Data
Internal data is data obtained from within the company or organization where the
research is conducted. External data is data that describes the situation and conditions
that are outside the organization or company, usually this data is obtained from the
results of other people's research.
c.
Time Series and Cross Section Data
Time series data is a set of data from a particular phenomenon that is obtained in
several specific time intervals. Cross section data or time unit is a set of data to
examine a particular phenomenon within a period of time.
d.
Data with Independent and Dependent Variables
If in a phenomenon there is data grouped in variables that are interrelated with
data in other variables, variables that depend on other variables are called dependent
variables, while variables that do not depend on other variables are called independent
variables.
e.
Scaled Data
Scale is a procedure for assigning numbers or other symbols to a number of
characteristics of an object in order to express the numerical characteristics of these
characteristics. The measurement scale consists of four, namely nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
3. Preparation of Questionnaire Instrument
Questionnaires are important in collecting information data that cannot be answered
by secondary data. According to Sanjaya (2015) a questionnaire is an instrument in the form
of a list of questions or written statements that must be answered or filled in (chosen) by the
respondent in accordance with the instructions filling it out. There are several steps in
preparing a questionnaire, including:
a.
Make a brief preface before the questionnaire questions or statements are organized.
b.
Provide clear but concise instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire, so that the
questionnaire will not be confusing for respondents.
c.
Avoid terms that can lead to misinterpretation from respondents, use simple language
but still in accordance with the needs of the research.
d.
Formulate the question or statement in short, clear and simple sentences.
e.
It is best if each question contains only one issue being asked and does not have
branching questions.
f.
If there are words that require emphasis, they should be marked, such as by boldening
the letters in the word or sentence that you want to emphasize.
g.
Each item of question or statement should not lead to the answer that the researcher
wants.
h.
Questionnaires must be made as good and attractive as possible, neatly arranged, clearly
printed letters so that they look attractive and artistic so that respondents feel happy and
interested in filling them out.
4. Sampling Technique
Margono (2004) states that sampling technique is a way to determine the number of
samples according to the size of the sample that will be used as the actual source of data,
taking into account the characteristics and distribution of the population in order to obtain a
representative sample. According to Sugiyono (2001) the sampling technique is shown in
the figure below:
From the figure above, it can be seen that sampling techniques can basically be
grouped into two, namely probability sampling and nonprobability sampling.
a.
Probability Sampling
Sugiyono (2001) states that probability sampling is a sampling technique that provides
equal opportunities for each element (member) of the population to be selected as a sample
member, this technique includes:
1) Simple Random Sampling, stated as simple (simple) because the sampling of population
members is done randomly without regard to the strata in the population.
2) Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling, used when the population has members /
elements that are not homogeneous and stratified proportionally.
3) Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling, used to determine the sample size if the
population is stratified but not proportional.
4) Cluster Sampling (Area Sampling), is used when the population does not consist of
individuals, but consists of groups of individuals or clusters. This technique can be
described as below:
b.
Nonprobability Sampling
According to Sugiyono (2001) nonprobability sampling is a technique that does not
provide equal opportunities for each element or member of the population to be selected as a
sample. This technique includes:
1) Systematic sampling, a sampling technique based on the order of population members
who have been given sequential numbers.
2) Quota sampling, a sampling technique to determine a sample from a population that has
certain characteristics until the desired number (quota).
3) Accidental sampling, a sampling technique based on chance, namely anyone who
happens to meet the researcher can be used as a sample if it is deemed that the person
who happened to be met was suitable as a data source.
4) Purposive sampling, a sampling technique with certain considerations. In other words,
the sample units contacted are in accordance with certain criteria applied based on the
objectives.
5) Saturated sampling, a sampling technique when all members of the population are used
as samples. Another term for saturated sample is census.
6) Snowball sampling, a sampling technique that is first small in number then this sample
were told to choose their friends to be sampled.
D.
Analysis Data
According to Lexy J. Moleong (2002) data analysis is the process of arranging the
order of data, organizing it into a pattern, category and basic description unit. In analyzing
data, it must be based on certain procedures and steps.
1. Stages of Analysis
In analyzing data, it must be based on certain procedures and steps, including:
a.
Data Collection, the initial stage in data analysis activities is data collection for analysis.
b.
The editing stage, which is the process of checking the clarity and completeness related to
filling out the data collection instrument.
c.
The Coding stage, which is the process of identifying and classifying all statements on
the instrument to collect data based on the variables being studied.
d.
The Testing Stage, which is the process of testing the quality of data, both in terms of
validity and reliability of instruments from data collection.
e.
The Data Describing Stage, which is the process of describing data by presenting it in the
form of frequency tables or diagrams with various measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion. The aim is to understand the characteristics of sample data from a
study.
f.
Hypothesis Testing Stage, which is the process of testing the proposition whether it can
be accepted or rejected, whether it has meaning or not. Based on this stage, conclusions
or decisions will be made.
2. Analyzer Tools
After data is obtained from various samples representing the population, the next step
is to process the data using data analysis tools software programs such as SPSS (Statiscal
Package for Social Scienses), Eviews, Limdep, STATPAK, SYSTAT, STATA, Excel and
other software. Before starting to analyze data to test hypotheses there are several
preparatory steps that need to be taken. This preparation is done to help ensure that the data
is good enough and to guarantee the quality of the example using the analyzer.
3. Main Objectives of Data Analysis
In data analysis we have three objectives, namely: getting a feel for the data, testing
the quality of the data (goodness of data) and testing research hypotheses. The feel of the
data will give you an initial idea of how well the scale is working made, how well the
coding and data entry was done and so on.
Suppose a 7-point scale item is mistakenly coded and/entered as an 8, it will appear as
the maximum value in the descriptive statistics and the error can be corrected. The second
objective of testing the accuracy of the data can be done by entering data for factor analysis,
obtaining Cronbach's alpha or reliability of two measurements and so on. The third
objective of hypothesis testing is achieved by selecting the appropriate software program
menu, to test the hypothesis using the relevant statistical test. The results of the test will
indicate whether the hypothesis is proven or not. We will now discuss data analysis related
to each of the three objectives in detail.
a.
Data Description
We can get a feel for the data by examining the central tendency and dispersion. The
mean, range, standard deviation and variance. The data will give the researcher a good idea
of how respondents reacted to the items in the questionnaire and how well the items and
measures were used. If responses to individual items on a scale do not have a good range
and show very little variability, then the researcher would expect that certain questions may
not have been well structured and respondents may not have sufficiently understood the
intent of the question.
Usually, if at all, it can also be detected if respondents tend to respond equally to all
items, i.e. only fixate on a particular point of the scale. Maximum and minimum scores,
mean, standard deviation, variance and other statistics can easily be obtained and these will
indicate whether the range of response data on the scale is satisfactory. Remember that if
there is no variability in the data, then there is no variance to explain. Researchers go
through a lengthy process of obtaining central tendency, range, dispersion and other
statistics for all single items measuring dependent and independent variables, especially if a
measure for a new concept is being developed.
Frequency distributions of nominal research variables should be generated. Visual
display through histograms/bar graphs and so on, can also be provided through programs
that generate graphs. In addition to the frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation,
it is also good to know how the dependent and independent variables in the study are related
to each other. For this purpose, a variable intercorrelation matrix can also be prepared. In
describing the data, it is also advisable to display: (1) Frequency distributions for
demographic variables, (2) Mean, standard deviation, range and variance of the dependent
and other independent variables and (3) Intercorrelation matrix of the variables, regardless
of whether the hypothesis is directly related to the analysis. All these statistics give a feeling
for the data.
b.
Testing Data Accuracy
Testing the accuracy of data can be done with reliability and validity tests.
Measurement reliability is proven by testing consistency and stability. Consistency will
show how well the items that measure a concept come together into a collection. Cronbach's
alpha is a reliability coefficient that shows how well the items in a collection positively
correlate with each other. The closer Cronbach's alpha is to 1, the higher the internal
consistency reliability. Reliability indicates the consistency and stability of a score
(measurement scale). Reliability is different from validity because the former focuses on
consistency issues, while the latter is more concerned with accuracy issues. Thus, reliability
includes two main things, namely: measure stability and measure internal consistency
(Sekaran, 2000).
1) Size Stability
Measure stability indicates the ability of a measure to remain stable or not vulnerable
to changes in any situation. Stability A measure can prove the goodnes of a measure in
measuring a concept. There are two types of stability tests, namely test- retest reliability and
parallel-from reliability. Both types of stability tests will be discussed below:
a)
Test-retest reliability, namely the reliability coefficient obtained from repeating
measurements of the same concept on two occasions, namely when a questionnaire
containing items to measure the same concept is given to respondents at this time and given
again to the same respondents at different times (for example, 2 weeks-6 months). Then the
correlation between scores obtained from the same respondent with two different times is
called the test-retest coefficient. The higher the coefficient, the better the test-retest
reliability, thus the more stable a measure is over time.
b)
Parallel-from reliability, occurs when the responses from two comparable measures of the
same construct are highly correlated.
Second form measurement have similar items and response formats If two comparable
measures have a high correlation (say 0.8 or more), then the measure is reliable with
minimal error variability due to phrasing and question order. If two comparable measures
have a high correlation (say 0.8 or more), then they are reliable with minimal error
variability due to phrasing and question order.
For the validity test, a measurement scale called valid does what it is supposed to do
and measures what it is supposed to measure. If the measurement scale is invalid, it is not
useful to the researcher because it does not measure or do what it is supposed to do.
Conceptually, it can be divided into
3 types of validity (Sekaran, 2000), namely: content validity, criterion-related validity and
construct validity.
a)
Content Validity
Content validity ensures that the measure has included a sufficient number of items
that are representative of the concept being measured, the greater the content validity. In
other words, content validity It is a function that indicates how well a dimension and a
concept are described. Face validity is considered by some experts as a basic and very
minimum index of content validity. Face validity indicates that it is as if an item measures a
concept. Some researchers do not consider face validity as a valid component of content
validity.
b)
Criterion-Related Validity
Criterion-related validity occurs when a measure differentiates individuals on the
criterion to be estimated. This can be done by establishing concurrent validity or predictive
validity. Concurrent validity occurs when the scale can distinguish individuals who are
already known to be different, so the scores for each instrument should be different. For
example, if a measure of work ethic is developed and applied to a group of people living on
social security, it should distinguish between those who are enthusiastic about getting a job
and those who are not willing to work even if offered a job.
Those with high work ethic values will try to get a job as soon as possible. On the
other hand, those with low work ethic values will take advantage of every opportunity to
keep getting social security without having to work. If both types of groups have the same
score on the work ethics scale, then the test is not a measurement of work ethics, but must
be something else.
Predictive validity indicates the ability of a measurement instrument to differentiate
individuals on future criteria. For example, intelligence or ability tests administered to
workers during recruitment are expected to distinguish individuals in their future
performance. Workers with high test results are expected to have high performance in doing
their jobs and vice versa.
c)
Construct Validity
Construct validity proves how well the results obtained from the use of the measure
match the theory for which the test was designed. It is assessed by convergent validity and
discriminant validity. Convergent validity occurs when the scores generated by two
instruments measuring the same concept have a high correlation. Discriminant validity
occurs based on the theory that two variables are thought to be uncorrelated and the
resulting measurement scores also show no correlation empirically.
c.
Hypothesis Testing
After the data is ready to be analyzed and its reliability is proven, the researcher is
ready to test the hypothesis that has been prepared for the study (if the research conducted
aims to test the hypothesis). According to Sugiyono (2016), states that the hypothesis can be
interpreted as a temporary answer to the formulation of research problems.
One of the hypothesis tests used is the t test. The t test is used to test the meaning or
significance of a relationship, namely between the consumer behavior variable partially on
the purchasing decision variable. The provisions for acceptance and rejection of the partial
test hypothesis are carried out with the following provisions:
1) If the t value > t table with the largest error rate of 5% (0.05), then H0 is rejected and
H1 is accepted (proven significant relationship).
2) If the calculated t value < t table with the largest error rate of 5% (0.05).
