Strategies for Increasing Revenues for Sun Belt National Hockey League Teams

Section 1: Foundation of the Study

A primary challenge for organizational leaders is ensuring that the business is

sustainable and viable on a long-term basis (Captureanu, Ceptureanu, Orzan, & Marin,

2017). The purpose of this study was to explore the strategies used by organization

leaders of Sun Belt National Hockey League (NHL) teams to increase revenue. I

explored, using a qualitative study method and multicase study design, the phenomenon

of successful strategies that increased Sun Belt NHL team revenues and extracted themes

regarding these initiatives.

Background of the Problem

Light, Chernin, and Heffernan (2016) indicated that while NHL teams in Canada

and the Northeastern United States have fairly steady revenues, teams in the Southern

United States (the Sun Belt) regularly rank in the bottom of league revenue and

attendance lists. The average annual revenue for the 2013-2014 season was $123 million,

and the lowest was $80 million (Light et al., 2016). Additionally, five of the bottom six

teams in merchandise sales were Sun Belt NHL teams, ranking 30, 29, 28, 27, and 25

(O’Reilly, Foster, Murray, & Shimizu, 2015). One Sun Belt NHL team declared

bankruptcy in 2009 and had the lowest 2014 revenue in the NHL (Light et al., 2016).

According to King, Rice, and Vaughan (2018), NHL team popularity as measured by the

number of Twitter followers indicated that Sun Belt teams made up seven of the bottom

nine teams in Twitter popularity. With almost a third of the NHL teams located in the Sun

Belt, the significance of the revenue generated by these teams has increased in

importance (NHL, 2019). Several of the successful Sun Belt teams might be using

strategies that could add value to other Sun Belt teams that are currently struggling.

Problem Statement

In 2004, the NHL was moving toward financial disaster as three teams had filed

for bankruptcy with several other teams nearing default (Treber, Mulcahy, & Sharma,

2018). The Arizona Coyotes declared bankruptcy in 2009 and had the lowest 2014

revenue in the NHL at $80 million (Light et al., 2016). The general business problem was

some NHL teams were struggling financially. The specific business problem was that

some organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams lacked strategies to increase revenues.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies

used by organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams to increase revenues. The targeted

population consisted of five hockey organization leaders who have implemented

successful strategies to generate revenue for NHL teams in the Sun Belt region of the

United States. The implication for positive social change could be the opportunity for Sun

Belt team organization leaders to acquire new strategies to increase revenue, which could

result in job creation and improved economies in the local communities.

Nature of the Study

There are three research methods in academic research, qualitative, quantitative,

and mixed methods (Williams, 2007). Researchers use the quantitative methodology to

examine the relationships between dependent and independent variables or groups’

differences using statistical models to explain observations (Berneth, Cole, Taylor, &

Walker, 2018). I did not use statistical analysis to examine relationships among variables

or groups’ differences because my focus was on the analysis of participants’ experiences.

Therefore, a quantitative methodology was not an appropriate research choice. The

qualitative approach uses an inductive process that employs data collection through

documentary and interview evidence (Cooper, Grenier, & Macaulay, 2017). The mixed

methods approach includes components of both quantitative and qualitative methods for

data collection and data analysis (Alavi, Archibald, McMaster, Lopez, & Cleary, 2018).

The mixed methods approach includes quantitative inquiry, and because I was not

considering quantitative information, the mixed methods approach was not appropriate

for the study. I selected a qualitative method because I explored the analysis of the

organizations’ and participants’ actual experiences.

I reviewed three types of qualitative research designs, ethnography,

phenomenology, and case study. Researchers use the ethnographic design to explore

interpretations, intellectual patterns, and beliefs of groups’ cultures (Cardoso, Gontijo, &

Ono, 2017). Because I did not study groups’ cultures, the ethnographic design was not

suitable for this study. Researchers use the phenomenological design to extract data about

the meanings of participants’ lived personal experiences from the participants’

recollections and interpretations (Forster, 2019). I did not explore the meanings of

participants’ lived experiences of participants, so the phenomenological design was not

suitable for this study. Researchers use qualitative case studies to explore detailed

phenomena in real world situations (Yin, 2018). I used the case study design because it

was appropriate for understanding successful strategies from the participants’ actual

experiences as described by Yin (2018). I focused on learning more about successful

strategies used by Sun Belt NHL teams that increased revenues. According to Yin (2018),

multiple types and sources of data collection achieve a more complete and multifaceted

understanding of a phenomenon. According to Mason-Bish (2018), using multicase study

design has advantages because a researcher can make conclusions by comparing views of

different participants’ organizations. The multiple case study research design involves

collecting data from multiple organizations and sources within the organizations (Clarke

& Higgs, 2016), individuals, or groups bound by time or space (Yin, 2018). Researchers

use case study designs to study what, how, and why questions regarding a set of events

over which the researcher has little control (Mason-Bish, 2018). Researchers use a

multiple case study instead of a single case study design to conduct a deeper analysis of

the phenomenon under investigation by evaluating similarities and differences of the

information among the cases (Yin, 2018). The multiple case study design was the most

appropriate for this study because I collected data from multiple organizations and

sources to explore the strategies that NHL team organization leaders in Sun Belt locations

have used successfully to generate revenue.

Research Question

The following central research question guided the study:

RQ: What strategies do organization leaders of NHL Sun Belt teams use to

increase revenues?

Interview Questions

1. What strategies did you use to increase your team’s revenues?

2. Which of those strategies and processes have been most successful in the

increasing of revenues?

3. What, if any, strategies for revenue generation are unique to the geographic

location and size of your team?

4. What key challenges did you encounter when implementing your strategies?

5. How did you address the key challenges to implementing your strategies for

generating revenue?

6. How did you measure the effectiveness of your strategies for generating

revenue?

7. What additional information can you provide to help me understand your

team’s strategies in increasing revenues?

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study was Porter’s model of competitive

strategy, specifically Porter’s five forces. Porter (1980) developed the five forces model

in 1979. Leaders striving for a competitive advantage using Porter’s model focus on five

primary forces: (a) threat of new entrants, (b) bargaining power of suppliers, (c)

bargaining power of buyers, (d) threat of substitutes, and (e) competitive rivalry

(Downing, 2018). Business leaders using Porter’s five forces analyze the key issues

within each force to develop strategies for success and to identify new areas of revenue

and profitability (Azadi & Rahimzadeh, 2012). Additionally, in 1985, Porter introduced

competitive generic strategies consisting of cost leadership, differentiation, and focus

used by organizations to establish and maintain competitive advantage (Hales &

McLarney, 2017). Because Sun Belt NHL teams’ leaders seeking effective marketing

initiatives for sustainability could benefit from the framework of Porter’s five forces and

competitive strategies as they strive for revenue producing opportunities, Porter’s model

was useful for understanding the findings from my study.

Operational Definitions

Throughout this research study, I utilized several key terms found in scholarly

literature. These terms are helpful in understanding the background of the problem.

Competitive advantage: Competitive advantage is the edge an organization has on

its competitors in terms of reducing cost and attracting customers to increase profits

(Makhmoor & Rajesh, 2017).

Competitive rivalry: Competitive rivalry is when businesses use a similar type of

resources to compete in the same market and for the same products or services (Chen,

Liu, & Wu, 2016).

Customer relationship management: This is the process of developing and

maintaining customer relationships by enhancing value and delivering customer service

satisfaction (Soltani & Navimipour, 2016).

Omnichannel strategy: An omnichannel strategy is the interaction between

channels and helps brands optimize the customer experience, redesign channels, touch

points, and value proposition from the customer perspective (Picot-Coupey, Hure, &

Piveteau, 2016).

Relationship marketing: Relationship marketing is marketing with an emphasis on

customer retention, loyalty, and satisfaction with the objective of developing long-term

customer relationships (Jones et al., 2015).

Sports Fandom: Sports fandom refers to the state of being a fan or spectator,

which involves having an interest in a sport, team, or specific player or players

(ToderAlon, Icekson, & Shuv-Ami, 2019).

Sun Belt NHL Teams: The ten current NHL teams in the Sun Belt region

are:

Anaheim Ducks, Arizona Coyotes, Carolina Hurricanes, Dallas Stars, Florida Panthers,

Los Angeles Kings, Nashville Predators, San Jose Sharks, Tampa Bay Lightning, and

Vegas Golden Knights. There are defunct NHL teams previously located in the Sun Belt:

Atlanta Flames, Atlanta Thrashers, and California Golden Seals (NHL, 2019).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions

According to Feller, Mealli, and Miratrix (2017), assumptions are elements that

are outside of the researcher’s control and without proof. Assumptions are facts

considered to be true for which sufficient evidence to support the inference does not exist

(Thomas, 2016). The first assumption of this study was that participants would answer

the interview questions honestly and without bias. I assumed the participants understood

the interview questions and had a realistic and authentic recollection of their experience. I

assumed the participants provided information that was accurate and reflected the reality

of their experience pertaining to the phenomenon in the study. I assumed that the

participants provided valid data. Another assumption was that the participants selected for

the study possessed the knowledge and information pertaining to the research topic.

Limitations

Limitations of a study include influences that are not within the control of

researchers but affect the results (Yin, 2018) and are potential weaknesses of the research

study (Munthe-Kaas et al., 2018). Limitations are items out of the researcher’s control

that may restrict or impact the study (Wolfer et al., 2017). A key limitation was that

participants could provide information that may contain bias because of subjective

responses. Another limitation was that the participants could impact organizational

success by providing proprietary strategies. To actively manage this situation, I

interviewed each participant using a secured telephone number of their choice. I assured

them that their responses were confidential and that any information would remain secure

and confidential. Another limitation was my inexperience in conducting interviews.

Another limitation was that research participants could withdraw from the research study

at any time during the research process, which would be mitigated by replacing them with

other willing participants.

Delimitations

Delimitations are the elements of a doctoral research study that determine the

boundaries and limit the scope of the research (Gutierrez, Marquez, & Reficco, 2016).

According to Wolfer et al. (2017), delimitations are boundaries developed by the

researcher that limit the scope of the study or cannot answer the research question. One

delimitation was the restriction of the geographic location of the participants to the Sun

Belt region of the United States. A second delimitation was the industry, which is the

NHL. Yoo (2017) indicated that the industry specificity is a delimitation in a research

study. All participants have worked in the NHL for a Sun Belt team or teams. Another

delimitation was that I studied a small number of organizational leaders of NHL Sun Belt

teams in this multiple case research study.

Significance of the Study

My study’s findings could be of value to business because the findings may have

implications for the development of strategies for facilitating the growth and

competitiveness of NHL hockey into additional Sun Belt cities. The potential significance

of this study lies in the possibility that organization leaders of current Sun Belt NHL

teams who implement these strategies could improve their earnings potential and increase

revenues and eliminate the revenue disparities that exist between the Sun Belt teams and

the Northern United States and Canadian teams.

Contribution to Business Practice

The potential contributions of this study to business practice included providing

more insights into successful competitive strategies and practices that organization

leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams used to increase revenues. Organization leaders

implementing marketing strategies regarding product, location, promotion, price, and

possibly the framework of Porter’s five forces could increase competitiveness, enhance

revenues, and satisfy the needs of current fans. Organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL

teams could use the findings of this study to equip themselves with the knowledge to

develop appropriate strategies and techniques to compete more effectively in the sporting

market through increasing revenues and profits.

Implications for Social Change

The implications for positive social change include increasing employment rates

and contributing to local communities’ economic development through increased

employment and tax revenues. Revenues generated by Sun Belt NHL teams support

employment. Increased employment could lead to sustainability and revitalizing the

social and economic conditions of communities (Mikolajek-Gocejna, 2016). Sustainable

businesses could also lead to team longevity, which may lead to increased meaningful

employment to enhance the quality of life for local members of the community.

Organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams have opportunities to improve local

economies and to contribute to positive social change.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature

I conducted a critical analysis and synthesis of the professional

literature pertaining to the following research question:

RQ: What strategies do organization leaders of NHL Sun Belt teams use to

increase revenues?

I explored literature pertaining to Porter’s five forces model and competitive strategy

theory for use as the conceptual framework. The review of literature focused on Porter’s

five forces model and Porter’s competitive advantage theory and a synopsis of prior

research on the topics. The review included an overview of the background on the

historical operation of the NHL and the impact on Sun Belt located teams. The purpose of

the literature review was to assess, analyze, and summarize the literature, as well as to

compare and contrast the sources that related to the research study (Wee & Banister,

2016).

According to Onwuegbuzie and Weinbaum (2017) and Yin (2018), the literature

review is the analysis and synthesisa combination of similar works from numerous

scholars that analyzes, synthesizes, and provides additional knowledge. The literature

search comprised business and management information accessible through the Walden

Library, EBSCO Host, ProQuest Central, Google Scholar, Emerald Management,

Business Source Complete, and SAGE Premier databases that have peer-reviewed

articles. I used Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory to provide confirmation of peer-reviewed

status of referenced journals. Key words used in the literature search were words based

on the conceptual framework of Porter’s five forces and competitive advantage theory:

Porter’s five forces model, Porter’s competitive advantage, Porter’s competitive strategy,

competitive strategy theory, innovation, customer, cost leadership, differentiation,

competitive rivalry, blue ocean strategy, National Hockey League, Sun Belt hockey teams,

professional hockey, the business of sports, and NHL revenue.

The literature review included peer-reviewed articles published between 2016 and

2020 with at least 85% peer-reviewed. The 72 peer-reviewed sources composed 86.7% of

the 83 total sources, and 85.5% had publication dates of within 5 years or less (2016 or

later) from the study’s expected completion date. In addition, the full study contained a

total of 235 references with 88.9% peer-reviewed and 90.2% of the total references

published within 5 years (2016 or later) of my anticipated 2020 year of chief academic

officer approval. Table 1 has the summary of the breakdown of the sources in the

literature review section and in the full document.

Table 1

Publication Breakdown for Full Document and Literature Review

Total

sources

Year

published

(2016-2020)

Percentage

published

2016-2020

Peer-

reviewed

sources

Percentage

peer-

reviewed

Full document

235

212

90.2%

209

88.9%

Literature

review

85.5%

86.7%

Application to the Applied Business Problem

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies

used by organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams to increase revenues. Porter’s five

forces model includes the bargaining power of buyers, the bargaining power of suppliers,

the threat of new entrants, the threat of substitutes, and competitive rivalry (Wee, 2017).

Using Porter’s five forces model, leaders can analyze external factors that impact their

business strategies (Haleem & Jehangir, 2017). According to Alexandroa and Metaxas

(2016), leaders want to maintain a sustainable competitive strategy, especially when

changing how the business operates. Utilizing Porter’s five forces has aided researchers in

determining the strategic approach, effectiveness, and efficiency of the problem analyzed

(Downing, 2018). Prasad and Warrier (2016) indicated that when a company wants to

analyze their operating environment, Porter’s five forces model provides a snapshot of the

different forces impacting the company and shaping its profits. These five forces

prevailing in an industry can help determine the profitability of the company.

Light et al. (2016) indicated that while NHL teams in Canada and the

Northeastern United States have fairly steady revenues, teams in the Southern United

States regularly rank in the bottom of league revenue and attendance lists. Hockey may

not be of interest to individuals living in cities in the Sun Belt. The average annual

revenue for the 2013-2014 season was $123 million, with a Sun Belt team the lowest at

$80 million followed closely by another Sun Belt team at $83 million (Light et al., 2016).

The NHL has league-imposed constraints on expansion, team movement from one

market to another, player drafts, and revenue sharing (York & Miree, 2018). Revenue

sharing occurs first between the players and owners by the means of a salary cap and

between teams in large revenue markets and teams in small revenue markets (York &

Miree, 2018). The collective bargaining agreement (CBA) mandated that 57% of league

revenue is paid to the players each season (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018). The objective of

revenue sharing is to encourage revenue-poor markets to acquire players, improve player

retention, improve player salaries, improve team performance, and to make

improvements in their playing venues (York & Miree, 2018).

According to O’Reilly et al. (2015), there are six factors that impact merchandise

sales: (a) overall fan satisfaction, (b) media exposure, (c) on-the-ice performance, (d)

strength of a club’s brand, (e) local market dynamics, and (f) fan capacity to pay. The top

five teams in terms of merchandise sales were: (1) Montreal, (2) Chicago, (3) Pittsburgh,

(4) Toronto, and (5) Detroit (O’Reilly et al., 2015). Additionally, five of the bottom six

teams in merchandise sales were Sun Belt NHL teams, ranking 30, 29, 28, 27, and 25

(O’Reilly et al., 2015).

According to Kelley, Harrolle, and Casper (2014), game day spending is critical

for NHL teams’ profitability as nearly half the NHL franchises generate more than

twothirds of their annual income from ticket sales. Revenue is influenced by the day of

the week, special promotions, opponent, month in season, time of the game, merchandise

per cap sales, and food and beverage per cap sales for the NHL team (Kelley et al., 2014).

Concession sales can account for between 10% and 28% of revenue with NHL

concessions ranging between $5 and $12 per game which is behind Major League

Baseball (MLB) and the National Football League (NFL), but ahead of the National

Basketball Association (NBA; Kelley et al., 2014). Strategies to increase game day

spending on concessions and merchandise could have a significant impact on NHL team

revenue.

According to King et al. (2018), NHL team popularity as measured by the number

of Twitter followers indicated that a Sun Belt team ranked eighth with another Sun Belt

team at 14th, however, Sun Belt teams were seven of the bottom nine teams. Several of

the successful Sun Belt teams might be using strategies that could add value to other Sun

Belt teams that are currently struggling.

Maxcy and Milwood (2018) indicated that in the year 2007, 15 NHL clubs had

negative operating income, which meant that half the league were in a loss situation. The

NHL clubs with negative operating income increased to 18, or 60% of the league, in

2011. Maxcy and Milwood argued that the large number of clubs losing money was the

cause for the 2012-2013 owner lockout. For example, by 2008, the owners of the Phoenix

Coyotes had advanced more than $300 million to operate the franchise, which was in a

tenuous financial situation despite such funds (Desgrosseilliers & Pape, 2016). The NHL

showed a gain in profitable clubs following the implementation of the 2012 CBA when in

2015 eight clubs (26.6% of the league) reported negative operating income (Maxcy &

Milwood, 2018). In comparison, MLB only had three clubs with negative operating

income in 2007, 2011, and 2015, which was 10% of the league (Maxcy & Milwood,

2018).

King et al. (2018) examined the NHL average attendance from the 2013 hockey

season through the beginning of the 2017 hockey season to understand the main variables

of attendance. The findings indicated that the team name, the number of Twitter

followers, median ticket price, and arena capacity were the four main predictor elements.

Additionally, other elements were determined to be significant such as: (a) there is a

positive relationship between past performance and attendance, (b) ticket price and

television coverage were found to have a negative effect on attendance, (c) per capita

income positively impacts game attendance, (d) a successful record is not necessary for

high attendance, (e) marketing efforts can positively affect attendance, (f) stadium design

and services are of great importance, and (g) scheduling of games and promotional

activities were found to be the most important determinants in attendance variation (King

et al., 2018). The findings indicated that fan loyalty and the ability of the team to

entertain and promote are important drivers of attendance.

Porter’s Five Forces Model

Porter (1980) developed the five forces model in the late 1970s and early 1980s

by focusing on the external business perspectives to understand why some firms were

successful while others failed. According to Evans (2016), leaders used Porter’s five

forces model and competitive advantage theory to develop relevant business strategies.

There have been few works other than Porter’s book Competitive Strategies (1980) that

had five forces, which are three forces of horizontal competition, the threat of substitute

products, threat of rivals, and the threat of new entrants, and two forces of vertical

competition of bargaining power of suppliers and the bargaining power of customers

(Wee, 2017).

Competitive advantage strategies consist of three types: cost leadership,

differentiation, and focus (Porter, 1980). According to Rizea (2015), Porter’s five forces

are interrelated and developments in one force have an impact on the other forces.

Analyzing all five competitive forces leads to a comprehensive view of what is impacting

the industries’ profitability. Allowing for identification at an early stage can provide ways

to mitigate constraints or even positively reshape the forces (Porter, 2008). Awareness of

the five forces can help marketers to better understand the structure of an industry and

develop a position that is more profitable, sustainable, and less vulnerable to attack.

The threat of substitutes. According to Porter (1980), the threat of substitutes

exists when similar goods or services can provide the similar function at a lower price.

Product alternatives have required leaders to explore differentiators in the products and

services, thus offering a product or a service with differences that are hard to replicate or

with no close substitutes available (Prasad & Warrier, 2016). As the attractiveness of the

alternative product with a better price and or performance increases to the consumer, the

reduced price makes it difficult for the competing firms to maintain the profit margin and

continue to make the same or increased profit (Evans, 2016).

Manoli (2018) estimated the global sport industry in 2015 to be worth $145

billion and the sports industry appears to have cemented its value and potential around the

world, while differentiating itself from the wider service and entertainment industries.

Manoli argued that sport marketing was no longer just a commercial tool, but instead part

of an umbrella of promotional elements such as commercial sponsorship, advertising, and

publicity. According to Manoli, marketing in sports has three unique elements: (a)

promoting fan interest, (b) promoting sport participation, and (c) promoting consumption

of products through sport. Manoli (2018) argued that promotion of fan interest required a

deeper understanding of the sport’s psychological, social, and cultural aspects in order for

sport marketing to be effective.

According to Gautam (2016), substitutes have limited potential returns in an

industry by placing a ceiling on the prices that firms can charge to make a profit.

Knowing why customers leave can be a competitive advantage with products or services

enhancements that might alleviate the problems (Gautam, 2016). Bowman, Lambrinos,

and Ashman (2018) argued that greater competitive balance is in the best interest of the

NHL by creating the most fan interest. According to Bowman et al., fans prefer to attend

games the home team could win with all other things being equal.

Mills and Winfree (2016) posited that consumers of professional sports are not

always better off with more sellers because market power is exerted in many ways,

especially with fan substitution within and across leagues. Mills and Winfree argued that

sports leagues and teams have a vertical relationship with television, internet, and radio

companies with each team selling the rights to their games. The findings indicated that

profits and market power of a league depend on the loyalty of the fans and that it is not

just fan substitution across leagues or teams that matters, but also the method by which

fans substitute (Mills & Winfree, 2016). MLB does not allow fans to watch local games

on line or via MLB.tv but rather the fan must select the national broadcast or local cable

providers, thus MLB is limiting competition and maintaining high prices for regional

contracts (Mills & Winfree, 2016). Mills and Winfree indicated that some team’s recent

local contracts are valued at well over $1 billion. The local contracts are the highest

source of revenue for many teams (Mills & Winfree, 2016).

Mills and Winfree (2016) indicated that substitution effects are found when new

teams move to or leave an area and that within-league substitution evidence exists that

markets with more than one NFL team experience lower broadcast rating for those games

than markets with only a single team. Mills and Winfree found that the availability of

substitutes within and across leagues decreases both attendance and broadcast viewership

of NBA games. Mills and Winfree indicated that the NHL is impacted by cross-quality

and cross-price substitution when considering attendance across leagues featuring

different sports.

According to Wallrafen, Pawlowski, and Deutscher (2019), neutral spectators

have a preference for quality, will consume the popular product, and prefer known quality

to unknown new talent. If the games are happening in close geographic proximity, then

the fans choose to attend the top division game. This type of substitution is a spatial

dimension, which is the location of substitutes (Wallrafen et al., 2019). Substitution can

also occur between attending a lower division game in person and watching a top division

game live on television. This type of substitution is a temporal dimension that does not

require any spatial proximity (Wallrafen et al., 2019). Wallrafen et al. indicated that

significant substitution effects exist with rivalry from local games and rivalry from

television broadcasts.

There is substitution across game broadcasts and other television entertainment

options, which gives teams more power within their local market than when competing

with a magnitude of broadcasters and television options (Mills & Winfree, 2016). Single

ownership over multiple local teams could result in less investment in talent than separate

ownership in the same market and the monopoly position that team owners leverage for

public funding of stadiums makes the consideration of single ownership of multiple

sports even more relevant in the public policy landscape (Mills & Winfree, 2016). Mills

and Winfree (2016) indicated that fans are very loyal to a particular team, which creates a

very narrow market and makes it very difficult to curb any market power, which basically

creates teams with monopoly power.

Competitive rivalry. According to Porter’s five forces framework, the intensity

of rivalry among firms is one of the essential forces that shapes the competitive structure

of any industry. Rivalry that exists among competitors could be strong enough to create

disruption and limit profitability. The pricing of services could impact product

availability, while reducing prices can lower profits (Diener & Luttgens, 2016). Porter

(2008) indicated that a key element of competitiveness is the driving factor of

competitive rivalry concentration within an industry. According to Mills, Mondello, and

Tainsky (2016) the presence of local competition has the advantages of rivalry and cross

team ownership but has the disadvantage of fan substitution of price or competition in

quality.

The NHL competes with sporting events and other entertainment such as movies,

concerts, and live theatre for viewership and revenue. An objective of a strategic plan is

to develop the optimal approach to managing competition or the extent of rivalry

(Bolisani & Bratianu, 2018). Foster, O’ Reilly, Shimizu, Khosla, and Murray (2014)

examined the television broadcasts of regional sport network (RSN) average annual

ratings of MLB, the NBA, and the NHL. A marketing management framework was used

over a 12-year period from 1999 to 2011 to obtain the information. The research indicated

that for the NHL, club winning relative to other professional clubs in their local market

appears to better capture how winning drives RSN ratings (Foster et al., 2014).

Sports leagues that operate in cities with other professional sports have

overlapping identities and there is competition for fans, advertisers, media coverage,

sports facilities, and other material resources. Wade, Harrison, Dobbs, and Zhao (2018)

indicated that teams located in the same city may benefit from (a) sharing facilities, (b)

developing joint ventures, (c) cost savings from ownership of local teams, (d) similar

media outlets, and (e) fostering the development of a strong sports identity in that region.

There is an interesting issue of the extent to which local and regional teams’ effects may

be diluted by the nationalization of audiences from the expanding media and internet

coverage (Wade et al., 2018).

The celebrity factor as a ratings element was highest in the NBA; as of May 2012,

nine of the top 25 athletes on Facebook were from the NBA while zero were from the

NHL (Foster et al., 2014). According to Foster et al. (2014), the key to how the NHL club

fares in relation to other professional clubs depends on the lower popularity of ice hockey

in many U.S. markets. The average annual RSN ratings for the leagues over the period

1999-2011 was highest for MLB at 4.05, followed by the NBA at 2.48 and the NHL last

at 1.55 (Foster et al., 2014).

A rivalry is the adversarial relationship existing between two teams, players or

groups of fans (Cobbs, Sparks, & Tyler, 2017). A rivalry gains significance through

onthe-field competition, proximity, demographic makeup, or historical occurrences

(Cobbs et al., 2017). Additionally, professional sport competitive rivalry is three

dimensional: conflict, peer (geography), and bias (Cobbs et al., 2017). Conflict consists

of defining moments, competition frequency, parity, and star factors, while peer consists

of geography, competition for personnel, and cultural similarities. The bias dimension

consists of cultural differences, dominance of one team, and perceived unfairness (Cobbs

et al., 2017). Fans aggravated by a rival are those who share a high degree of

identification with their favorite team as a personal characteristic (Cobbs et al., 2017).

According to Kang, Bennett, and Peachey (2016), sport brands have meaningful

connections for fans, such as community pride, socializing with family or friends,

vicarious achievement, wholesome environment, and identifying players as good role

models. The definition of animism and anthropomorphism is attributing life to the

nonliving and attributing human characteristics to the nonhuman. Kang et al. indicated

that a brand has emotional and symbolic human personality aspects that influence

consumer behaviors with marketing strategies and encourage consumers to think of a

brand as having human personality. Brand personality could be an effective marketing

tool for differentiating brands from competitors and for developing marketing strategies

for sustainable competitive advantage (Kang et al., 2016).

According to Ratten (2016), the growing area of sports marketing, sport

entrepreneurship, and sport management link to other industries such as manufacturing,

tourism, education and technology. Ratten argued that for sport organizations, marketing

consists of planning and forecasting for future demand. Sports marketers need to identify

the features that attract spectators, participants, and views and how consumers identify

with sport to market it more effectively (Ratten, 2016). According to Ratten, there are

three major types of sports marketing: (a) interest, (b) participation, and (c) consumption.

Sport marketing links sport products and services with fan behavior (Ratten, 2016). Sport

marketing promotes the purchase of sport related products, services, and merchandise

(Ratten, 2016).

The threat of new entry. According to Porter (1991), an industry is more

attractive when there are barriers to entry. The threat depends on the extent of the barriers

to entry and current competitors’ reactions (Diener & Luttgens, 2016). Hsu, Tan, and

Mohamad Zailani (2016) indicated organizations should try to prevent the entrance of

new competitors because they can decrease the profitability of the firm. According to

Stringham, Miller, and Clark (2015), Porter’s five forces identified several factors that

create a barrier to entering an industry such as lack of human capital, availability of

supplies, inability to offset expenses used to build products, and economies of scale.

Porter (2008) argued that low demand for products or service might be a barrier to

entering an industry.

Professional sports franchises in North America benefit from favorable anti-trust

treatment that protects the cartel behaviors that limit the number of teams within a league

which allows the franchises to operate with less competition (Mills et al., 2016). For

example, most markets have only a single team from each of the four main professional

leagues and have little to no competition with other same-league franchises within their

local market (Mills et al., 2016). However, there are multiple professional teams sharing

their local market with in their own market such as the New York Jets and Giants, as well

as markets with cross-league competition such as the New York Rangers, New York

Islanders, and New York Knicks (Mills et al., 2016).

Hernandez Irizarry (2017) reviewed how the construction of new facilities, such

as arenas and stadiums, bring in dollars to the city, but indicated that perhaps they bring

in only a feeling of pride and economic redistribution of wealth. According to Hernandez

Irizarry, in 2014 the amount spend on stadium construction was $12.9 billion with public

tax funds contributing $6.7 billion. The public tax fund amount did not include the

additional costs beyond the stadium itself of parking facilities, luxury boxes, dedicated

highway ramps, and other amenities (Hernandez Irizarry, 2017). Hernandez Irizarry

argued that amenities such as parking facilities, highway ramps, and roadways

overburdens local governments to cover these costs and recommended that governments

should require the private sports teams to contribute more financial resources toward

building, operating, and managing the arenas. Hernandez Irizarry indicated that local

governments should require teams to pay real estate taxes on the stadiums much like

other business owners pay these operating taxes.

Hernandez Irizarry (2017) indicated that the amount of negotiating power and

tools held by the teams and leagues aggravates the financial burden on the municipalities.

The professional leagues control the supply of teams, and the threat of relocation acts as a

powerful lever when renegotiating or renovating stadiums (Hernandez Irizarry, 2017).

Hernandez Irizarry provided insight into how the previous Arizona Coyotes and the city

of Glendale, AZ deal benefited the NHL team. For example, the city must pay the team

$6.5 million a year to manage the arena, the city financed, while the teams retains all

revenue from ticket, parking, and naming rights, however, the new mayor and city

council issued a new request for proposals to manage the Glendale arena (Hernandez

Irizarry, 2017). Tension remained high between the team and the city especially when the

owner expressed some uncertainty regarding the Coyotes future in the Glendale arena.

Supplier power. Suppliers are important to an industry by the quality of products

provided, availability of inventory, or by increasing prices (Porter, 1980). Industries such

as airlines and travel services have used dynamic pricing for decades, but professional

sports is now just starting to adopt dynamic pricing. Dynamic pricing is the concept of

flexible pricing that shift based on supply and demand metrics and the elements that have

an impact on supply and demand (Bouchet, Troilo, & Walkup, 2016). The use of analytics

to improve team performance by professional sport organizations has increased, however,

there is less impact on revenue maximization to generate the greatest ticket revenue

(Bouchet et al., 2016). According to Bouchet et al., development of dynamic pricing for

professional sport organizations is impacted by the existence of secondary markets such

as Stubhub and SeatGeek. Stubhub and SeatGeek provide the consumer with additional

information that reduces the information advantage from the team.

Bouchet et al. (2016) found that teams have outsourced dynamic pricing

responsibilities to third party firms and sport industry seating information is more readily

available to the customers such as the number how many seats in the arena and have an

idea about the supply and demand of tickets for certain games. According to Bouchet et

al., dynamic ticket pricing is an area that organizations are committed to investing in as

well as partnering that with the food and beverage as well as merchandising to increase

potential revenues.

Buyer power. According to Diener and Luttgens (2016), buyers can impact an

industry by (a) requiring more services, (b) higher quality goods or services, (c) matching

competitors against each other, and (d) forcing down prices thus reducing profitability.

According to Morris and Wakefield (2018), the big data provided by a NHL team is used

to model consumer behavior of admission-based membership services from the initial

single game purchase to a full-season membership. This indicated that as customers have

committed points of contact, they are prepared to move to the next purchase level, but

rarely skip steps in the relationship journey (Morris & Wakefield, 2018). Additionally,

sales practices and marketing automation may burn leads and alienate future members

with frequent text-based contact without voice or real person interaction may hinder the

consumer journey and work against relationship building (Morris & Wakefield, 2018).

Marketers can better allocate resources, motivate contact strategies, and target campaigns

to send the right message (Morris & Wakefield, 2018).

According to Moreno-Izquierdo, Ramon-Rodriquez, and Perles-Ribes (2016),

additional factors such as the Internet, new technologies, and big data as well as the

quality and analysis of data can modify the changes in the buyer environment. Armstrong,

Delia, and Giardina (2016) illustrated the collaborative efforts of the hockey organization,

its brand, and their consumer in regard to between brand development and the hockey

community social media space. Armstrong et al. indicated that social media should not

only serve as a communicative tool but as a promotional mechanism for the Sun Belt

team. Social media can develop and encourage interaction between consumers, fans, the

brand, and organization that may ultimately strengthen the brand within the community.

Sveinson and Hoeber (2016) examined if female sport fans’ experiences involve

marginalization, empowerment, or both and what factors contribute to these experiences.

Female fans are becoming more significant in the world of sport. Female fans make up

almost half of the NFL fan base, and slightly less than a third of the NHL fan base

(Sveinson & Hoeber, 2016). Sveinson and Hoeber indicated that there is an increase in

female fans who attend the games, are season ticket holders, buy merchandise, and play

fantasy pools. The increase in female interest in sports has challenged the gender order in

sport fans. The findings indicated that all female participants experienced some form of

marginalization and some form of empowerment as female sport fans (Sveinson &

Hoeber, 2016).

According to Sveinson and Hoeber (2016), marginalization of women sport fans

occurred from the assumption that female fans are inauthentic. Empowerment of women

was demonstrated by experiences of confidence, independence as a sport fan, challenging

gender norms, and mastering skills (Sveinson & Hoeber, 2016). Men introduced the

women to sports, but the women no longer felt the need to exclusively engage in being a

fan in the presence of males. Sveinson and Hoeber provided insight of how a sport team

can market and commercialize their product to women to provide a better understanding

of how the cultural context of sport impacts fan experiences.

Armstrong et al. (2016) argued that since the lockout of 2005 NHL season,

hockey is no longer prominent on cable sport network ESPN and that hockey is relegated

to outsider status within the sporting mainstream. The NHL is visible only in hockeyfond

regions such as the Northeast, New York, Boston, Pennsylvania, Chicago, and Detroit.

Additionally, only 17 % of 2014 NHL revenue came from television that has not been

much of change in mix of revenue sources for the NHL over the past 30 years (Bowman

et al., 2018). One Sun Belt team encouraged the digital team to be creative, interactive,

and to have a sense of humor. The Twitter feed was an extension of the team and the fans

should have an opportunity to interact rather than just a place for updates, scores, and

team information (Armstrong et al., 2016).

Historically dominant media such as television, radio, and newspaper have

interacted with the consumer as being passive participants who consumed produced

material. Whereas new media has provided for the development of the active media

consumer. Platforms such as Twitter have magnified the voice of the customer as a result

of its public nature (Armstrong et al., 2016). Platforms such as Twitter allow for the flow

of information horizontally between consumers by sharing information and pooling

knowledge in a collective intelligence. The conversations among sports fans are now

happening in a digital form of tweets, likes, blog posts, or comments whereas historically

these once took place at stadiums, bars, or around the television (Armstrong et al., 2016).

The popularity of the Twitter Sun Belt team grew from 70,000 followers in 2012 to

322,400 followers in 2016 (Armstrong et al., 2016). The Sun Belt team’s unique use of

Twitter, has removed barriers that alienated the hockey fan from their favorite players and

teams and produced a new culture of fandom that is a participant or co-producer of

information.

Spinda and Puckette (2017) examined the uses and gratifications approach to the

motivations sports fans have for using social media such as Twitter, Facebook, and

Snapchat to follow sports. Spinda and Puckette indicated that the uses and gratifications

approach is based on five elements: (a) communication is purposeful and motivated, (b)

active participants who select their media and their content, (c) social groups, personal

involvement, societal structure mediate communication behavior, and effects, (d) social

media compete with other forms of communication, and (e) people are typically more

influential than the media. For example, the Minnesota Wild of the NHL used Snapchat

spectacles to provide unique content through a game day such as pregame warm-up

routine, close-up shot of player getting his skates sharpened, views of a ride on the

Zamboni, or the mascot during shirt giveaway in the arena (Spinda & Puckette, 2017).

Sports teams, individual athletes, and sports organizations have launched accounts on

Snapchat to post sports stories for fans to view and interact. Spinda and Puckette

indicated how social media is used in sports marketing in promotion of the team brand,

development of loyalty, and interaction of the fans which creates strong connections with

the users.

Morris and Wakefield (2018) argued that membership also generated indirect

revenues though concessions, parking, and merchandise sales as well as providing

forecasts of advance revenues and inventory availability in terms of time and space.

Utility theory explains the movement of customers from one purchase group to another

with the two most important motives for season ticket purchase being financial, the price,

and the performance of the team and the players (Morris & Wakefield, 2018). The higher

number of events attended, the higher the derived utility. The customer-owned contacts

such as group admissions, playoffs admissions, package plans, and quantity and price

impact the consumer’s motivation to purchase tickets (Morris & Wakefield, 2018).

Hales and McLarney (2017) elaborated on Porter’s generic strategies by arguing

that buyers react to both price and perceived quality in making purchase decisions. This

compared and contrasted Bowman’s Strategy Clock to Porter’s generic strategies in

regard to the eight potential strategies defined by price and perceived value (Hales &

McLarney, 2017). Bowman’s Strategy Clock integrated various strategic components into

an effective value proposition. Rockerbie (2016) argued that profit-maximizing team

owners may consider violence an important shift that increases ticket demand through

greater on-ice success and through the blood lust of fans. A study indicated that both

Canadian and American hockey fans preferred watching fighting in hockey with

American fans more responsive about 4,700 more fans per game than Canadian fans per

game of 3,100 (Rockerbie, 2016). This increase in fans could be part of the reason why

the NHL condones fighting to a greater extent than other professional sports leagues.

According to Giesler and Thompson (2016), an annual event like Comic-Con

International, consumer behavior experiences are fundamentally shaped by the prevalence

of social media such as Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, Facebook, and other forums.

Giesler and Thompson argued that institutional reconfiguration changes the consumer by

reshaping the intersecting marketplace discourses, conflicting goals composed of multiple

practices, beliefs, and rule systems. Recursive disruption is where consumers move from

obeying governmental prescriptions to rejecting them and are subject to compromises

between countervailing utilitarian and possessive ideals (Giesler

& Thompson, 2016).

Porter’s Competitive Strategy Theory

A central determination of whether a company’s profitability is higher or lower

than the industry’s average is the company’s relative position within an industry

(Lillestol, Timothy, & Goodman, 2015). According to Rizea (2015), the purpose of

strategic planning is to establish, sustain, and grow a company’s competitive advantage

over its competition. Additionally, competitive advantage is when a company can deliver

the same benefits as its competitors but at a lower cost or deliver benefits that exceed

those of competing products (Rizea, 2015). For example, Ryan Air focuses on the cost

sensitive commercial travelers by offering flights at the lowest prices in a niche market

(Rizea, 2015).

According to Kaya (2015), generic strategies look for either efficiency or

differentiation in the marketplace. Kaya indicated that the more businesses focus on

productivity the less they focus on differentiation and the cost leadership strategy focuses

on cost minimization. The differentiation strategy emphasized superior quality and image

through value chain and that the two strategies of cost leadership and differentiation are

used simultaneously and in a profitable way (Kaya, 2015).

Differentiation strategy. Business leaders use differentiation strategy to (a)

indicate their business is unique, (b) emphasize customer satisfaction, and (c) gain the

loyalty of customers. According to Hales and McLarney (2017), Porter contended that

cost leadership and differentiation are incompatible while other strategists maintained that

organizations who combine low costs and differentiation develop synergies. Prajogo

(2016) indicated that differentiation is appropriate for a dynamic or growing environment.

Hales and McLarney indicated that Uber’s business strategy contains both cost leadership

and differentiation. Uber had the simultaneous pursuit of low cost and differentiation by

using the cost leadership elements of reduced capital expenditures, low cost structure, and

reduced Human Resources Expenditures with the differentiation elements of Uber

Application Program Interface, flexible employment, and creating an enhanced customer

experience (Hales & McLarney, 2017).

Katz, Ward, and Heere (2018) argued that the interpersonal relationships among

fans may be a better predictor of attendance behaviors than individual-level attitudes.

Consumers interact and build relationships with other consumers while maintaining the

sport brand as the focal point of the relationships. Sport marketers should examine the

importance of fan-to-fan relationships in understanding sport consumption behaviors

(Katz et al., 2018). As fan-to-fan relationships increase in strength, so should loyalty, and

positive behavior towards the brand; those who are passionate about a team are more

likely to remain a passionate follower of the team and attend games (Katz et al., 2018).

Networks and interpersonal relationships can influence sports fans’ decisions and

attitudes (Katz et al., 2018). Teams should allow fans the ability to sit with who they

choose, develop neighbors in stadiums, develop fan-to-fan relationships, reward rows or

sections who purchase tickets together, and encourage strangers to develop sustainable

relationships in the crowd (Katz et al., 2018).

Zboja, Laird, and Bouchet (2016) examined one Southern United States NHL

franchise season ticket holders, who generally receive special treatment in exchange for

their loyalty and the revenue realized from their patronage. The data collected by sending

a customer survey to 750 season ticket holders with a final sample size of 234 which

represented a response rate of 31% (Zboja et al., 2016). The sample was predominately

male (71%) and Caucasian (97%) with a mean age of 47 years, highly educated with 75%

holding at least a 4-year college degree, and 51% reporting an income over $100,000

(Zboja et al., 2016). The authors reviewed consumer entitlement, satisfaction, service

quality, value, and the impact of consumer entitlement. Zboja et al. found that consumers

low in entitlement behave as predicted by relying on a comparison of expectations to

perceived performance to assess their level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Zboja et al.

argued that entitled consumers tend to rely more on their original expectations to assess

their satisfaction level, independent of perceived performance. Zboja et al. found that

service quality and perceived value with customer satisfaction relationships had a positive

impact on customer retention and profitability.

Friesl, Lenten, Libich, and Stehlik (2017) examined the NHL current downward

scoring and how to enhance the game’s attractiveness. The total season attendances for

2014-2015 in Canada and the United States exceeded 21 million with revenues of $4

billion that does not include amounts from related trade such as stadiums, merchandise,

retailers, and media (Friesl et al., 2017). The combined team goals scored per game

average fell to 5.19 in 2014-2015 from above 7.5 in the first half of the 1980s with the

average number of goals per game have been declining over time. Friesl et al.

recommended moving the benches to always be closer to the offensive zones, that is

currently only in the second period, the other two periods are closer to their defensive

zones. The change in bench location closer to the offensive zones would add 327

additional goals each season that would induce more offensive play and more goal

scoring and enhance the game’s attractiveness (Friesl et al., 2017). This strategy would

increase the average number of goals and the excitement level of the NHL by expanding

the amount of offensive changes by each team. This could provide great fan interest and

ultimately result in higher team and league revenues.

According to Kim, Walker, Heo, and Koo (2017), the development of an

appealing sports website has become an important issue in competing with organizational

rivals and 87.9% of North American consumers use the Internet to communicate, connect,

and search for product and services. Sports organizations are increasing their web

presence to solicit sponsorships such as banner advertisements, online commercials, and

links to corporate websites (Kim et al., 2017). Sponsorship allows corporate organizations

to access a young, captive, and internet-savvy consumer base while increasing numbers

of fans access major sports league websites as a way of keeping up with current team

news, watching videos, checking results, and purchasing league merchandise (Kim et al.,

2017). The advantage is the ease and accuracy that website users are tracked by the

products and services they search for and purchase (Kim et al., 2017). According to Kim

et al., the dollars allocated to online sponsorships can provide a greater return for

corporate sponsors if they align with core demographics for a given product or service.

Andrews and Ritzer (2018) indicated that sport fans become prosumers by using

social media, in that they are no longer only consumers of media content but also actively

participating by producing content that shapes the meanings within the sporting universe.

Additionally, Andrews and Ritzer found that social media technologies provided the users

the potential to influence the interactions with sport and disrupt the traditional broadcast

hierarchies (Andrews & Ritzer, 2018). Sporting teams have reached out to fans in an

intimate and social level as not only customers but as coproducers of messages, brands

and identities. The Los Angeles Kings use social media as a two-way interaction

opportunity by establishing relationships with consumers and fostering a brand

community (Andrews & Ritzer, 2018). Sport broadcasters view social media as part of an

integrated and holistic branded content delivery mechanism that engages the largely

younger prosumers (Andrews & Ritzer, 2018).

Manoli (2018) examined the developments in technology with the creation of

social media that explored the motivations and dimensions of fan’s social media behavior

and interactions with football clubs on Facebook to understand why and how fans engage

with the clubs. Manoli argued that grasping customer engagement behavior and

motivation can deepen the understanding of fan engagement and be a valuable tool for

sports marketers. It is the need for information, empowerment, and brand love that drive

fan engagement through social media, with the interactive and collaborative nature of

communication with information on how social media marketing strategies are developed

(Manoli, 2018).

Cost leadership strategy. According to Kyengo, Ombui, and Iravo (2016),

business leaders use the cost leadership strategy to (a) achieve business sustainability and

increase profitability, (b) obtain greater than average returns over competitors, and (c)

emphasize price-sensitive or cost-conscious customers. A source of competitive

advantage is the fit of a firm in Porter’s generic strategies of cost reduction or value

addition, cost leadership or differentiation, or radical innovation, incremental innovation,

or imitation (Cavaleri & Shabana, 2018). According to Prajogo (2016), a cost leadership

strategy is applicable for mature or stable environments.

Cavaleri and Shabana (2018) indicated that achievement of organizational

competitiveness in Porter’s strategy framework is by identifying cost leadership and

differentiation. Bayraktar, Hancerliogullari, Cetinguc, and Calisir (2016) indicated that

cost leadership minimizes cost in areas such as service, advertising, research and

development, and environmental standards. Cost leadership is compared to Venkatraman

forms of fit of matching, moderation, and mediation. Matching is when two variables

have a relationship that has a positive effect on company performance. Moderation is the

extent of a predictor variable on the dependent variable is contingent on a third variable

and mediation that the impact of a predictor variable on a dependent variable is only

observable through an intermediary variable. Cavaleri and Shabana argued that

sustainability initiatives that enhance a firm’s cost advantage are most closely aligned

with a cost leadership strategy and that taking a strategic perspective on sustainability is a

necessity for any true sustainability.

Dombrowski, Krenkel, and Wullbrandt (2018) argued that Porter’s model of

generic competitive strategies has two basic strategies for satisfying customer

requirements which are cost leadership and the differentiation strategy. In order to have a

clear competitive advantage, companies must decide on one of the two strategies and a

company without a clear positioning is therefore not competitive because it is between

the chairs (Dombrowski et al., 2018). However, a so-called hybrid competitive strategy is

used that simultaneously pursues the cost and differentiation advantages. Dombrowski et

al. (2018) argued that manufacturing companies use generic competitive strategies at the

same time to be competitive and thus strategic positioning of production within the cost

leader and differentiation strategy can be made.

Coghlan (2017), indicated that limiting the number of NHL teams, forces cities to

compete for franchises through relocation and expansion that increases the expansion

value. The NHL shares central revenue evenly among the existing 30 teams thus when

Las Vegas paid an expansion fee of $500 million each team received $16.67 million.

Additionally, the top ten revenue earners distribute some of that revenue to support

struggling teams, as well as 35% of playoff ticket sales are distributed to the financially

weaker teams. According to Coghlan (2017), the Atlanta Thrashers expansion team

struggled early on and that financially stronger teams provided Atlanta with financial

support beyond their share in league revenue. The Atlanta team relocated to Winnipeg in

2012-2013.

Since 2005-2006, the NHL has had a payroll cap that is the upper limit of the

payroll range and also has a payroll floor that is the lower limit of the payroll range

(Maxcy & Milwood, 2018). The ranges indicate that a team can spend no more than a

calculated amount, but also indicate that teams must spend at least a minimum amount on

player salaries (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018). The NHL agreement indicated that the players

receive 57% of total league revenue each season (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018). The amount

is not fixed but rather is adjusted each year based on revenue projections for the

upcoming season (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018).

The floor amount has been argued to have caused low-revenue clubs’ financial

hardship and to assist the lower revenue teams, the NHL has a marginal revenue transfer

system (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018). Under this system, the ten largest revenue-producing

clubs contribute 50% of the subsidy funds on a sliding basis with the top revenue

producer making the largest contribution and the tenth largest, the smallest (Maxcy &

Milwood, 2018). The remaining 50% of the subsidy comes from league-generated

revenues that include 35% of each playoff home team’s gate receipts (Maxcy & Milwood,

2018). The high revenue producing teams redistributed about $200 million to the lower

revenue producing teams (Maxcy & Milwood, 2018).

Focus strategy. The focus strategy provides customers unique service and

products in a small segment of the market (Morgan, 2015). According to Al Balushi

(2018), that customer cognition refers to the mental processing of information needed for

the selection of a response disposition and that consumers make many purchases

decisions based on their habits, without involving conscious intervention, without seeking

information, and without evaluating alternatives. According to Fort (2017), the

willingness for a consumer to pay varies geographically by income, population, substitute

opportunities, and most importantly preferences. Al Balushi argued that consumer

behavior is the interplay of cognitive, emotional, and habitual decisions within a

particular social context.

Ostergaard and Bode (2016) indicated how Consumer Culture Theory (CCT) is a

part of a strategy for interpretive research to be legitimate and be more pragmatic in the

move from a marginal research only position into the consumer mainstream. CCT

concentrates on the branding and marketing of science and to understand the impact on

knowledge production with the final step being systematic integration in the marketplace.

According to Ostergaard and Bode, CCT has become an influential point of reference and

a how-to-do guide for interpretive consumer research and has become a powerful,

influential label, and framing device.

MacIntosh, Abeza, and Lee (2017) examined how the NHL’s Ottawa Senators

Twitter activity influences their followers’ activity online, influences their perception of

and inclusion within the central fan group, and their commitment to the team. MacIntosh

et al. found that the only predictor that was significant of the Senators fans’ social identity

was the number of minutes spent reading the team’s tweets per day. The findings were

that expansion of the network with other fans is a critical factor in increasing the fan

group identity and that the team should concentrate on increasing the engagement of fans

with others (MacIntosh et al., 2017).

Dickerson (2016) examined the ways that sports fans of the NHL and the NBA

construct and circulate discourses of race and masculinity in cyberspace. Internet memes

are visual texts of still images, videos, or animated GIFs as a form of participatory media

culture and allow fans to have an influence on sport media construction and presentation.

Dickerson argued that the Internet memes celebrate white masculinity, while portraying

the African American athletes as individualistic, selfish, and unwilling to sacrifice their

bodies for the benefit of the team. Dickerson indicated that the marginalization of hockey

among the major sports in the United States has perpetuated a sense of insecurity within

hockey fans. For example, the author shared a story of a Dallas Stars hockey player Rich

Peverley who had collapsed on the bench during a game from a heart complication and

after regaining consciousness asked to reenter the game, especially compared to when

Lebron James being carried off the court with a leg cramp. Dickerson indicated why

hockey players are strong and that basketball players considered soft or weak.

Dickerson (2016) argued that new media like Internet memes provided consumers

an opportunity to create content rather than just consuming it and that social media has

significantly altered how fans engage with sport media. Dickerson (2016) found that

physicality and toughness has long been a cultural component of hockey and that playing

through pain is performing a form of masculinity, while players who refuse to put their

bodies on the line risk alienating their teammates and being labeled as feminine.

Dickerson indicated that the images portray that White hockey players are more

masculine and that hockey players are self-less.

In the 2014 Harris Poll, which has asked adults their favorite sport since 1985, the

poll found that the sport of hockey lagged behind the NFL, MLB, and the NBA in

popularity (Dickerson, 2016). Dickerson concluded that both the NFL and NBA have a

larger population of African American men and the poll suggests that the Black male

sporting body is at the center of the national sport imaginary. Hockey could have a

cultural identification issue by lack of alignment with the African American audience but

seems to align close to a white culture, especially in Canada. This could be a significant

gap in the hockey sport fan that is not addressed effectively. The NHL could be missing

an opportunity to develop African American fans and expand the nationality of the game.

According to Gemar (2018), sports can deliver key sociological insights about

social class, gender, and race which should not be under-estimated or overlooked. Gemar

found that an individual’s habitus leads to homologies of taste and consumption across

the domains of culture, including sport. Gemar argued that the socially privileged use

their cultural capital to consume more popular forms of culture in a more exclusive

manner. The study used latent class analysis by creating clusters by grouping together

respondents who share commonality of variables such as education, household income,

age, geographic region, language, gender, race, and population center (Gemar, 2018).

Economic capital and cultural capital are the greatest predictive measures for membership

in these clusters.

Other Relevant Theories

McCarthy’s four marketing mix model. According to Haleem and Jehangir

(2017), the development of marketing strategies begins by identifying the target market

for the product or service and then developing a marketing mix. E. J. McCarthy

developed McCarthy’s four marketing mix model in 1960 and is a combination of

product, price, promotion, and place that is designed to enhance sales to the target market

(Haleem & Jehangir, 2017). The internet can have a significant impact on the structure of

this marketing mix, internet companies should take this unique nature of on-line

marketing into account.

A company assesses Porter’s five competitive forces in the industry and then tries

to create the market at those points where the forces are weak. Each of the paragraphs

included in McCarthy’s four marketing mix model section provides an indication how

items such as social media, sales and marketing alignment, relationship management,

customized sports marketing, and hockey season work stoppage had on McCarthy’s four

marketing mix of product, price, promotion, and place. This is complementary to Porter’s

five competitive forces model: (1) the threat of new entrants, (2) rivalry among existing

firms, (3) threat of substitute products/services, (4) bargaining power of suppliers, and (5)

bargaining power of buyers.

Abeza, O’Reilly, and Seguin (2019) examined the use, opportunities, and challenges

related to social media in achieving relationship marketing objectives in MLB, NBA,

NFL, and NHL. Social media has changed the speed and scope of interaction among and

between individuals and organizations (Abeza et al., 2019). Relationship marketing is

about building a collaborative relationship through communications and interactions

between stakeholders and organizations. Two-way dialog has provided businesses a

method to achieve goals such as increased loyalty, reduced marketing costs, increased

profitability, and increased stability and security (Abeza et al., 2019).

Snyder, McKelvey, and Sutton (2016) examined alignment between sales and

marketing departments among professional hockey teams. Snyder et al. found that there

was high alignment between sales and marketing by structural elements of proximity,

cross-functional tasks, financial incentives, and new technologies. Snyder et al. use of

qualitative interviews produced insight into how the teams attempt to create high levels of

alignment. Snyder et al. found that a team sport is more volatile and cyclical, largely to

the importance of wins and losses both intra-season and across multiple seasons when

compared to marketing a traditional product.

According to Snyder et al. (2016) that in a collaborative league setting the teams

have an information advantage when compared to other industries and that organizations

with a successful history and high demand invest more in marketing, while teams with

significant inventory hire greater numbers of sales personnel. Snyder et al. found that the

sales and marketing functions of NHL teams have strategies for alignment by exploring

inventory, customer knowledge, and volatile demand.

Relationship management benefits the customer by providing choice reduction,

purchase decision efficiency, reduced search costs, and increased cognitive consistency in

decisions (Abeza et al., 2019). Professional sport fans display their commitment through

repeat ticket purchases, continued game attendance, viewership, and the purchase of

merchandise and social media provides an opportunity for sport marketers to reach

customers anywhere and anytime for direct and real-time conversation (Abeza et al.,

2019).

Abeza et al. (2019) interviewed 26 managers of professional sports teams that

included managers from eight teams in the NBA, four teams in MLB, five teams in the

NFL, and nine teams in the NHL. Abeza et al. conducted phone interviews between

January and April 2016. The interviews lasted between 45 and 65 minutes with the data

transcribed from the audiotapes into 387 pages of text. Abeza et al. found that all 26

teams are on at least five social media platforms with some using more than nine social

media platforms with Twitter being the most popular in terms of frequency of use,

followed by Facebook, then Instagram, and Snapchat. According to Abeza et al., teams

used social media for six types of communication such as interaction, news updates,

ticket sales, sponsorship, public relations, and customer service. Abeza et al. found that

there are seven opportunities that social media could provide to the teams such as

knowledge of fans, feeling the pulse, brand humanization, ongoing dialogue, fan nations,

content delivery, and customer service.

There were seven challenges identified by the team managers such as change

management, operational management, actionable data, and lack of control, influential

opinion leaders, internal conflict of interest, and anonymity (Abeza et al., 2019). A

significant finding from the study on social media is that sport teams can listen to and

understand fans’ needs, respond accordingly, and create value for consumers (Abeza et

al., 2019). According to Abeza et al., that enables teams to design an informed strategy

and develop customized approach in their marketing while creating added values for the

fans through real-time customer service, exclusive team-related content, play-by-play

updates, highlights, and live transmissions. Abeza et al. found that teams should

personalize their brand with humor, wittiness, and topic comments in their interaction

with fans.

Jin (2017) examined 282 articles on sports marketing and sponsorship published

in the International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship from 1999 through 2015.

The most common sports/game/event types were soccer with 66 articles or 23.4%,

followed by the Olympics at 50 or 17.7%, football with 42 or 14.9%, hockey was the

eighth most popular sport with 21 articles or 7.4%, that trailed basketball at 11.7% and

baseball at 10.3%. Jin analyzed the trends to understand the practices and future research

directions to improve knowledge and gain valuable insight into the challenges marketers

face when they implement a more market-centric business strategy.

Sponsorship has emerged as a prominent marketing tool that leverages favorable

images, increasing the awareness and understanding of firms and their products and the

effect of sponsorship on consumer behavior is relevant because sponsorship has become

an increasingly visible element of the marketing communication mix (Jin, 2017). Jin

(2017) argued that sports sponsorship plays an important role in sports marketing as a

critical communication channel for capturing consumer attention or driving a corporate

brand image.

Propheter (2017) indicated that owners in the five major professional sports,

NBA, NFL, MLB, Major League Soccer, and the NHL have regularly justified their needs

for subsidies on the basis that existing facilities are outdated and fail to meet the league

standards. Subsidizing construction reduces sport franchises’ fixed costs allowing the

organization to allocate the cost savings to other expenditures like payroll or reducing

ticket prices (Propheter, 2017). The argument for public funded or subsidized stadia is

based on three economic justifications which are: a) spur tourism, b) increase the bond

between citizens and facility, and c) convey a perception of national and global

importance being a world class city (Propheter, 2017). The findings indicated that the

greater stadia opulence is returned to attendees by contributing to a heightened game day

experience (Propheter, 2017).

Jasina and Rotthoff (2016) examined how the NHL lock-out that lasted the entire

2004-2005 season had an economic impact on country employment and payroll in sectors

such as accommodation, drinking places, restaurants, and spectator sports. The initial

premise was that the shutdown of the entire NHL season would be a significant decrease

in the four sectors reviewed. The findings indicated that there was little evidence that the

NHL lockout had a significant negative impact on county employment (Jasina &

Rotthoff, 2016). Stadium boosters often use increase in accommodation sector as one of

the primary benefits of publicly financed sport stadiums and the findings indicated there

was not a material decline in employment during the NHL lockout. According to Jasina

and Rotthoff, the NHL lockout had no significant impact on employment in NHL

counties.

Exchange theory. According to Jensen and Turner (2017), the exchange theory

concept is based on a successful exchange between parties and is dependent on both

parties agreeing that the price paid for the goods or service is equal to the value offered in

exchange. The most comprehensive development of the exchange theory was by Thibaut

and Kelley in 1959. Jensen and Turner indicated that the exchange theory complements

Porter’s five forces model intersect by an exchange of goods and the relationship can

provide rewards. Therefore, both sides of the exchange must feel that the relationship is

beneficial. The exchange theory analyzes the probability of the percentage of sponsoring

companies who renew but when sponsorships are most likely to continue and when the

probability that the sponsorship will end is the highest (Jensen & Turner, 2017).

According to Jensen and Turner, announcements of continued sponsorship agreements

had a positive impact in shareholder value in the short-term period after the

announcement. Additionally, a longer-term sponsorship relationship may become a source

of competitive advantage as the consumer has multiple opportunities to see the product-

sponsorship relationship, thus developing stronger associations in memory (Jensen &

Turner, 2017). Based on the exchange theory the relationship between the sponsor and the

organization would be most tenuous in the partnership’s initial period where as longer-

term relationships provide both sides greater understanding of each other’s motives and

expectations.

SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis helps organizations obtain greater insight to

their internal and external business environment by analyzing and placing resources into

four areas: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (Phadermrod, Crowder, &

Wills, 2019). The SWOT framework is one of the oldest and best-known frameworks in

management. The development of the SWOT framework began in the early 1960s at

Harvard Business School to help formulate strategy between internal and external factors

(Bell & Rochford, 2016). Over time SWOT shifted from an integrative framework to a

set of checklists (Bell & Rochford, 2016). According to Abdel-Basset, Mohamed, and

Smarandache (2018), SWOT is a decision-making tool that can be used in developing

strategies to enhance strengths, eliminate weaknesses, seize opportunities, and avoid

threats.

Bell and Rochford (2016) indicated that a SWOT analysis is a threshold concept

idea that has the following dimensions; (a) transformative, (b) irreversible, (c) integrative,

(d) bounded, and (e) troublesome. There are various strategies that can be developed from

a SWOT analysis such as those that link Strengths and Opportunities (SO

Strategies), linking Weaknesses and Opportunities (WO Strategies), those that focus on

Strengths and Threats (ST Strategies), and those developed from Weaknesses and Threats

(WT Strategies) (Bull et al., 2016).

Oneren, Arar, and Yurdakul (2017) indicated that developing competitive

strategies based on SWOT analysis of Porter’s five forces model should concentrate on

those elements that belong to Strengths and Opportunities. Gurel (2017) indicated that the

organizational strengths and weaknesses are management information systems,

management team, operations, finance, human resources, marketing, and research and

development while the opportunities and threats are economic, societal, governmental,

competitive, supplier, and market changes. According to Czajkowska (2016), there are

internal factors that are strengths and weaknesses of an organization that includes the

customer, employees, capabilities, resources, and processes. An organization should pay

more attention on those items when developing a competitive strategy. Additionally,

competitors play a considerable role in developing a strategy as well as being an expert in

its field, brand position, as well as successful partnerships (Oneren et al., 2017).

Other Contrasting Theories

Blue ocean strategy. According to Wee (2017), the most direct challenge to

Porter’s five forces was form the groundbreaking article, blue ocean strategy (BOS) by

Kim and Mauborgne that shifted strategy from competitive analysis to value innovation.

The BOS had two important aspects of strategy omitted by Porter that was the need to

find and develop new demand thus avoiding fierce competition and second, how to

exploit and protect the blue ocean aspects of the strategy (Wee, 2017). Wee (2017)

indicated that the BOS contradicts Porter’s competitive strategy and five forces model

which focus on analyzing competition within an existing industry.

According to Hales and McLarney (2017), BOS indicated that there are industries

not in existence today that are an untapped market space, demand creation, and the

opportunity for highly profitable growth. Whereas the red ocean strategy are industries in

existence today that the industry boundaries are accepted and competitive rules of the

game are known (Hales & McLarney, 2017).

McLin (2017) examined the organization of the four major sports leagues as

unincorporated non-profits without the ability to raise capital via investors with the

alternative of the leagues and teams going public. According to McLin, there are benefits

of an incorporated league that included the elimination of the collective action problem, a

massive influx of capital via initial public offering, and additional future opportunities for

capital infusion. McLin opined, that incorporated leagues may remove the burden on

local taxpayers to pay for new stadiums and for expansion outside of Canada and the

United States. Additionally, McLin examined whether sports franchises act in a

winmaximizing or a profit-maximizing capacity, with the conclusion that team owners

appear unlikely to admit that the team’s primary interest is profit.

Sustainability Issues

According to Cwynar (2017), live sports contests consistently draw audiences and

increase cable subscriptions when viewers are finding a variety of ways to watch their

favorite programs on their own terms. There is a new approach that sports rights are

increasingly valuable with the pairing of the broadcast with the digital rights for online

streaming via computer, tablet, and smartphone (Cwynar, 2017). By offering exclusivity

as part of the agreements, the NHL could obtain a higher price than through the

traditional mix of packages. The previous NHL television agreement with Versus had

paid $70 million per year for the cable rights, the new deal with Comcast/NBC Universal

was a 10 year/$2 billion or $200 million per year, that is almost three times as much as

the prior television broadcast agreement (Cwynar, 2017). The NHL signed a 12

year/$5.23 billion deal with Canadian telecommunications giant Rogers Communications

Inc (Cwynar, 2017).

Rockerbie and Easton (2017) discussed how the sports leagues in North America

operate by spanning an international border, with the NHL operating 23 teams in the

United States and seven teams in Canada. Rockerbie and Easton indicated that teams who

operate in different countries, such as Canada, are subject to exchange rate risk because

the majority of their revenues are in the local currency but their payroll costs are paid in

another currency such as American dollars. NHL teams that operate in Canada are vocal

about the exchange rate, with the Toronto Maple Leafs calling the exchange rate one of

the toughest risk factors for the company (Rockerbie & Easton, 2017). All of the four

North American leagues that feature teams in Canada stipulate that all player

compensation is to be paid in U.S. dollars.

According to Wade et al. (2018), individual team failure is largely under league

control, as poorly performing teams, that means financial difficulties for team owners, are

either replaced by the league with new owners, or the teams relocate, with league

approval, to more promising locations. Therefore, influences on team failure are league

strategy and policy, since the leagues control team entry, relocation, and by temporarily

assuming team control until new owners can be found. The leagues have a closed cartel

structure that means the teams are bound to their leagues and cannot move across leagues

(Wade et al., 2018). MLB is exempt from the anticompetitive provision of the Sherman

Antitrust Act since 1922 in exercising control over its teams (Wade et al., 2018).

Additionally, the Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961 put authority for national broadcasting

agreements with the leagues rather than the individual teams (Wade et al., 2018).

Rockerbie and Easton (2017) indicated that the NHL with the adoption of the

2012-2022 CBA has the most complicated revenue sharing system of the four leagues.

The NHL league revenue sharing pool is 6% of total league revenue with the top 10

revenue teams in the NHL, evenly contributing 50% of the revenue sharing pool, while

the remainder is from the playoffs (35%) and other league revenues (Rockerbie & Easton,

2017). The pool paid out to the bottom 15 revenue teams based on attendance and

revenue. The United States teams will share in the loss of the US$ value of Canadian

revenues and this will reduce the demand for talent and lower salaries for players and the

Canadian team’s talent stock will decline by more than that experienced by the United

States teams, further reducing the Canadian team’s winning percentage (Rockerbie &

Easton, 2017).

Potential Themes from the Literature Review

Some of the potential themes that emerged from reviewing the academic and

professional literature include the ability of NHL teams to use Porter’s five competitive

forces, such as the threat of new entrants, the threat of substitute products, threat of rivals,

the bargaining power of suppliers, and the bargaining power of customers. Other

emerging themes are (a) inadequate differentiation strategies, (b) ineffective marketing

strategies, (d) ineffective league branding strategies, and (d) inadequate implementation

of a social media strategy. Other themes were the (a) a salary cap and revenue sharing, (b)

development of an NHL team branding strategy, (c) competing internal and external

strategic marketing developments, (d) use of the marketing mix model of product, price,

promotion, and place, (e) competition with other entertainment and sporting events for

discretionary spending by consumers, (f) lack of economic benefit for the construction of

new facilities, (g) impact and use of big data in pricing of tickets, (h) impact of Twitter,

Facebook, and Snapchat, and (i) the changing dynamic of fans who have transitioned

from observers to participants through social media.

Transition

In Section 1, I included the background of the problem, the problem statement,

purpose statement, nature of the study, research and interview questions, conceptual

framework, operational definitions, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations, the

significance of the study, and the review of the professional and academic literature.

In Section 2, I included a restatement of the purpose statement of the purpose

statement, discussion of my role as the researcher, participants, research method and

design, population and sampling, ethical research, data collection instruments, data

collection technique, data analysis, reliability and validity, and the transition and

summary.

In Section 3, I included the research findings, the study’s application to

professional practice, implications for social change, recommendations for action,

recommendations for further research, reflections, and conclusions.

Section 2: The Project

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies

used by organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams to increase revenues. The targeted

population consisted of five hockey organization leaders who have implemented

successful strategies to generate revenue for NHL teams in the Sun Belt region of the

United States. The implication for positive social change could be the opportunity for Sun

Belt team organization leaders to acquire new strategies to increase revenue, which could

result in job creation and improved economies in the local communities.

Role of the Researcher

According to Isaacs (2016), in qualitative research, the researcher is the primary

data collection instrument. The primary role of the qualitative researcher is to collect and

analyze data from participants (Greenwood, 2016; Hays, Wood, Dahl, & Kirk-Jenkins,

2016). A qualitative multiple case research study requires appropriate selection of

participants, the selection of an appropriate research method, transcription of the

recordings of interviews, analyzing data, and reporting of findings in a clear, concise, and

unbiased manner (Spiers, Morse, Olson, Mayan, & Barrett, 2018).

I leveraged my existing network of hockey leadership contacts as a method of

recruitment to obtain access to participants; this was similar to the approach used by

Rothausen, Henderson, Arnold, and Malshe (2017). I have spent over 50 years playing

hockey at very competitive levels for my province, country, university, and still play in a

master’s over the age of 40 hockey league. I have interacted with thousands of players on

and off the ice. When I lived in San Jose, CA, I volunteered as a ticket taker and usher for

the San Jose Sharks hockey team. I advocate for the development and advancement of

Sun Belt NHL hockey teams. I live in Southern Texas and am familiar with the challenges

of Sun Belt NHL teams’ business operations in the region.

According to Brinkmann (2016), researchers can obtain information pertaining to

the participants’ experiences from interviews. I used an interview protocol checklist (see

Appendix A) that contains questions, procedures, and guidelines to enhance the reliability

of the findings as described by Yin (2018). Researchers conducting interviews use an

interview protocol as a guideline for face-to-face interviews (Dikko, 2016). An interview

protocol is a strategy for interview questions, interview procedures, collecting data, and

interpreting data to maximize an interviewers’ efficiency while mitigating bias (Algoso,

Peters, Ramjan, & East, 2016). An interview protocol is fundamental to mitigate bias,

enhance reliability, and ensure repeatability for future research (Castillo-Montoya, 2016).

Excessive familiarity with the participants could impact the objectivity of the study

causing bias and data validity concerns (Teusner, 2016).

I fully abided by the ethical principles of the Belmont Report. Due to unethical

research practices, the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

commissioned the Belmont Report (Metcalf, 2016), which is a guide for performing

research in an ethical manner. There are three basic ethical principles for practice,

research, and applications: (a) respect for persons, (b) beneficence, and (c) justice

(National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and

Behavioral Research, 1979).

The principles are comprehensive and generalizable so that stakeholders in the

research process understand the ethical issues contained in research (Polikoff, 2016). The

ethical principle includes issues of access to participants, informed consent, and

confidentiality (Polikoff, 2016). Beneficence ensures the personal well-being of the

participant with the requirement of protection of participants, maximization of benefits,

and minimization of harm (Polikoff, 2016). Justice requires the researcher to understand

the benefits of the research by determining the requirements for inclusion and exclusion

of participants from the study (Polikoff, 2016).

In conducting the research, I used a process called epoche to refrain from personal

judgement and help mitigate bias (see Jackson, Vaughen, & Brown, 2018). Epoche is

described as bracketing or setting aside personal biases to explore the participant’s

experience (Jackson et al., 2018). According to Fusch, Fusch, and Ness (2018),

researchers mitigate bias by using an interview protocol that has structured interview

questions with the same questions for each of the participants. Yin (2018) indicated that

making analytical judgments during data collection helps to identify themes and to

interpret the information in an unbiased manner. I performed member checking of the

interpretive summaries of interview transcriptions to verify the accuracy of the data

obtained during the interviews (see Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016).

Participants

The participants in a qualitative multiple case study must meet eligibility

requirements within the scope of the population. According to Yin (2018), the participants

in a qualitative study need to possess real-world experiences in the subject matter. The

criteria for inclusion in the research study was five hockey organization leaders who have

implemented successful strategies to generate revenue for NHL teams in the Sun Belt

region of the United States. I gained access to these participants using public sources such

as LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. Researchers use eligibility criteria to select

participants who can provide relevant and useful data (Latiffi, Brahim, & Fathi, 2016).

Selecting participants who have experience in the phenomenon under research is

important (Yin, 2018). I used a purposive sampling strategy to select participants from the

selected Sun Belt NHL teams. According to Benoot, Hannes, and Bilsen (2016),

researchers use purposive sampling to select applicable participants who can provide

relevant information for analyzing the phenomenon under study. Maramwidze-Merrison

(2016) indicated that the seniority and experience levels of participants in organizations

of interest are significant to obtain contextually rich data related to the research

objectives. I gained access to the participants through e-mailing, calling, or texting.

According to Hershberger and Kavanaugh (2017), speaking to participants by face-toface

or telephone is more personable and effective than electronic contact in acquiring

participation in a research study. The criteria used for the sample was that the individual

was a current or former Sun Belt NHL team organization leader who had used successful

strategies to increase revenues. The participant’s willingness to contribute to the study

could depend on their connection to the study topic (Santos, 2016).

The strategies I used to gain access to participants included contacts established

through the LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. According to Kalkbrenner and Roosen

(2016), with a connection and a strong identification to the study topic, participants may

collaborate fluidly with the interviewer. I shared my hockey experience and that I selected

the topic to study because of my love of hockey, financial industry training, and living in

Texas that has an NHL team in Dallas. I sent a letter of invitation to the organizational

leader with the research and interview questions (see Appendix B). I provided those

volunteering to participate in the research study an informed consent form via e-mail that

explained the informed consent process. I obtained an e-mail confirmation response from

the organization leader volunteering to participate. After I received the approved consent

form, I scheduled the telephone interview at mutually agreed date and time.

I established a working relationship with the participants by creating an

understanding of the study, gaining trust, and creating a comfortable atmosphere. Gaining

access to participants is specific to individual researchers and the contexts of their studies

(Peticca-Harris, deGama, & Elias, 2016). According to Cunliffe and Alcadipani (2016),

the participant-researcher relationship in qualitative research requires the researcher to

use rapport and reputation management. There are critical steps to obtain access that

include an open attitude toward learning, demonstrating resilience, embracing ambiguity,

and exercising an accepting attitude (Peticca-Harris et al., 2016). I emphasized the

significance of protecting and upholding participants’ rights during the interview and

research process. The participants selected for the study aligned with the criteria of the

study, which was to explore the strategies used by organization leaders of Sun Belt teams

to increase revenues. All of the participants in the study had experience in leadership of a

Sun Belt NHL hockey team.

Research Method and Design

A researcher selects a method and design that is appropriate to answer the

research question. According to Yin (2018), the choice of a correct method and design is

critical to obtaining credible findings. Halcomb (2016) stated that a research method is

the technique used by the researcher to collect and evaluate data in order to develop facts

and findings. Rosenthal (2016) indicated that the researcher can utilize the qualitative

research method to gain more insight into the reasoning behind people engaging in

common actions and behaviors. Researchers can use the qualitative inquiry to explore

individual’s thoughts or feelings by capturing their words through interviews (Vass,

Rigby, & Payne, 2017). According to Hasani and Khosrojerdi (2016), business scholars

recommend the case study design as an effective research strategy to gain in-depth

knowledge of real-life experiences. I used a qualitative multiple case study approach to

explore the successful strategies used by organization leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams to

increase revenues.

Research Method

The three primary research methods available to academic researchers are

qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods (Isaacs, 2016). Park and Park (2016) stated

that researchers use qualitative research to indicate the essential nature of the

investigation and questions to explore the meaning of experiences. Yin (2018) indicated

that the qualitative method is an effective way to explore individual experiences. Boddy

(2016) opined that a qualitative research method involves the deep understanding of a

phenomenon. According to Cooper et al. (2017), the qualitative approach uses an

inductive process that uses data collection through documentary and interview evidence.

Park and Park (2016) described the qualitative method as subjective, unstructured,

contextualized, and consisting of an inductive and interpretative process. Researchers

using the qualitative method interact with the research participant with a personal voice,

which has a high potential for bias. Researchers use qualitative methods to find truth

through interpretations of the social action of participants in a study (Toye, Williamson,

Williams, Fairbank, & Lamb, 2016). The qualitative approach is appropriate to gain an

understanding of the business strategies that leaders use to maintain their competitive

position (DeJean, Giacomini, Simeonov, & Smith, 2016).

Quantitative methods are most applicable for studies involving large groups using

mathematics to measure trends employing rating scales or preference ranks (Yin, 2018).

Quantitative methods are most applicable when the objective is to quantify and examine

the relationship between dependent and independent variables using statistical models

and tables to explain observations (Berneth et al., 2018). The quantitative research

method involves statistical data and defined variables (Park & Park, 2016). Giorgi (2017)

stated that researchers use a quantitative method to test hypotheses, describe numerical

changes, and find causal relationships between variables. According to Yin (2018),

researchers reject or accept hypotheses from answers to closed questions from valid and

reliable instruments. A quantitative research study was not a means for me to provide a

broad understanding of the research phenomenon. Depending on the variable studied, a

researcher using the quantitative method may not obtain reliable information on

experiences or explore the complexity of the phenomenon analyzed (Giorgi, 2017). The

objective of this study was not to formulate a theory, explain relationships among

variables, or quantify my findings but rather to explore successful solutions to a business

problem. Therefore, I did not select the quantitative research method for the study.

In mixed-methods, scholars examine existing theories and test hypotheses to

achieve valid statistical results while also qualitatively exploring participants’ perceptions

and opinions (Yin, 2018). Researchers using the mixed-method utilize components of

both quantitative and qualitative methods for data collection and data analysis (Alavi et

al., 2018). Skalidou and Oya (2018) stated that researchers use the mixed-methods

research methodology to bring meaning to complex social phenomena, however, the

mixed-methods has challenges for novice researchers because of the high level of

complexity in design, integration, and rigor. Researchers using the mixed-method can

obtain and analyze data to determine the difference between variables and gain an

understanding of the participants’ experiences (Pickard, Wainer, Bailey, & Ingersoll,

2016). Giorgi (2017) stated that in performing mixed-methods research, researchers use

more time and expense to complete the study. The use of the mixed-method approach is

beneficial when researchers need to have an integrated view of the information with the

qualitative and quantitative approach (Bastian, Munoz, & Ventura, 2016). According to

Venkatesh, Brown, and Sullivan (2016), researchers using the mixed-methods approach

have the opportunity to develop new theoretical perspectives by combining the strengths

of qualitative and quantitative methods. The focus of this research study was not the

relationship between variables; therefore, the mixed-methods approach was not

appropriate for this study.

Park and Park (2016) indicated that qualitative research methodology is suitable

for obtaining a better understanding of the underlying meaning of a situation. According

to Hsu, Lee, and Chen (2017), in the qualitative method, researchers do not use numerical

data but use interviews, open-ended questionnaires, or observations to interact with

participants. Langer (2016) stated that qualitative inquiry provides an opportunity to

obtain first-hand knowledge on participant experiences and perspective related to the

topic. Latiffi et al. (2016) opined that qualitative research allows the researcher to dig

deep into other elements, that other methods cannot reach. I selected the qualitative

method to gain a greater understanding of the perspectives, experiences, and thoughts of

NHL organization leaders.

Research Design

The designs I considered for this qualitative study were narrative,

phenomenology, ethnography, and case study (Yin, 2018). The design I selected for this

research study was the multiple case study because data came from different participants

who know and understand the phenomenon analyzed (McKim, 2017). According to Yin

(2018), one aspect of the multiple case study design is that it includes interpretations of

information obtained from interviews. Researchers use case study designs to study what,

how, and why questions regarding a set of events (Mason-Bish, 2018). Researchers use a

multiple case study instead of a single case study design to conduct a deeper analysis of

the phenomenon under investigation by evaluating similarities and differences of the

information among the cases (Morgan, Pullon, Macdonald, McKinlay, & Gray, 2017; Yin,

2018). McKim (2017) stated that case study design is applicable to learn the experiences

of participants through data collection from semistructured questions.

According to Chien and Hassenzahl (2017), the narrative design relies on the

skills of the narrator. Researchers use the narrative design to understand the lives of

individuals as relayed through their stories (Yin, 2018). I did not examine the individual

lives of participants; therefore, the narrative design was not appropriate for my study.

A research design considered for this research study was the ethnographic

approach. According to Abdulrehman (2017), ethnography is most suitable for studies in

which the researcher wants to explore and understand the culture of a group in their

natural setting. The ethnographic design explores interpretations, intellectual patterns, and

beliefs of the entire culture (Cardoso et al., 2017). Yin (2018) indicated that

ethnographers explore the culture of a unique group in their natural surroundings over a

period of time to gain insight of the members of that culture. I did not select ethnography

because the objective of my study is not to understand a group or culture.

Another research design considered for this research study was the

phenomenological research design. Chien and Hassenzahl (2017) stated that researchers

used the phenomenological design to explain the view of an individual or group

experiencing a common phenomenon. Forster (2019) stated that the phenomenological

design approach obtains insights into participants’ attitudes, experiences, opinions, and

processes under study. The objective of my study was not to explore participants’ lived

experiences or personal stories; therefore, the phenomenological research design was not

appropriate for this study.

According to Malterud, Siersma, and Guassora (2016), data saturation occurs

when researchers do not obtain any new information, codes, or themes from data

collection. Data saturation occurs when there is no new information in the data (Fusch &

Ness, 2015). Malterud et al. (2016) opined that it is more likely that data saturation will

occur in small studies with interviews more easily than in more intense research studies.

To obtain data saturation, I asked probing questions in the telephone interviews and

conducted additional follow up interviews as needed. To obtain data saturation, I

compared the information obtained from the interviews with each participant until there

were no new themes. Similar to Fusch and Ness (2015), I used the member checking, also

called member validation that is the validation of the researcher’s recording of the

interview with the participant and provides for dependability and credibility of the study.

Population and Sampling

Defining the Population

For this qualitative multiple case study, the target population consisted of five

organizational leaders of NHL teams located in the Sun Belt region of the United States.

The target population, NHL teams in the Sun Belt region, provided alignment with the

criteria of the study that is to explore the strategies to increase revenues. De Medeiros

Albano and Caten (2016) noted that researchers need to align the participant’s

professional experience, background, and skills with the research objective and design.

Sampling

I selected the participants by using purposeful sampling. Rosenthal (2016) used

purposeful sampling to gather pertinent information while targeting the study’s inquiry

towards a specific audience. Researchers use purposeful sampling to select participants

based on the participants’ expertise and knowledge that the researcher can gain detailed

knowledge of a phenomenon (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016). Fusch and Ness (2015)

noted that purposeful sampling is an advantageous method of gaining information from

participants who can provide detailed information to answer the research question.

Malterud et al. (2016) indicated that unlike quantitative studies that use a

calculation to determine sample size, qualitative studies do not have similar standards or

sample size assessment. According to Etikan et al. (2016), the use of purposeful sampling

in qualitative research is where small sample sizes are common. Boddy (2016) noted that

researchers need to select an appropriate sample size that provides in-depth analyses.

According to Latiffi et al. (2016), obtaining interview information from experienced

participants should enhance the relevance of the data. According to Yin (2018),

qualitative researchers performing multiple case studies, with a sample size of three to

five participants can expect to obtain in-depth data using two data sources, such as

conducting interviews and reviewing relevant company documents.

I conducted semistructured, telephone interviews with five Sun Belt NHL team

organizational leaders. According to De Massis and Kotlar (2014), the ability to conduct

research in its natural settings is one of the qualities of case studies. Yin (2018) indicated

that conducting interviews in the participants’ natural every day environment requires

catering to the participants’ schedules and availability. Researchers must be

accommodating to the participants’ choice of dates, times, and location of interviews

(Yin, 2018). According to Dikko (2016), a comfortable interview environment can help

interviewees develop trust that allows for greater reflective and insightful information. I

conducted the telephone interviews on dates and times that was most accommodating to

the participants. The privacy, confidentiality, and ethical standards of the participants are

ensured in this study.

Data Saturation and Sampling

Hagaman and Wutich (2017) noted that data saturation is the process of collecting

information to the point where there is no new information from the participant from

answering the interview questions. Fusch and Ness (2015) indicated that a researcher

satisfies data saturation after gathering enough information to ensure the trustworthiness

of the study. Saunders et al. (2018) indicated that data saturation is when the findings are

repetitious and the outcomes signify the quality and comprehensiveness of the study.

According to Wu, Thompson, Aroian, McQuaid, and Deatrick (2016), to reach data

saturation, participant interviews should continue until no new themes emerge from the

data. Additional follow-up questions are asked to ensure no new themes will be

presented. Constantinou, Georgiou, and Perdikogianni (2017) noted that researchers

achieve data saturation when the results are valid, robust, and further research fails to

produce new data. I used member checking that provided the participants the opportunity

to review the analysis of the interview for accuracy (see Simpson & Quigley, 2016). I

also provided the interviewees a second opportunity to review the information again for

accuracy if there were any changes to the analysis during the interview (see Hadi & Jose

Closs, 2016).

Ethical Research

According to Bender (2017), ethical accountability concerns every element of the

research study, including recruiting, data collection, analysis, and publication, and is

about the character and principles of the researcher. Yip, Han, and Sng (2016) defined

ethical research as respect for the persons participating in the study, avoiding harm,

optimizing benefits, and applying justice towards the individuals and their societal level.

Before conducting the research, I obtained approval from Walden University’s

Institutional Review Board (IRB).

For my study, my IRB approval number is 02-21-20-0434527. After obtaining

IRB approval, I invited, sent an e-mail with the informed consent forms to the

participants to obtain their agreement for the study. According to Yin (2018), a consent

form is a contract between the participants and the researcher that will provide

verification that candidates participated in the research study. The informed consent form

components are (a) information about the research aspects, (b) verifying that the

participants review, understand, and agree to the consent form prior to the interview, and

Included on the participant consent form was information about the estimated

duration of the interviews, follow up interview if necessary, and that the interview will be

audio recorded. The consent form indicated that the participants will receive no incentives

for their participation. As described by Oye, Sorensen, and Glasdam (2016), participation

in a research study is voluntary, and the participant can withdraw from the study at any

time. I informed the participants that they could withdraw from the study at any time and

for any reason. Included in the informed consent form was the withdrawal process. The

withdrawal process indicated that the participant can notify the Walden representative on

the informed consent form or me if they decided to withdraw. The data obtained from the

participants who withdraw from the study will not be used in the study and the same

process for data security and destruction will be used as the process described for ultimate

data destruction 5 years after study completion. I informed the participants that I may e-

mail the findings and results to them. I answered any questions the participants had prior

to consenting to their participation in the study. According to Tolich et al. (2017), the

central principles of research ethics include doing no harm, confidentiality, autonomy,

and beneficence.

To safeguard the confidentiality of the participants and their teams, I refered to

each respondent as P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 and to their teams as Team1, Team2, Team3,

Team4, and Team5, respectively (see Thomas, 2016). I stored the interviews digitally on a

password-protected portable hard drive and secured the hard drive and other documents

in a locked file cabinet drawer. The hard drive and other material will be locked away for

5 years with me having sole access to the cabinet during this period. After 5 years, I will

burn the documents, and wipe the hard drive using software that makes the data

irretrievable.

I adhered to Walden University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) processes that

will ensure ethical standards compliance prior to conducting research. I submitted the

IRB application and research to the IRB which included the outline of data collection

tools, participants, and an electronic informed consent form that met the ethical standards.

Data Collection Instruments

I was the primary data collection instrument for the study and conducted

semistructured interviews to collect the data from participants in one-on-one telephone

interviews. According to Yin (2018), data collection from participants in semistructured

interviews provides participants the flexibility to answer questions freely and describe

concepts for the researcher to collect complete data. Shah, Sundmark, Lindstrom, and

Andler (2016) opined that the use of open-ended interview questions increases the

opportunity to ask follow-up questions that could allow the participants to provide

examples from their experiences. Wilson, Onwuegbuzie, and Manning (2016) indicated

the researcher needs to use active listening, provide a comfortable environment for the

interview, and conduct a comprehensive review of the interview process. I collected the

data in a secure, safe, and stable interview environment.

I used the interview protocol (see Appendix A) to show how I functioned as the

data collection instrument. I audio recorded the interview sessions, transcribed the

recordings, and documented my impressions that provide a complete record and audit

trail of the data collection process. Castillo-Montoya (2016) argued that in qualitative

research, the reliability of interview protocols can enhance the quality of interview data.

Yin (2018) indicated that the use of an interview protocol allows the researcher to

establish the validity and reliability of the information. I used NVivo software for data

validation and reliability. According to Chandra and Shang (2017), qualitative researchers

use tools like NVivo for identifying themes and to demonstrate the validity and reliability

of data collected.

Additionally, Castillo-Montoya (2016) indicated that a 4-point framework for

interviews included the following: (a) aligning the interview and research questions, (b)

conducting an inquiry based conversation, (c) obtaining feedback, and (d) piloting the

interview protocol will strengthen the reliability and increases the quality of the obtained

data. I used an interview protocol (see Appendix A) to ensure a well-organized process

during the interview phase. I provided a summary of the interview to the participants for

member checking. I did member checking to ensure that I accurately interpreted the

participant’s responses. I used data triangulation to compare and analyze data collected

from multiple sources such as NHL information, team specific information, and

participant provided revenue and profit information. According to Fusch and Ness

(2015), data triangulation enhances the reliability and validity of results.

Data Collection Technique

Cyr (2016) indicated that in interviews, the researcher describes the type of

interview to the participants, records the events, and transcribes the interviews for

participant verification. According to Wilson et al. (2016), the individual interview is the

most frequently used data collection instrument in qualitative research. Semistructured

interviews are the most common interview techniques used in qualitative studies and

consist of predetermined unrestricted questions, where the participants give their

responses in their own words and from their perspectives (Kallio, Pietila, Johnson, &

Kangasniemi, 2016). Silverman (2017) indicated that semistructured interviews provide

the perspectives, expectations, and assumptions of the participants while building rapport.

There are advantages and disadvantages using the qualitative semistructured

interview methods of data collection and analysis. By using interviews, researchers can

(a) obtain in-depth knowledge of the subject under study, (b) observe visible and verbal

cues, (c) minimize noise, and (d) minimize impacts to validity and reliability of the study

(Birt et al., 2016). Another advantage of the semistructured interviews is the freedom for

the participants to openly express ideas, views, and experiences without limitations of the

conversational format with the interviewer (Alaiad & Zhou, 2017). Interviews are the

collection of lived experiences and knowledge of best practices from the participants

(Yin, 2018).

According to Yin (2018), a disadvantage of the interview process is that the

primary data collection instrument is the researcher that could lead participants in giving

reflexive responses that could impact data quality and introduce bias. I actively managed

bias by performing audio transcript verification and obtaining member checking approval

from all participants. Yin (2018) indicated that interviewees may only tell the interviewer

what they want to hear. Another disadvantage could be finding meeting times that are

convenient for the interviewer and participants. To overcome this disadvantage, I let the

participants select from several dates and meeting times.

I was the primary data collection instrument by conducting in-depth

semistructured interviews using the interview and discussion protocol (see Appendix A).

The interview process consisted of an introduction, rapport building, opening script,

interview questions, follow up questions, and a closing. Once I received from the

participants an e-mail approved informed consent form, I asked the same interview

questions of the participants in the interviews (see Appendix B). I audio recorded the

interview using a digital recording devise and documented any other participant

behaviors. The settings for the telephone interviews were in a private location that

provided security for the participant.

I used member-checking as a tool for ensuring reliability and validity of the data

collection process. After the completion of the transcription of the recorded interviews, I

did the process of member checking to enhance accuracy and ensure that I properly and

accurately interpreted the participants’ answers. I created a short summary of the

transcriptions to describe the essence of the collected data that I shared with each of the

participants for their verification. According to Fusch and Ness (2015), member checking

is necessary for verifying that the interpretation of the data collected during the interview

accurately reflects the views of the participants.

Data Organization Techniques

Kimball (2016) indicated that conducting qualitative case study research involves

collection and organization of empirical data. Yin (2018) stated that the researcher is

responsible for data collection, storage, and analysis. I used an interview protocol during

the interviewing process (see Appendix A). I recorded the interviews using an audio

recorder (see Miller, 2016). I analyzed the transcripts using an analysis process that

identified common themes by using NVivo software that was a similar process used by

Hampton et al. (2017). I stored the data consist with the use of the NVivo database.

Zamawe (2015) indicated that NVivo is a software to analyze data and generate themes

from transcripts and audio recorded files. Muqadas, Rehman, Aslam, and Ur-Rahman

(2017) indicated that researchers use NVivo software for the capability to code and

analyze qualitative data.

I used MS Word documents and Excel spreadsheets to develop a catalog of

footnotes on collected data that include the documents name, date of creation, source of

data, and the physical location of the data. I assigned a code to each participant that

included a letter and a number. I encoded participants as P1, P2, and so forth, and

encoded teams as Team1, Team2, and so forth. Tijdink et al. (2016) indicated that there

should be a file-naming convention for stored data that is an important data organization

technique for easy identification and retrieval of the contents.

Tijdink et al. (2016) stated that researchers should safeguard participants’

confidentiality and privacy. The data is secured in a locked file cabinet for 5 years. After

5 years, the data is destroyed in a secure manner that is consistent with destroying

sensitive information. According to Tijdink et al. (2016), the destruction of data is one of

the ethical considerations for maintaining the confidentiality of research participants in a

qualitative study.

Data Analysis

According to Guo and Guo (2016), data analysis involves reviewing data to

discover patterns and themes to assist in answering the central research question. Yin

(2018) indicated that researchers compare data with information from multiple sources,

such as archival records, industry websites, company websites, and journal articles to

validate study findings. Researchers analyze data for three central purposes that include

becoming familiar with the data, documenting relationships, and summarizing participant

interviews (Foley et al., 2017). I used the four-stage data analysis process for analyzing

data: (a) reviewing the data, (b) organizing the data, (c) coding the data, and (d)

developing themes from the data as described by Yin (2018).

According to Nelson (2016), researchers use NVivo software to help code the

data, develop the themes, and analyze the interviews. I used NVivo software to code,

organize, manage, and store collected data that can improve research dependability. The

NVivo software is a tool that researchers use to develop themes from the interview data

and group raw data into categories and themes from participant’s experiences (Waller,

Hockin, & Smith, 2017). According to Yongxin, Deschamps, de Freitas Rocha Loures,

and Pierin Ramos (2017), the use of computer software aids the researcher with coding

and identifying themes from the interview data. Qiu and Wang (2016) indicated that

selection of the proper databases and approach for performing literature search is

necessary for mitigating biased results and incorrect conclusions. According to Lensges,

Hollensbe, and Masterson (2016), researchers use the NVivo software application to

analyze unstructured data and apply thematic identification.

I used NVivo software to organize and code unstructured data, from the interview

transcripts, interview notes, and relevant company information to indicate emerging

themes. After coding, I organized and categorized the coded interview data to identify

patterns and themes. Woods, Paulus, Atkins, and Macklin (2016) indicated that coding

helps researchers identify emerging themes, patterns, trends, and divergent participants’

interpretations. I used a thematic analysis technique to analyze the interview data. Braun

and Clarke (2016) stated that thematic analysis helps indicate repeated patterns, themes,

and keywords to gain insight and knowledge from the acquired interview data. According

to Vaughn and Turner (2016), thematic analysis describes the data set in full details and

provide a more detailed account of a group of themes or individual specific themes

contained in the data.

I reviewed information that is readily available through the NHL website and

team reports. Abdalla, Oliveira, Azevedo, and Gonzalez (2018) indicated that obtaining

triangulation is through the comparison of organization documents with findings from

interviews and observations. According to Johnson et al. (2017), triangulation compares

data collected from document review, interviews, observations, and digital diaries to

analyze different types of information for the findings. Pepin et al. (2018) indicated that

data triangulation is the review of data from different elements of time, space, and the

individual. As described by Stewart, Gapp, and Harwood (2017), triangulation occurs

when researchers use several methods of data collection to study a phenomenon. The

literature review was analyzed and correlated for themes, patterns and trends by using

NVivo software.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Yin (2018) described reliability as the consistency and repeatability of research

procedures. Chatha, Butt, and Tariz (2015) indicated the purpose of reliability in a

research study is the ability for a procedure, instrument, or measure is repeated using

similar conditions which will produce the same results. I strictly adhered to my interview

protocol (see Appendix A) when gathering my data. The interview protocol guides the

interview process. According to Yin (2018), qualitative researchers obtain reliability by

(a) recording the data collection and analysis, (b) specifying a research strategy, (c)

detailing participant selection, and (d) accentuating the researcher’s role. McCullough et

al. (2017) indicated that member checking increases reliability and trustworthiness. I used

standard interview questions (see Appendix B) with wording of the questions consistent

with the foundation of my doctoral study that added to the reliability of the study. I used

member checking to ensure reliability.

Dependability. As described by Nelson (2016), dependability is the reliability of

the findings of the study. Stewart et al. (2017) indicated that a study is dependable when

other researchers agree with the result, research processes, and activities. Sharifirad,

Mortazavi, Rahimnia, and Farahi (2017) indicated that dependability is the rational,

traceable, and prudently documented research process. I ensured reliability and

dependability through the documentation of my processes and by using a multiple case

study design, semistructured interviews, observations, and transcript review. I provided

the participants a short summary of the research study interpretations in order for them to

review the interpretation of the interview responses. According to Birt et al. (2016),

member checking is a process of determining whether the collected and analyzed data is

congruent with the interviewers’ perceptions. Thomas (2016) indicated that member

checking helps to ensure that the transcripts accurately represent the participants’

experiences. I used member checking for dependability.

Validity

Yin (2018) indicated that researchers ensure validity through the accuracy and

trustworthiness of the data obtained to mitigate research bias. According to Savage and

McIntosh (2016), contextual validity refers to the credibility of case study evidence and

research results. Le Roux (2017) indicated that validity is as important as accomplishing

the goals of the study as it ensures unblemished knowledge of any assumptions used in

the research method. Fusch and Ness (2015) indicated that validity is accomplished

through the thoroughness and adequacy of the data, sound sampling, and data saturation.

According to Mayer (2015), validity measures include member checking and

triangulation. Houghton, Murphy, Shaw, and Casey (2015) indicated that the use of

triangulation provides confirmation and completeness to the data obtained from multiple

sources enhancing the validity of the research. I was the data collection instrument, used

an audio recorder to capture the participants’ answers, and used a written journal for each

participant.

Credibility. Drisko (2016) indicated that credibility is the trustworthiness of

research findings. According to Stewart et al. (2017), credibility is representing and

interpreting data accurately through participant views in a convincing manner. Credibility

is the value and believability of the study results and what guides the truthfulness of the

data (Houghton et al., 2015). Researchers should conduct their research with competence,

goodwill, and trustworthiness (see Sorenson, 2016). I demonstrated trustworthiness by

verifying participants’ responses through a member checking process. I transcribed the

interviews verbatim and documented each question and answer provided by the

participants. I provided a summary of the interview to the participants for their review of

the accuracy and verification of their responses. According to Birt et al. (2016), providing

participants the opportunity to give feedback on the data enhances the trustworthiness of

the results.

Transferability. According to Drisko (2016), transferability refers to the extent

that qualitative research is applicable to other environments. Savage and McIntosh (2016)

indicated that transferability is when the study results are transferable to different settings

or groups in future research. To obtain transferability, researchers use purposeful criterion

sampling for data analysis of research participants. I used purposeful criterion sampling

and reflective journaling to achieve transferability. I followed the interview and data

collection protocols designed for my research study.

Confirmability. According to Yin (2018), confirmability pertains to actual

research results without the researchers’ perspective interfering with the findings. Yin

indicated confirmability is obtained by researchers using methodical triangulation. As

described by Yin, the methodical triangulation process includes semistructured interviews

and supporting documents to develop an evidentiary trail. Wan, Marco, and Cheng (2016)

indicated that confirmability requires the researcher to demonstrate that the conduction of

the research occurred in good faith and that no personal values influenced either the

research or the findings. According to Le Roux (2017), using an audit trail can ensure

confirmability. To guarantee confirmability, I used semistructured interviews, supporting

documents, and a log to journal and review interview results. I also used member

checking to ensure confirmability.

Data saturation. Data saturation is when the researcher observes the same

patterns of data repetitively and concludes that there is nothing new obtained from

additional data collection (Fusch & Ness, 2015). According to Hagaman and Wutich

(2017), data saturation is when no new information is obtained. Fusch and Ness (2015)

stated that data saturation should assist in the validity and confirmability of the research. I

used the following processes to ensure data saturation. I asked probing questions in the

interviews and conducted follow-up interviews as appropriate. I knew when I achieved

data saturation when no new information obtained and when data was repeated during the

interview; however, if data saturation was not accomplished during the initial sample,

then I would expand the number of interviews until data saturation is achieved. This was

not required as data saturation was achieved during the fourth interview. I also reviewed

advertising, websites, and social media applicable to the participants’ team.

Transition and Summary

In Section 2, I provided details of the research methodology and the research

design to explore how NHL Sun Belt teams increase revenues. In Section 2, I included

explanations of the elements of qualitative study validity, including credibility,

transferability, and confirmability. Additionally, in Section 2, I included a restatement of

the purpose statement, discussion of my role as the researcher, participants, research

method and design, population and sampling, ethical research, data collection

instruments, data collection technique, data analysis, reliability and validity, and

transition and summary. In Section 3, I provided the research findings, the study’s

application to professional practice, implications for social change, recommendations for

action, recommendations for further research, reflections, and conclusions followed by

appendices containing pertinent documents.

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative multiple-case study was to explore the strategies

employed by the organizational leaders of Sun Belt NHL teams to increase revenue. I also

explored publicly available data from the team websites and NHL.com. To understand the

leaders’ strategies, I executed a data analysis process that included collecting, organizing,

coding, and interpreting data. The findings of the study indicated the following five

themes: (a) customer acquisition and retention, (b) market segmentation, (c) promotion,

(d) unique value proposition, and (e) product differentiation. The NHL Sun Belt teams

should continue to expand their market segments, use social media in conjunction with

personal community involvement, provide outstanding customer service, innovate,

continue to expand customer products, and understand that the team is in the

entertainment business, not just the business of sport. The subsequent paragraphs provide

information on the main findings and themes, applications to professional practice, social

change implications, recommendations for action and further research, and my reflections

and the conclusion.

Presentation of the Findings

The research question for this study was as follows:

RQ: What strategies do organizational leaders of NHL Sun Belt teams use to

increase revenue?

In this section, I present and interpret the study findings concerning the interview data,

additional research, and conceptual framework. I first present each theme and explore

how each theme connects to previous research on the topic. I then detail how each theme

relates to the conceptual framework.

The conceptual framework applied in this study was Porter’s (1980) five forces

model and Porter’s model for competitive strategy. The findings of this study align with

the conceptual framework and most of the studies included in the literature review. Most

participants in the current study provided responses linked to at least four elements of

Porter’s five forces model: (a) product substitutes, (b) competitive rivalry, (c) supplier

power, and (d) buyer power. Furthermore, all five of the participants referenced elements

of the differentiation strategy and focused strategy in Porter’s model for competitive

strategy. The findings indicated that most participants had developed a targeted product

marketing mix. McCarthy (1960) indicated that a marketing mix combines product, price,

promotion, and place.

In performing data analysis, I coded participant interview statements into common

nodes. The nodes were then aligned into themes. I developed the following five themes

from the data: (a) customer acquisition and retention, (b) market segmentation, (c)

promotion, (d) unique value proposition, and (e) product differentiation.

Theme 1: Customer Acquisition and Retention

The customer acquisition and retention theme indicated a linkage between

attendance and developing a sustainable market in a Sun Belt location. All participants

emphasized the importance of the attendance of the right fans as a significant success

factor for the franchise. P1 added that the economics of hockey are different from those

of other sports franchises such as the NBA, NFL, and MLB because hockey does not

enjoy the large television and media rights deals of the other leagues. For most of the

other leagues, the largest revenue source is national television or local media deals.

Meanwhile, in hockey, the largest revenue source is ticket sales. According to Kelley et

al. (2014), nearly half of NHL franchises generate more than two-thirds of their annual

income from ticket sales. Only 17% of NHL revenue in 2014 came from television, a

figure that has not significantly changed over the past 30 years (Bowman et al., 2018).

Specifically, P1 commented that the biggest challenge is to create and retain fans.

P2 and P3 reported a similar focus on attendance, entertaining the fans, and encouraging

them to return. According to P4, leaders must be creative to combat the geographical

challenge of the team being located in the Sun Belt region of the United States. P3

mentioned that, as the organization educates fans on the game and the sport of hockey,

they become addicted to it. Educating potential fans can, therefore, increase fan interest,

with the impact of additional ticket sales, which support increasing revenues. According

to Wening (2019), the daily education of the consumer is significant in how it can be used

as a guide in the customer making the decision to spend money. Wening indicated that the

five fundamental principles of consumer education are: (a) critical awareness, (b) activity

involvement, (c) social concern, (d) environmental concern, and (e) solidarity. The

education of Sun Belt hockey fans appears to satisfy three of these principles, critical

awareness, activity involvement, and solidarity, which can have a positive impact on

attendance and revenues. Additionally, Kim, Magnusen, Kim, and Lee (2019) indicated

that fan knowledge was a determining factor in making a purchasing decision. Similarly,

P4 shared that the organization aims to determine the best strategy to deliver basic

hockey education because it is extremely important to have the fans attend viewing

parties. P4 indicated that the organization had gained some additional fan exposure,

which increased team interaction with the community by persuading 50 to 60 people to

attend their viewing parties at partner restaurants to watch away games. This additional

fan interaction has had a positive impact on the interest of fans in watching games on

television or purchasing a ticket to a game. P3 noted the following:

Getting butts in seats [attendance] is our primary strategy. Our strategy is to

leverage all those data to make sure that we are reaching the right people we need

to reach and the people watching on NHL Network, whether it is our team or not.

We have different ways that we can identify who is a hockey fan; whether they

are a [Team3] fan or not, if they are a hockey fan then we can at least get them to

a game.

According to P3, knowing who purchases tickets is critical information, and the

organization accomplishes this through the ticket sales system, which is integrated with

their customer relationship management (CRM) system. These interconnected systems

allow the organization to track opened e-mail, what people purchased, and whether the

customer bought a ticket to a single game, four tickets, or a concert ticket. P3 explained

that, because customers use the same Ticket Master account, the organization knows

when they buy concert and other tickets. They use the CRM system to track this type of

activity. P3 emphasized that the organization tracks CRM data very aggressively. The

participants’ responses regarding strategies to obtain knowledge on the fans corroborated

previous findings in the literature that suggest sports marketers must identify the features

that attract spectators, participants, and viewers and to understand how consumers

identify with hockey to market it more effectively (see Ratten, 2016).

All participants acknowledged that the target audience has shifted from hardcore

hockey fans and “snowbirds” to long-term, sustainable local fans. Each of the participants

identified a related shift in goals from fan attendance to specifically targeting local and

loyal fans to attend the games. The participants’ views substantiated the findings in the

literature that sports brands offer meaningful connections to fans, such as community

pride, socialization with family or friends, vicarious achievement, and a wholesome

environment (see Kang et al., 2016). P4 mentioned the following:

One of the biggest strategies is just being smarter in whom we are targeting. So,

we have gone through a pretty significant shift, getting away from the model of

trying to target the snowbirds who were in town and watching their hometown

team. We are trying to grow the local fan base and sell out the arena that way and

have growth and be sustainable.

P3 shared an even more aggressive strategy of developing local fans through restricting

ticket sales to out-of-area zip codes that were not within the local city or television

market. P3 stated the following:

We had several thousand of the opposing fans in our building, so about 5 years

ago a targeted purchasing plan was implemented, so we don’t allow out-of-market

purchasers through Ticket Master. When you provide a credit card and you do not

have a State3 or television viewing zip code on your credit card, you are unable to

purchase tickets to our games.

P1 noted that City1 is a nontraditional hockey market; therefore, the biggest

challenge is always acquiring fans and having a sufficiently large local fan base to

support a hockey team with a 15- to 20-thousand-seat arena for over 40 nights a year. P4

stated that the organization’s vice president of marketing was visiting a Red Robin and

asked for the Team4 hockey game on the television. The hostess responded that she did

not think that the restaurant had that channel. He asked, “You do not have NHL hockey?”

and she responded, “Yeah, we have some Blackhawks games sometimes, but I do not

think that we have college games.” P4 concluded that it is a geographical stigma that the

organization must constantly address. To accomplish the goal of maximizing attendance,

P1 reflected:

I think the long story short for us is that we have to be smarter about how to

capture our fans who are engaged with us to ensure that we are not missing any of

the opportunities such as using best practices, social media, sustainability, and

innovation.

P3 stated that organizations always desire the opportunity to pick up that new fan, to

continue growing, and to be sustainable. For example, P1 highlighted a contest to win

four tickets to a special hockey event, which received 47,000 entries over a span of two

months, of which only 800 were from current season ticket holders. Most of the names

generated from the contest were new data that allowed Team1 to market to potential new

customers after they captured their information. The organization was able to generate

$1.2 million in new season ticket sales. P3 also noted:

We looked at being in a southern market and understanding the high school and

college football were big and other things that existed, such as Wednesday nights

that people went to church, so [we] adopted our game schedule to play our games

on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday nights.

All of the participants mentioned awareness of regular area events when scheduling home

games, such as Friday-night high school football, Saturday-afternoon college football

games, and NFL games on Sunday afternoon.

P3 argued that the measure of success of a strategy is whether the team is more

profitable than before implementing the strategy:

It was pretty obvious that, when you sell more tickets, that is the bottom-line

driver for our industry, as hockey does not have the richest television deal. Not to

say that it is not an important piece, but ticket sales and sponsorship sales are the

two biggest revenue sources.

P4 reflected,“Our city is a very dynamic market with people moving there from

all over the country and you have to continuously learn your audience, know who your

customers are, and adjust your strategy accordingly.” The participants’ views

substantiated the previous findings in the literature indicating that understanding why

customers leave can provide a competitive advantage through informing product or

service enhancements that may alleviate the problems (see Gautam, 2016). According to

Manoli (2018), the promotion of fan interest requires a deeper understanding of the

sport’s psychological, social, and cultural aspects for sports marketing to be effective.

Regarding sustainability, P2 indicated that the organization’s service and retention

team focuses on helping the current season ticket holders and answering any questions or

issues they might have. P3 also stated the following:

There a lot of ways to capture additional revenue like new money once they are in

the doors and then, from a conversion perspective, how to have that person spend

more money with you. That is just a simple business perspective, that it is easier

to keep an existing customer than it is to find a new one. So, we look at those

single-game buyers as exiting customers who can spend more dollars with us, as

the start of the sales funnel, and increase revenues.

The theme of customer acquisition and retention is consistent with Porter’s five

forces specifically the bargaining power of suppliers and the bargaining power of buyers.

According to Zhang, Leng, and Zhou (2020), the bargaining power of a supplier or buyer

depends on the various characteristics of market conditions and the relative importance of

the sales or purchases. All of the participants mentioned the evolving dynamic of the

customer base from opposing hockey fans to development of local and loyal fans. The

alignment of the conceptual framework includes consideration of the buyer when

determining the scheduling of the games to avoid negative impacts of traditional events

such as Wednesday night church, Friday night high school football, and Sunday afternoon

NFL football. Porter (1980) indicated that important supplier factors are the quality of

product, forward integration, size of the supplier, and the level of support.

Front office management of professional sports teams such as those in the NHL establish

the products, inventories, and prices to the customer that can impact the acquisition and

retention of fans.

Theme 2: Market Segmentation

All participants in this study shared the common view that market segmentation

has a significant effect on the development of revenue and the sustainability of the

hockey market. P5 indicated that the team had to refocus on the targeted audience by

focusing on the family. Four of the five participants indicated an increased emphasis on

the female members of the family. P4 stated, “As you know, our spouses tell us what to

do and so that is what we leaned on. So, we focused on the female fan.” According to

Naraine (2019), mothers have significant purchasing power in family households and

many brands have already targeted this subgroup. These participants’ views supported the

research findings by Sveinson and Hoeber (2016). Sveinson and Hoeber indicated that

there was an increase in female fans who attended games, became season ticket holders,

bought merchandise, and played fantasy pools. Sveinson and Hoeber findings indicated

that the increased interest in sports by female fans stemmed from an independent choice,

a sense of belonging, pride, and empowerment, and allowed the female fan to standout.

Additionally, Sveinson and Hoeber indicated that sport leagues and teams have become

more open to different types of female fans and avoid stereotyping. Each of the

participants mentioned the importance of a strategy to develop hockey fans at an early

age. Four of the five participants discussed a shift away from hardcore hockey fans to

concentrate on the Hispanic community. The participants’ views support (a) the argument

by MacIntosh et al. (2017) that the expansion of the network with other fans is a critical

factor in increasing the fan group identity and (b) the recommendation that teams should

concentrate on increasing the engagement of fans with others.

According to P4, the organization is concentrating locally and growing a loyal fan

base that is more sustainable than relying heavily on marketing to snowbirds. A snowbird

is a person who lives in the northern United States or Canada in the summer and then

lives the winter months in a warmer climate. P5 explained that the previous strategy was

only targeting hockey fans from a fan’s perspective, and in their area, hockey is only the

fourth most-popular sport. To continue targeting only a small segment of sports fans made

no sense and was not sustainable. P4 added that the hardcore hockey fans will attend

games regardless, therefore, there is less need to promote the sport of hockey to these

fans.

Family. Four of the five participants concluded that the strategy that has worked

the best for increasing revenue is to focus on the family. According to P5, “The focus on

the family had been the best strategy. It had been very consistent in how we are reaching

them: be fan-friendly, be family-friendly, and people will come back.” Four of the five

participants reported growth in ticket sales and revenue from such a strategy. Families

represent the majority of people in the market and the largest market segment, thus,

family-oriented organizations are starting to observe increasing interest in the team. For

this reason, P3 stated that the organization refocused the target to families.

The views of P4 support those of P5 and P3 concerning the strategy to focus on

families. P4’s organization has shifted away from hardcore sports or hockey fans and has

emphasized families, especially female members of the family. P3, P4, and P5 mentioned

that families are searching for things to do and have a great deal of resources to spend on

these activities. P5 shared that the family strategy is working because more families are

attending games rather than just the hardcore hockey fans with their friends. P3 and P4

mentioned that they are witnessing more kids participating in hockey in the marketplace

and more merchandise sales by women and kids, which has increased the revenue.

According to P3, the organization differentiates itself by having converted people

from 20 years ago into lifelong sustainable fans, referring to people who were fans when

they were kids and now have a family and kids of their own. They now have multiple

generations of fans for the first time as an organization. P4 shared that, when they put

someone on the Jumbotron, they ensure everything is really fun and family-friendly. P5

stated the following:

We are not only competing for the hockey fans who will be coming to the

building but are competing for the time from the family who is constantly looking

for things to do and will be sustainable for the long term.

Young fans. According to P4, the first introduction to hockey for kids is often a

“learn to play hockey” program, which is an NHL-wide initiative. This is where the team

creates their first touchpoint with a kid who will start playing hockey. P4 shared that,

once the organization has the kid’s information in the contact database, they have the kid

and their parents’ contact data permanently. P5 commented that the strategy of increasing

the number of kids playing hockey and developing more fans at a younger age means that

watching hockey becomes a generational hobby:

We now have kids who are the children of our initial fans during these 20+ years

of operation. By providing more kids the chance to play hockey gets their parents

involved and interested in the sport of hockey. We are also getting more Team5 team

members involved with the community. The community appreciates the fact that we are

here because we do so many great things in the community. Three of the five participants

noted that they are earning higher revenues from the purchase of merchandise items for

kids. Reifurth, Wear, and Heere (2020) indicated that exposure to, and familiarity with a

brand will only increase with age, as time gives individuals more opportunities with

which to become familiar with a brand, product, or service. P4 contended that, if the

organization ensures that enough kids are playing now, it will manifest in additional

revenue in 10 years, when the kids have buying power as their parents start bringing them

to games. Both P4 and P5 noted that they keep this timeline in mind when sponsoring

youth hockey; although there is not an immediate return on investment (ROI), in the long

term, it is effective.

Hispanic. According to P4, targeting the Hispanic market is unique to them and

the other Sun Belt markets. According to P3:

Reaching out to the Hispanic community is not something that we had ever really

tried to tap into, and if we do not start getting more diverse in that way then we

are going to miss out and not have the growth or be sustainable because it is such

a huge part of our community.

P4 stated, “I have no idea how long this Hispanic marketing strategy is going to take, but

you have to be very careful and it takes time.” P5’s organization uses the strategy of

marketing to the Hispanic population. The organization did not conduct any Hispanic

marketing at all until a year and a half ago, although the Hispanic population represents

41% of the market area. P4 also noted that Hispanic marketing is particularly challenging

because, as the Hispanic population did not grow up playing hockey, not many Hispanic

people are working in or playing hockey. Three of the five participants indicated that they

had to confront the challenge of trying to be genuine while finding the right person who

understands hockey terminology, hockey culture, and the hockey experience and can

blend these with the Hispanic culture.

According to P5, the Hispanic community strategy appears successful because

more people in that segment are talking about hockey. More participation is occurring

among Hispanic kids in the programs on learning how to play ice hockey and in

dedicated Hispanic events. P5 indicated that the organization has been observing

increases in viewership of games on television and the number of Hispanic fans attending

games.

Packages. P2 reported many different buying options exist for fans. The products

are segregated into a full-season, half, quarter, and other special plans. They also have

group plans that focus on one specific game and try to attract as many members of one

particular group as possible. P3 mentioned that many different segment plan packages

exist. P4 supported the views of P2 and P3; the strategy is to offer full-season, halfseason,

quarter-season, and four-game packages. P5 stated, “We have a weekender package since

we wanted to give fans an opportunity to get some savings and be locked into more

games by offering all weekend games at a certain price.” P5 commented that an increase

in revenue from the weekend attendance has occurred as a result of offering these special

weekend packages. P4 explained that the mini-plans each have unique characteristics,

such as the Canadian mini-plan, which provides the opportunity to see all three Canadian

teams that are playing in a given month. P4 noted that the mini-plan strategy has worked

well, with more young families purchasing the weekender package.

The package strategy has fostered attendance growth and increased revenue.

Sponsorships. The strategy of P3’s organization is to be aggressive in how the

organization sells sponsorships. According to P3, significant amounts of cross-over

revenue opportunities exist because they are one of the top five or six busiest buildings in

North America. P4 argued that they cannot just decide that digital marketing has the

highest ROI and that they will only do digital advertising to boost attendance at the door.

Instead, they must continue to be creative and innovative, while determining the most

appropriate methods to track the success of the unique strategies that they employ rather

than trying a strategy for one year and concluding that it did not work. Three out of the

five participants mentioned that when an organization builds a brand, the organization

must be consistent year after year, track the success, and create a sustainable product. The

participants’ views regarding sponsorship strategies substantiated the findings in the

literature that online sponsorships can provide a greater return for corporate sponsors if

they align with the core demographics for a given product or service (see Kim et al.,

2017).

The theme of market segmentation is consistent with Porter’s five forces model

especially the bargaining power of the buyers. According to Porter (2008), the bargaining

power of buyers refers to the influence consumers have on price, quality of service, and

products. According to Mahat (2019), the customer demonstrates bargaining power by

demanding better quality products or services. All participants mentioned the purchasing

power of the fans, customer service, and diversity of products as areas of emphasis.

Wellner and Lakotta (2020) indicated that the bargaining power of buyers can also

determine the organization’s profit potential. The buyers can be powerful in price

negotiation, purchase from standardized products, and have extensive product knowledge

(Wellner & Lakotta, 2020).

The organizational members must be visible in the community at local events,

such as town festivals, charity races, and other special events. The Sun Belt teams cannot

rely on the history and tradition of the team and should focus on in-person relationships

in the community. Four of the five participants indicated that this is what their teams are

doing to represent their team in the community and increase their brand recognition. The

findings indicate that their organization has a greater influence on buyer fan base

development and are on the front lines of building developing that fan base.

Four out of five participants indicated that their strategies are beginning to pay off

with a growth in the people involved in hockey in the following categories: youth

programs, street hockey teams, families coming to games, female fans, and television

viewership. P3 and P5 noted that they now see more people in the stands, which leads to

increased game revenue, household engagement, social media engagement, and Hispanic

community involvement.

Theme 3: Promotion

One common message shared by all participants was that promotion positively

influences revenue. Each participant mentioned that traditional marketing methods have

become costly and ineffective, and the results of traditional promotions are difficult to

measure. As part of the document review for this study, I reviewed the Facebook, Twitter,

and LinkedIn pages for each participant and team. Both P5 and P4 stated that they use

digital advertising in addition to their focused in-person, “boots-on-the-ground”

marketing approach, and indicated that digital advertising refers to social media

advertising, including Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and Google Search. P1, P2, and P3

indicated that they also use traditional advertising via television, radio, and directly to the

home. All participants used Instagram for promotions, and P3 highlighted the

promotional effectiveness of a new daily post on Instagram. According to Balan and Rege

(2017), business leaders encourage customer engagement on social media when asking

for product feedback, posting videos, and frequently communicating with their

customers.

Social media promotion and marketing. Emphasizing that the organization tries

to understand the audience, P3 stated that, even if a fan is a single-game purchaser, the

fan is captured in the CRM system database. This CRM application provides an effective

method to continue to reach out to the fans regarding future games and special

promotions. All participants mentioned that they try to persuade single-game purchasers

to upgrade their purchases to increase revenue. This goal is pursued by encouraging fans

to purchase at least another single-game ticket at a higher premium seat price and

eventually persuading them to become season ticket holders. Malshe and Al-Khatib

(2017) opined that effective promotional strategies lure consumers to purchase more

products, help business leaders earn a good reputation in the community, and enhance the

performance of a business. Thus, the sustainability and survival of a business depend on

the marketing approaches adopted to promote company products and services.

All participants mentioned the importance of analytics that provides information

to ensure that organizations are appropriately targeting the right people. All participants

indicated that they now use much more digital social media advertising than in the past.

According to P3, “this has been the biggest shift in strategy in how they are increasing

revenues and that every team is trying to go more digital.” The participants’ views aligned

with the research findings that indicate that sports teams can listen to and understand

fans’ needs, respond accordingly, and create value for consumers through social media

(see Abeza et al., 2019). P5 explained that the advertising promise of social media is that

when a customer attends a game, the attendee will have a good time and be entertained.

All participants indicated that they have worked strenuously on making the fan

experience a great deal of fun. According to Barnes (2017), satisfaction is an intensely

positive emotional state, and customer delight is an experience that exceeds customer

expectations.

Using technology is important in nurturing fans after their initial socialization.

Engaging fans online is a way to use social media to bring those people together and

provide them a platform to express their fandom. All participants indicated that digital

marketing or a social media strategy is beneficial to organizations because they can

become more familiar with their fans. Such strategies provide the capability for

organizations to track customer activity and more effectively monitor the revenue stream.

To remain competitive, teams must configure their businesses to leverage social media.

The participants’ responses aligned with the findings from previous studies, revealing that

teams use social media as a two-way interaction opportunity: establishing relationships

with consumers and fostering a brand community (see Andrews & Ritzer, 2018). P3, P4,

and P5 noted that they can observe how a fan is engaged via social media advertising by

tracking when the fan saw the ad, clicked on the ad, and progressed through the

purchasing process. All of the participants mentioned the importance of capturing

customer information and using that information to proactively contact customers using

email or texts. This finding is consistent with the need to develop an appealing sports

website, as 87.9% of North American consumers use the Internet to communicate,

connect, and search for products and services (see Kim et al., 2017).

The strategy of P4’s organization for digital and social media marketing includes

Facebook ads, Google AdWords, and Instagram ads. P3 mentioned that the organization

has prioritized social media that allows them to target fans who are attending games. P3

noted that about half of the home games are typically geo-zone restricted that restricts the

purchases of tickets to certain zip codes in the primary and secondary markets. This

restriction allows Team3 to control who purchases tickets. P3 acknowledged that this

strategy is unique, but it works for them because they prioritize having their fans at the

games that provides sustainable revenue. P4 stated that the strategy for growth and

increasing revenue is heavily focused on the organization’s hockey development and

grassroots marketing.

P3 noted that it is now simpler to determine the influence of social media or

marketing and whether the organization is receiving a good return on the investments. All

participants acknowledged that a dramatic change has occurred over the past five or six

years in technology, digital social media, and marketing. The e-market analytical tools

that are included in Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have made tracking marketing

more effective. The tracking capability can indicate what item was opened, what the

customer clicked on, and whether that activity resulted in a sale. According to Musonera

and Weber (2018), social media has enhanced the customer’s negotiating power through

customer feedback either positive or negative. P5 mentioned that an additional strategy

that the organization has begun to adopt is to target the games that are a challenge on a

Tuesday night and are a bigger draw, such as against Vancouver, Toronto, or Chicago. In

the past, the organization ignored such games unless they were on the weekend. They did

not market or promote these games. However, they now use the marketing capability of

digital advertising and social media, resulting in record revenues for the past two seasons.

P3 argued that digital marketing is efficient since it facilitates marketers’ jobs and

can demonstrate the need to adjust promotional activities quickly. P3 noted that the

organization can segment the population into several elements, such as by purchasing

demographics, day of the week, or even whether a customer is a music fan. The

organization also knows whether someone opened an e-mail on the front end and how

they obtained tickets. P3 stated the following:

Metrics are in place so we follow that from the perspective of are you selling

more Saturday tickets on straight from Ticket Master than you are off of

Instagram on a Tuesday; maybe the college special on a Tuesday is working based

on demographics of people that are buying.

P5 explained that when the organization spends a million dollars in advertising,

they can observe that the single-game tickets are up by half a million dollars and the

season ticket sales are up by over a million dollars. P2 added that, from the obtained

information, they can develop an ROI on that individual advertising program. P3 noted

that much more analysis can be performed very quickly compared to using a direct

mailer, newspaper ad, or television commercial. According to P4, “in digital social media

marketing advertising, you can see six times your return on digital advertising as far as

ROI is concerned compared to the other more traditional advertising.” This finding

supports the argument that marketers can better allocate resources, motivate contact

strategies, and target campaigns to send the right message (see Morris & Wakefield,

2018).

Traditional promotion and marketing. P5 noted that the organization does some

print advertising, but the organization is not a big fan of print advertising because of its

continued decline. P5’s organization is not spending much money on print media because

it is not receiving a great return on the marketing dollars. For example, P1 explained this

in more detail:

What we have done is to make very strategic decisions on where we spend our

marketing dollars and what that has meant for us is to move away from traditional

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media assets such as billboards, television commercials, and radio and print, and

we are moving into making investments into business intelligence, database

marketing, social media, and digital advertising.

According to Konert and Kaiser (2017), the most effective promotional strategies

are (a) right-time delivery, (b) targeting a specific demographic and audience, (c) using

appropriate communication channels, and (d) focusing on the customers’ interests. P4

noted that the organization does not want to exclusively use digital advertising without

grassroots marketing efforts. Achen (2019) indicated that while marketing on social

media networks should not replace other channels, it can supplement an already strong

marketing communications plan. P4 explained that it can be difficult to understand why

someone visits the team home page. The visit could result from several sources, such as

(a) a targeted digital ad, (b) a billboard, or (c) attending a promotional event. The new

social media promotional tools have fostered active media consumers (see Armstrong et

al., 2016). Three of the five participants stated that they make the first touchpoint with

prospective fans and are as visible as possible in the community. P5 shared that another

strategy that has helped is attendance at community events. In one year, the organization

attended about 170 events, transforming from invisible to present in many locations in the

community.

Four of the five participants indicated that their organizations have changed how

they interact with potential customers. This finding is consistent with the argument that

business leaders can outperform their competitors and achieve long-term business

sustainability by implementing effective promotional approaches (Fier & Pooser, 2016).

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P5 explained that, in the past, the organization put the team representatives behind a table,

and the fans had to approach them while separated by this table. In contrast, now, “they

are initiating the contact with the fan. This is done by proactively seeking the fan out, or

being part of the crowd, rather than waiting for them to come to them.” The majority of

the participants mentioned that they now reach out to fans and no longer take a passive

marketing approach but are aggressive in reaching out to the fans. This approach leads to

a positive experience dynamic that could lead to a future purchase. The participants’

views are aligned with the findings from previous studies that indicates that

understanding customer engagement behavior and motivation can deepen the

understanding of fan engagement and be a valuable tool for sports marketers (see Manoli,

2018).

Several of the participants elaborated on other marketing strategies that have

helped increase the visibility of hockey in their regions. P4 and P5 shared that they

created a street hockey team, a group of people who travel with their new account

activation group with street hockey, inflatables, mascots, and other hands-on hockey

activities at community events. Each of the participants affirmed that a significant change

in strategy has been the departure from a passive model of waiting for people to come to

them. Both P3 and P5 concluded that waiting for the fan to reach out has not been

sustainable and has not generated the level of revenue needed. The organizations are now

more aggressive with their grassroots marketing. This finding is consistent with the

argument that media, such as television, radio, and newspaper, engage consumers as

passive participants who consume the produced material.

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P5 indicated that the organization reaches people in other ways beyond social

media advertising such as former and current NHL and university hockey players who

played youth hockey in the area. According to P5, these hockey success stories have

helped sell hockey in the region. In addition, P4 noted that the organization frequently

promotes buy one, get one vouchers that help track the revenue sources.

All participants acknowledged that sales and marketing have become much more

sophisticated in the digital social media environment. It is fairly easy for organizations to

understand how the budget is being spent. Another benefit is that they can be agile with

their marketing mix that allows the organizations to move and manipulate dollars across

different digital media opportunities.

The theme of promotion aligns with the conceptual framework of Porter’s five

forces model pertaining to the threat of substitutes, bargaining power of suppliers, and

bargaining power of customers. Promotion can emphasize differentiators in the product

that demonstrate the product is hard to replicate or substitute. Sun Belt NHL teams

complete with sporting events and other entertainment such as movies, concerts, and live

theatre for viewership and revenue. An effective promotion plan provides a mechanism

that attracts spectators and participants. Additionally, a promotion plan can illustrate how

consumers identify with the team. Promotion impacts the bargaining power of suppliers

by demonstrating the quality of the products, availability of tickets, and benefits derived

from the products. Promotion, using social media, could modify the buyer environment

by encouraging interaction between consumers, fans, the brand, and organizations that

impacts the bargaining power of the buyer by providing additional links to the products

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and services available. The promotion theme helps in developing and strengthening the

irreplaceability of the product or service in order to ensure continuous competitiveness

(Zhang et al., 2020).

Theme 4: Unique Value Proposition

All of the participants shared a common theme emerged concerned the

development of a unique value proposition. P1 stated:

As a hockey franchise in a nontraditional market, every day we have to have our

“A” game, because the minute we stop pushing and stop trying to take risks and

big promotions, we could be forgotten. We run as lean from an expense

perspective and resource standpoint but are an effective sports organization as any

out there.

All participants noted that their organization effectively and efficiently manages their

operations to maximize the use of limited resources to be cost-effective. The participants’

views aligned with Porter’s generic strategies for cost leadership as follows; (a) achieving

business sustainability and increasing profitability, (b) obtaining greater than average

returns, and (c) emphasizing price-sensitive or cost-conscious customers (see Porter,

2008). According to Bartunek (2020), a cost leadership strategy involves the organization

winning market share by appealing to cost-conscious or price-sensitive customers.

P3 revealed that the organization must be entertaining and provide the fans with a

good time when they come to games, even if the fans may not have much knowledge

about hockey. P2 affirmed this, stating: “As a sport, the fans know it was fast, they know

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there were hits, there were fights, excitement, and energy and that could permeate that

gap of hockey knowledge.”

P1 shared that Team1 uses dynamic pricing for all tickets. All of the participants’

responses regarding dynamic pricing corroborated the previous findings that suggested

that dynamic pricing is an area in which organizations are committed to investing, in

addition to partnering with food, beverage, and merchandising to increase potential

revenue (see Bouchet et al., 2016). All of the participants mentioned that a half member

package of 21 games, a quarter membership package of 10 games, and a flex package that

allows the customer to pick four games are options. P1 indicated that Team1 is also

experimenting with a subscription-type product. P3’s views echoed those of P1; P3

explained that the organization created many different pricing strategies because the

organization was initially concerned about filling the building and attracting as many

people as possible to attend. This approach affected the revenue, producing low

attendance for some games. The organization shifted away from that model to the model

of offering assorted products for different fans. According to Morgan (2015), Porter’s

Competitive Strategy Theory of the focus strategy includes offering customers unique

service and products in a small segment of the market. This focus strategy aligns with the

participants’ views of providing unique service to their Sun Belt market and links to the

conceptual framework of the research study.

P2 mentioned that having a good experience is fundamental from the second the

fan arrives at the game, throughout the game, to the moment the fan finally leaves the

game. All participants acknowledged that they cannot control what the team does on the

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ice, but they can control the experience and entertainment. P5 shared that the organization

offers renewals to customers who had different packages to encourage them to renew

their current package. At that time, the sales representative encourages customers to

upgrade the purchase. If the fan has a four-game package, then the sales representative

encourages the fan to buy a quarter-season package; if the fan has a quarter package, then

the representative promotes a half-season package. P2 stated the following: I did the best

I could to ensure that before every game that the fan knew where to park, had their

tickets, they were entertained, and the fans were taken care of with the best possible

service with a direct line to P2 if anything comes up.

According to Agnihotri, Gabler, Itani, Jaramillo, and Krush (2017), exceptional

customer service increases the sales volume because customers keep returning. P1, P3,

and P4 explained that the revenue strategy with the season ticket holder plans is to

provide more premium options. P1 noted that the organization has a lounge downstairs

underneath the bleachers for season ticket holders, providing a unique and exclusive

dining experience. In addition, fans can ‘fist-bump’ the players as the players come out

for warm-ups or the game. According to Kramer, Jung, and Burgartz (2016), a

valueadded proposition through service performance is one of the best measures to

combat price erosion.

P3 emphasized that the organization has created a plethora of purchasing options

and tried to add value to the ticket and game experience. All participants indicated that

coming to the game is only one element and that the live entertainment aspect and level

of fun experienced during the game are not always tied to winning or losing. All

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participants indicated that their organizations emphasized the entertainment element and

focused on customer service.

The findings in the current study indicate that service quality and perceived value

through customer satisfaction have a positive effect on customer retention and

profitability (see Zboja et al., 2016). Providing exceptional customer service is directly

bound to the conceptual framework of Porter’s (1980) five forces, specifically the threat

of substitutes, customer power, and competitive rivalry. More extensive interaction with

the customer develops a closer bond between the organization and consumers and allows

the organization to offer exceptional services to their clients (see Braun, Hadwich, &

Bruhn, 2017).

P2 details the organization’s approach to making the very important person area or

business area have more of a country club atmosphere as a social gathering spot with

higher-end food and drinks and easier access to seats. This approach made the area more

of an event and a trending spot before and after the games that generates additional

revenue. P2 argued that innovation is critical to remaining competitive such as the

implementation of digital ticketing. In the past, no professional team had provided digital

ticketing, but now not only is the sports industry using digital ticketing, but every form of

entertainment is moving toward digital ticketing. Team2 was the first to do it, and this

provided a great fan experience. P3 also stated:

Monetizing a single-game purchase revenue and converting it into a higher dollar

ticket or converting it into the next level of seat that has always been the goal. The

single-game ticket buyer is truly really the growth and revenue funnel. This is

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your sales funnel. The new business leads are not just that one single game

purchase but can evolve to the four-game package, then maybe a quarter season,

then moving up to a half-season and a full season.

P3 described that monetizing somebody in the facility, revenues increase in various ways,

such as through selling concessions, merchandise (including jerseys), and experiences

within the facility. Additional revenue items may include a foundation auction, puck

throw, signed game-worn jerseys, or a ride on the Zamboni. Many different methods exist

to capture additional revenue throughout the game. P2 noted that revenue can be obtained

from up-selling unattended seats. Up-selling describes the process whereby a fan comes

to a game on a $20 upper-level seat and is then upgraded for additional money to a better

seat that has gone unsold.

P3 mentioned that discounted ticket pricing and discounts on concessions are

available, which is about 20% off food items. Other strategies to add customer value are

allowing customers into the building earlier and offering themed merchandise giveaway

items for season ticket holders. Six or seven different season ticket holder gifts include a

season kick-off gift, holiday gift, playoff gifts, and summer gifts, which provide the

season ticket holder a better experience. According to Porter (2008), customers who feel

satisfied with services and products provide longevity, especially when sellers

differentiate their products and services. P3 stated:

Another strategy is to provide access to different special events. A season ticket

holder has presale options for any music concert earlier than the normal general

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public. Other premium items are Teamfest, which is a meet and greet with the

players, 2 hours of autographs, and a free concert.

There are different access and segment levels for season ticket holders that add

value. All participants confirmed that they use dynamic pricing for every game of the

year. Dynamic pricing is flexible pricing that shifts based on supply and demand metrics

and the elements that affect supply and demand (see Bouchet et al., 2016). All

participants indicated that they take notice of historic buying, single-game tickets, and

fluctuating ticket prices day to day. The participants’ views substantiated the findings

from the existing research that indicates big data is used to model consumer behavior in

admission-based membership services from initial single-game purchases to a full-season

membership (see Morris & Wakefield, 2018).

There is a science to dynamic pricing. The organizations have business analytics

departments that calculate what they believe the market will sustain for a single-game

ticket price. The analytics can be performed for a Tuesday game against Toronto versus a

Saturday game against Chicago or another Sun Belt team in March. The organizations

pay close attention to what they are pricing against. P3 explained that the organization

always pays attention to ticket prices and that the price is not set once and then not

changed. P3 mentioned that they can change the ticket price using dynamically priced

tickets, be it month-to-month, week-to-week, or day-to-day based on what they observe

regarding the purchasing trend.

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P3 added that the organization completes capital upgrades, such as replacing

seats, replacing the scoreboard, or upgrading their mascot, every couple of years so that

the fans can see improvements. P3 stated:

We try to continually re-invent the wheel of what and who we are by knowing

what are core competencies are and knowing what going to a Team3 game feels like and

how do we keep making it a rowdy, good, fun time, and entertaining. P3 indicated that

the organization tries to focus on ensuring that people are entertained and leverage

giveaways to entice customers to attend. Strategies include promoting a fan foodie night

when everybody with discounted food concessions, a free Zamboni ride lottery,

discounted parking, merchandise discounts, or other items that can encourage people to

make the purchasing decision.

The theme of unique value proposition is consistent with Porter’s focus strategy

including offering customers unique services and products in a discrete segment of the

market (Morgan, 2015). This focus strategy aligns with the participants’ views of

providing unique service to their Sun Belt market and links to the conceptual framework

of the research study. Customers who feel satisfied with services and products provide

longevity, especially when sellers differentiate their products and services (Porter, 2008).

Providing exceptional customer service is directly bound to the conceptual framework of

Porter’s (1980) five forces, specifically the threat of substitutes, customer power, and

competitive rivalry.

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Theme 5: Product Differentiation

All of the participants shared a common viewpoint that organizations must

employ a distinct and efficient product differentiation strategy. P1 and P2 mentioned that

organizations must rely on personal relationships and investments in their sales staff and

customer service associates. All participants indicated that the entire organization must

have a great customer service mindset. According to Jeon and Choi (2017), satisfied

customers tend to remain loyal and patronize the services of a business often, while also

recommending the business to other potential customers. P1 stated, “When we have fans

that become season ticket holders, that we are able to keep them, so they do not come and

go.” P4 indicated, “We have found less and less people wearing the opposing team’s

jersey and a lot more people wearing our jerseys in the arena.” All participants indicated

that the fans are proud to root for the home team.

P1 reported that they sell a full menu of products and that the main product is

labeled the “club” membership that is essentially the branding name for a full-season

ticket holder. To be a club member is to have tickets to all the games with the best seats,

best price, and an elevated experience and entertainment. P1 stated, “We hope the

experience is more than just having tickets to the games.” Season ticket holders are part

of a club that obtains special perks, access to players, special events, and added value.

Those fans who commit to attending every game comprise about 70% of the total ticket

revenue. P3 noted that the season ticket holder plan means the customer pays less for

each ticket than on a single-game basis. The person in the seat next to a season ticket

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holder might be paying $50 to $100 more a game on a single ticket basis versus the full

season.

P3 indicated that the organization has a strategy pertaining to premium and

highdollar products that includes product segmentation and dynamic priced tickets. All

participants mentioned that their organizations they have full-season tickets that are next

to the glass seats and behind the players’ benches. A wide segment of purchasing options

exists, including full season, suites, and single-game, same-day purchases that may

appeal to a young adult who does not have anything else to do at night and who is

impulsive. This person says, “Yes, I want to go to that game, and it is only $25 to get in

the door.” All participants mentioned having a wide variety of ticket plans for people to

purchase and different options for group sales and other items that increase revenues. P5

explained:

They still offer a wide variety of products that appeal to all different levels of their

customer segmentation, from the entry-level buyers to season buyer, from smaller

discretionary dollars to larger amounts, because there is a time frame when we do

not want to stop gaining fans we want to as a brand continue to grow and be

supported in all times.

P4 shared that the organization performs an annual analysis of the customer

demographics because they want to validate that they are employing relevant strategies in

capturing valuable opportunities. According to Taneja, Pryor, and Hayek (2016),

innovation is the primary factor that leads to increasing a company’s visibility,

profitability, and sustainability.

112

P2 argued that the NHL is behind on innovation in general and working in old

traditional ways, such as only offering a full-season ticket without any additional package

options. P2 stated that the NHL is behind other sports in this way. One of the biggest

strategic innovations that Team 2 made was to renovate an old restaurant that was rarely

used and quickly became a location that fans could purchase tickets. P4 mentioned that

one must be willing to think outside of the box. According to Dhochak and Sharma

(2016), leaders require innovative strategies to be competitive and be successful in the

long-term. P4 elaborated that the executives who have failed in the Sun Belt region are

the ones that come in and say, “This is how we did it in [Northern Team A].” According

to P4, this region is not [Northern Team A] and will never be [Northern Team A]. All

participants affirmed that one must be willing to think differently, to be creative and

innovative, and to adjust with the times. Many teams are starting to experience that.

P4 concluded that the organization views the competition more broadly than just

other sports. This stance is key when creating the marketing plan and game presentation

entertainment package. P1 highlighted that their geographic location has many options

that people can use their discretionary spending on entertainment. According to Bolisani

and Bratianu (2018), product differentiation assists in establishing customer loyalty and

mitigates the influence of competition. P3 indicated that merely trying to be the best sport

in town is different from being the most fun and entertaining activity to enjoy in town.

The participants’ views aligned with research findings that stated that strategically

positioning a business within a specific industry or location by developing defenses

against the competition is essential for sustainability (see Salim, 2017). P5 stated:

113

Our strategy is that we try not to compete with the other teams. We are an

entertainment product and so are they. I am more worried about people going to play golf

or selecting another entertainment option. However, we want to be the most entertaining

sports option, so if they decide to attend a sporting event, they think of us and attending a

hockey game. As far as an entertainment standpoint, I am very confident to say ours is the

best in town. There are a lot of other things to do in our area, so that is a challenge for us,

so that can be relevant for us, so we put this on ourselves to be fun and entertaining then

we can become relevant. The threat of substitutes refers to the consumer’s ability to select

an alternative business or buy another product or service. According to Milimu and

Theuri (2017), a business owner must evaluate the product or service differentiation and

switching costs for consumers. Dessain and Fishman (2017) argued that the higher the

switching cost, the less likely a consumer is to use another service or product. P5 stated

that the strategy is not to compete with the other teams because both organizations are an

entertainment product. P5 was more worried about people playing golf or selecting

another entertainment option.

P2 argued that providing digital ticketing offers the fan a better experience and

makes the experience better every year. Company leaders who focus on developing

innovative strategies to create value for their customers manage to stay ahead of the

competition (see Kachouie, Mavondo, & Sands, 2018). P3 stated that the objective is

ensuring the fans are taken care of and are having the best possible experience. P4

contended:

114

You are always going to go through this growing pain period where you are

battling against old mentalities. You are always going to have the traditionalist

hockey fan who wants things to be a certain way and does not want things to

change.

The top strategies that P2 used in achieving ticket sales were communication and

the provision of exceptional customer service. P3 contended that the best approach is to

offer a high level of customer service to all season ticket holders. P5 indicated that the

organizational strategy is all about touchpoints that equates to e-mail and texts from their

sales representatives to the customers. According to Santouridis and Veraki (2017),

communicating constantly and establishing a trustful relationship with consumers and

suppliers are essential for long-term sustainability and growth. The strategy of

personalized service as a competitive advantage also aligns with Porter’s strategy of

product differentiation of indicating the business is unique, emphasizing customer

satisfaction, and gaining the loyalty of the customers. According to Bartunek (2020), a

differentiated product strategy is appropriate when the target customer segment is not

price-sensitive, the market is saturated, customers have specific needs, and the company

has unique resources and capabilities that enable it to satisfy these needs. The findings

from my study indicated that the Sun Belt market is not price-sensitive, is saturated,

customers have specific needs, and the teams have unique capabilities to satisfy these

needs.

The theme of product differentiation is consistent with Porter’s differentiation

strategy, which, according to Hales and McLarney (2017), is organizational leaders

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demonstrating how their business is unique, emphasizing customer service and gaining

customer loyalty. The bargaining power of suppliers refers to the influence suppliers have

on charging higher prices, limiting quality or services, or shifting costs to industry

participants (Oyadomari, Silva, Neto, & Diehl, 2017). The uniqueness of their business,

customer service, and customer loyalty were mentioned by all five participants and aligns

with Porter’s model for competitive strategy. There is alignment of the current study with

the theories of Porter’s five forces model (Porter, 1980) and competitive strategy model

(Porter, 2008). According to Converse and Reinhard (2016), using Porter’s five forces

analysis, could help a leader to evaluate the effects of a business problem could have on

achieving a competitive advantage.

Applications to Professional Practice

Sun Belt NHL organizational leaders may benefit from this study by expanding

their knowledge of strategies employed to increase revenues. The results of the study

could assist NHL Sun Belt team organizational leaders when developing strategies to

address how to acquire new fans. The application to professional practice could be the

development of segmentation of the target markets such as families, young fans, and

Hispanics. The relevance to improved business practice is effective communication and

customer service, customer relationship management, and efficient promotional strategy.

The research findings could be used to help organizational leaders address saturation of

their current fan base by creating new segments of fans. This is relevant to improved

business practice to ensure revenue growth and ensure long-term sustainability of the

team. The findings of the study could contribute to professional business practices by

116

providing practical strategies to grow and sustain the business. Application to

professional practice could also combat competition and overcome product substitution

by introducing either the differentiation, the cost leadership, or focus strategy.

Additional application to professional practice may be that northern NHL teams

could be leaving a great deal of revenue unexplored without using these strategies. New

or growing leagues, such as Major League Soccer and the National Lacrosse League,

could also consider applying these business applications when trying to develop a larger

fan base in relation to the NFL, MLB, and NBA. The findings are relevant to sport

organizations such as NASCAR, with strong regional fan bases, that could use the

findings to develop a larger national presence.

The findings align with evidence from the reviewed literature and expand the

knowledge gained from previous studies. The knowledge gained from this research could

provide NHL Sun Belt leaders with a holistic view of revenue strategies that could

enhance and increase long-term sustainable revenue sources. Guenzi, De Luca, and Spiro

(2016) indicated that the hallmarks of long-term business sustainability are: (a) proficient

relationship management, (b) good communication, (c) high quality customer service, (d)

efficient promotional strategies, and (e) the right teammates onboard. Additionally, the

findings for the study could contribute to professional business practice by illustrating

practical strategies to grow and sustain revenue.

Implications for Social Change

The implications for positive social change of this study include assisting the local

economy by creating employment opportunities, economic revitalization, and economic

117

growth. According to Lee (2018), the sustainability of business activities may also have

many effects on other stakeholders, such as suppliers of products and services, and might

contribute to the promotion of other social activities. Community leaders could use the

taxes that Sun Belt NHL teams pay to provide social amenities and infrastructure, such as

libraries, roads, hospitals, housing, and schools. He, Standen, and Coetzer (2017) opined

that a common thread among business leaders is the emphasis on the commitment to

strengthening society and the community. Sustainable businesses could also lead to team

longevity that may lead to increased meaningful employment to enhance the quality of

life for local members of the community.

Recommendations for Action

The findings of this study are examples of strategies that some NHL Sun Belt

organizational leaders are using to increase revenues and provided the basis for the

following recommendations. The first recommendation is for Sun Belt NHL leaders to

develop a holistic strategy that could be shared universally with other Sun Belt teams and

all 31 NHL teams. Such a strategy could consist of sharing information and the successful

implementation of promotional programs that increased revenues. The second

recommendation is to combine social media and digital advertising with in-person

promotion and events. This strategy could show the linkage of the NHL team with the

community. The third recommendation is that the organizational leaders could implement

an effective strategy with great emphasis on the family that could have a positive impact

on the saturation of the hockey market in their geographic region. This strategy could

encourage the development of women and children’s engagement in the hockey

118

community. The fourth recommendation is to stimulate interaction between the hardcore

or traditional hockey fan and the new fan. This could develop a sense of community

between the new and the more tenured hockey fan. This strategy could expand the market

into non-traditional markets such as the Hispanic community. The fifth recommendation

is to stimulate interaction with the community in regard to hockey throughout the entire

year. This strategy is about being visible in the community the entire year, and not only

during hockey season. The sixth recommendation is the expansion of hockey product

alternatives. This strategy could include innovative products like ticket sharing programs,

a subscription membership service, and ticket trading options.

The findings and recommendations will be shared directly with the study

participants. The study will be available in the ProQuest database for researchers, Sun

Belt team leaders, NHL leaders, hockey fans, and students to review. According to Rose

and Flynn (2018), researchers should disseminate the research findings to influence

managerial and professional practices. One of the participants requested permission to use

the results of this study to develop a consolidated revenue review that they indicated had

never been conducted. Three of the participants requested a consolidated overview of the

findings of my research study. Additionally, several of the participants indicated I should

do a presentation to Sun Belt team leadership on the research findings. I also intend to

convert this study into an academic paper suitable for publication in journals to make the

findings available to a broader range of business leaders. My objective is to submit

articles for publication to NHL Sun Belt organizations and seek opportunities to share the

results at meetings and conferences.

119

Recommendations for Further Research

Little research about Sun Belt NHL teams’ strategies for increasing revenue have

been conducted. There appears to be a need for further research about Sun Belt NHL team

strategies for increasing revenues. Additionally, further studies could also include

researchers with more research experience. Limitations identified were that participants

could provide information that may contain bias and that the participants may not be

willing to discuss proprietary strategies. These limitations appeared to be adequately

addressed by the participants being fully transparent and candid on the strategies

implemented.

Researchers aiming to repeat this study could recruit a larger study population

comprising a broader demographic and geographic representation of the teams located in

the Sun Belt. Another recommendation is that researchers could conduct further studies

beyond the Sun Belt NHL teams. Because Sun Belt NHL revenue is not a widely

researched topic, it could be beneficial to review the entire NHL in every market and

region. Studying all the NHL teams could provide information to the league as a whole.

Additionally, further insight into the research question could offer nationwide NHL

results to compare to this study. Future research should be done to obtain a better

understanding of and insight into the revenues of other NHL teams to help the league and

teams improve the game, gain an understanding of customer saturation, and brands.

Conducting a study using a quantitative survey or mixed-method research could

also offer more insight. Researchers could use the study findings to develop a survey to

collect types of data that could assist with the proactive development of

120

revenueproducing strategies. Future researchers could use a different research design,

such as ethnography or a phenomenology design, to identify and explore further revenue

and sustainability strategies. Additionally, mixed-method studies are useful in expanding

the sample population in the Sun Belt market relating to consumer behavior on key

performance indicators. Future researchers should examine the interaction between

traditional in-person marketing and social media that could identify consumers’ behaviors

among the Sun Belt hockey population.

Reflections

My experience with the DBA doctoral study process served as a great learning

and growth opportunity. The DBA program was the most demanding yet rewarding

learning experience I have had thus far. I gained knowledge and understanding of the

revenue sources for Sun Belt NHL teams. The research method used to obtain the

information required meticulous work and diligence. During the study, I became

acquainted with the concept of research bias and did all I could to minimize bias. I

ensured that my preferences did not influence the research findings. The findings from

the study, aligned with the data collected from the audio-recorded interviews, interview

transcripts, and notes.

During this research, finding qualified participants to commit to an interview date

was challenging. This challenge was magnified by the effects of COVID 19 and the

postponement of the NHL regular season in the spring of 2020. Persuading potential

participants to take time away from their busy schedules while managing the effects of

the virus was a substantial challenge. Nonetheless, once I found the appropriate

121

participants, the participants were delighted to share their experiences engagingly and

pleasantly.

Prior to the DBA program, I had no experience conducting research. During my

doctoral journey, I gained experience in the uniqueness of academic research. Some of

the skills I acquired from this experience included using different data collection

techniques, selecting and applying various research designs, and ensuring reliability and

validity in the research.

I also reflect on the words of the hockey great Wayne Gretzky: “You miss 100%

of the shots you never take,” and “Skate to where the puck is going, not where it has

been.” In completion of this study, my thinking changed about the topic of how the Sun

Belt teams could increase revenue. My thinking shifted from concentrating on the

hardcore and life-long transplanted hockey fans to the belief that long-term sustainable

local fans, such as families, females, young kids, and the Hispanic community need to be

the target audience. I was pleasantly surprised by the findings from the five participants.

At times, the workload appeared insurmountable; however, I persevered. There

was persistent support and encouragement from the one I love most, Rosemary, my wife.

The process has equipped me with tenacity and resolve. While I held no preconceived

views on the possible results of this study, completing the last section was exciting

because I understood the research process better as a completed product. Furthermore, the

results of this study motivated my interest in the NHL to continue obtaining additional

information regarding the sustainability of professional hockey in the Sun Belt.

122

Progressing in my career, I will take the lessons learned at Walden University with me on

my professional and personal journey.

Conclusion

In my qualitative multiple case study, I explored the strategies that NHL Sun Belt

organizational leaders use to increase revenues. In conclusion, the participants

emphasized the importance of developing new fans, additional customer product

offerings, increasing market segments, and growing their local markets. My contribution

to this study is to provide NHL Sun Belt leaders with more information to sustain their

success. A key learning from the study was that Sun Belt teams should not rely on the

traditional hockey fan to sustain or grow revenue. The traditional or hardcore hockey fan

involvement has reached saturation and the success of the Sun Belt teams and NHL

holistically could depend on developing and nurturing a new generation of fans. The

findings of this study also indicated that the NHL Sun Belt teams should continue to

expand their market segments, use social media in conjunction with personal community

involvement, and provide outstanding customer service. Additional findings indicated

that the Sun Belt NHL teams should continue to innovate, expand customer products, and

understand that the team is in the entertainment business not just the business of sport.

The findings of this study could create positive social outcomes and improve the

longevity of the Sun Belt NHL teams.

123

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