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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
The global competition and the growing number of international assignees have
increased the need to understand why some expatriate managers are more successful than
others in foreign countries (Templer, 2010). According to Gonzalez and Chakraborty
(2014), expatriates serve as knowledge vehicles for corporations. As the need for
international management grows, the use of expatriate managers increases in foreign
countries (Causin & Ayoun, 2011). The term, expatriate, is used in international
management as an employee with a different type of foreign work assignment (Zhang,
2013). Expatriate managers are considered an important part of the business; with their
vision and knowledge, they help their organizations to be successful in foreign countries.
Expatriate managers are crucial for organizations due to their experiences and
skills. According to Zhang (2013), expatriate managers bring to the host country their
experiences, knowledge, technical skills, and commitment. According to Templer (2010),
the success of the expatriate is based on indicators, such as engagement, job satisfaction,
and leadership. Zhang wrote that managing global assignments effectively is crucial for
businesses to be competitive internationally. Top management in corporations use
expatriate managers in international assignments for several reasons: (a) technical
competence, (b) management development, and (c) control. According to Causin and
Ayoun (2011), there is a need for managers with these competencies in foreign countries
because there are not enough experienced managers in the host country. Possessing
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technical knowledge and expertise are requirements for top management in corporations,
especially when they transfer their operations to foreign countries.
Technical knowledge and commitment are the most important competencies
required of expatriates during foreign assignments (Templer, 2010). Expatriates who
have been successful in their international assignments considered that the cross-cultural
training programs are an important process that prepared them to live and work in a host
country. According to Kataria and Sethi (2013), successful training and learning depend
on a systematic approach that involves assessment, program design, and complete
evaluation. Santoso and Loosemore (2013) indicated that successful expatriates in
overseas roles have relationship skills, integrity, curiosity, maturity, cognitive, flexibility,
and networking skills. Cousin and Ayoun (2013) indicated that successful expatriate
managers have strategy awareness, adaptability, sensitivity, financial knowledge, and
marketing experience. Moreover, many expatriate managers who are successful in their
assignments understand the language of the host country in addition to nonverbal cues,
such as body language and facial expression (Malie & Akir, 2012).
The success of the expatriates also is measured by their cross-cultural intelligence.
According to Zhang (2013), a person who possesses cross-cultural intelligence is a
multifaceted individual with the ability to adapt effectively to a new culture. Ramalu,
Rose, Uli, and Kumar (2012) indicated that acquiring cross-cultural intelligence is
essential to the experience and education of expatriate managers.
Expatriates who have been successful have not only cultural intelligence, but also
have emotional and social intelligence (Ramalu et al., 2012). Expatriates are emotionally
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and socially successful because they can manage any setting in the culture. In this
process, expatriates can change from one cultural environment to another. According to
Ramalu et al. (2012), cultural intelligence can be used to predict the attitudes and
behavior of expatriates when working on international assignments. This competency is
important for expatriate managers because they can work effectively across cultures and
can guarantee the success of their international assignment.
Besides cultural intelligence, there are other factors that are essential for the
success of expatriate managers in the host country. According to Zhang (2013), there are
four factors that lead to the success of the expatriates in the international assignments:
understand the cultural knowledge, understand the knowledge structure of the culture,
understand motivation capability, and understand the behavior of the culture. These four
factors are a complement of all the attributes by expatriates with cultural intelligence.
Moreover, these factors help the expatriates to adapt and be successful in the host
country.
The most important factor in an expatriate’s success is cultural knowledge.
According to Caligiuri (2013), successful leaders must have cultural knowledge. There
are three types of cultural knowledge that the leader will use to adapt to the culture
difference. Cultural minimization is how the expatriate controls any cultural difference
and cultural integration, which is where the expatriate collaborates across the culture.
Caligiuri indicated that this cultural knowledge allows the expatriate managers to be
successful in their assignments. With cultural knowledge, expatriate managers can be
more effective in working with cross-cultural teams, and this will improve their
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performance, which is the reflection of the success of the expatriate managers because
they control and coordinate the assets of the organizations (Bonache & Noethen, 2014).
According to Bonache and Noethen (2014), the most common measurement of successful
assignments for corporations is the completion of the assignment. The assignment
completion by the expatriate manager positively impacts not only for the corporations,
but also the host country where these expatriates have worked and used their knowledge.
Another factor for success is the adjustment to the host country. Ramalu et al.
(2012) indicated that adjustment is a key factor for the success of the expatriates in the
international assignment. Zhang (2013) found a relationship between the expatriates’
adjustment and job performance. Zhang claimed that the expatriates who adjust to the
cultural environment increase their performance on their job. This adjustment helps the
expatriates to reduce the stress and be comfortable in the host country. According to
Zhang, adjustments have four strategies, such as integration, assimilation, separation, and
marginalization. These four strategies are essential for the adjustment of the expatriates
(Zhang, 2013
Personality traits are important for the success of expatriate managers. Bhatti,
Battour, Ismail, and Sundaram (2013) wrote that expatriates are successful due to their
personality traits. Bhatti et al. indicated that successful expatriates have positive
personality traits, such as extroversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and
neuroticism. Having positive personality traits will increase the performance of expatriate
managers. Bhatti et al. indicated that personality traits influence the job performance of
the expatriates. Moreover, Bhatti et al. stated that expatriates with these personality traits
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can build good relationships, achieve their goals, improve their performance, and get
promoted. To be successful in foreign countries, expatriates need to be culturally
adjustable (Bhatti et al., 2013), and this is another personality trait that expatriate
managers must have to adapt to a host country. They must understand the host country,
culture, and be ready to perform their work.
Moreover, expatriate managers with positive personality traits are better able to
adapt to the host country. Caligiuri (2013) indicated that expatriates with personality
traits are better prepared to work on international assignments because they can adapt to
the work in the host country. Caligiuri indicated that managers with positive personality
traits could (a) influence the ability of the expatriates to perform and (b) accelerate the
cross-cultural competencies of expatriates. Caligiuri established that expatriate managers
who are extroverted interact better with people because they are open to communication,
ask the right questions, and are patient, which improves the relationship and collaboration
with the host team. Also, expatriate managers with higher levels of openness to new
experiences search for new ways of doing things and are more comfortable with cross-
cultural situations (Caligiuri, 2013). Bhatti et al. (2013) indicated that personality traits,
which are also called the “Big Five,” allow the expatriate to help cross-cultural teams to
meet their goals in their overseas assignment. These five factors help the expatriates to
adjust to their host country.
The success of expatriate assignments is important to corporations (Gonzalez &
Chakraborty, 2014). Gonzalez and Chakraborty (2013) indicated that the success of the
expatriates is dependent on their ability to transfer their knowledge to the host country,
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which increases the performance of the host team. According to Gonzalez and
Chakraborty, managing, building the structure, helping in the implementation of the
operational function, and solving problem are the four primary reasons to transfer
expatriates to foreign countries. Gonzalez and Chakraborty wrote that the learning
process is another factor in their success in foreign countries. The learning experiences of
expatriates in their assignment can help leaders in developing a cognitive process to learn
and be agile leaders. During the learning process, expatriate managers can improve their
leadership and performance, which enhances their success in their international
assignment.
Researchers have noted that for expatriates to be successful in their international
assignment they need cultural sensitivity. Cultural sensitivity is defined as an awareness
and acceptance of other cultures (Buchtel, 2013). Buchtel (2013) claimed that knowledge
of cultural differences is required to acquire cultural sensitivity. Expatriates with cultural
sensitivity are more successful in their assignments because they adapt to the host
country faster (Bhatti, Sundram, & Hee, 2012). Expatriates need to have the ability to
adjust to different cultural processes to be successful. The success of the expatriates
depends on how corporations have prepared them to assume the responsibility to lead
cross-cultural teams or international business outside the U.S. territory. This success is
measured throughout the expatriates’ performance when they complete their assignments.
In this study, I explored the shared life experiences of expatriate managers from
the Dominican Republic and analyzed their success while managing cross-cultural teams.
These expatriate managers were exposed to different cultural challenges and were
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successful in their assignments. However, there are a higher number of expatriates who
have failed their assignments.
The Dominican Republic is an island located in the Caribbean region commonly
called Hispaniola, which shares its territory with Haiti. The Dominican Republic is the
second largest island in the Caribbean, and its estimated population is 10 million people
(Dapena & Ortega, 2014). The industrialization and diversification of the Dominican
Republic started in 1988, and this accelerated the economy of the island. The growth of
the manufacturing process in the free zones improved the economy and led to an increase
in the workforce. Free zones are areas or sections that the Dominican Republic
government established for international businesses to build their facilities. The purpose
of these free zones is to reduce imports and provide zero taxes, relaxed regulations and
restrictions, lower labor costs, and convenient access to shipping (Dapena & Ortega,
2014). In these free zones, companies such as food processing, chemical corporations,
textiles, nonmetallic minerals, and medical devices are typically located.
Several U.S. manufacturing companies have located their companies in the
Dominican Republic, such as GE, Baxter, B Braun, Edwards Lifesciences, Abbott, and
Ethicon due to the geographical location and low labor costs. These companies have high
volume manufacturing operations with advanced technology. All of these companies
have expatriate managers running their operations day-to-day. These expatriate managers
provide technical knowledge to the local employees. These expatriate managers were
successful because they received the support of their corporations and were able to adapt
to the culture.
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There are several positive outcomes that the expatriates in the Dominican
Republic have accomplished. These expatriates were able to manage complex projects
with their cross-cultural teams and transfer technical knowledge to the host team. The
knowledge transfer is the key to the success of the organization. Most U.S. corporations
that have transferred their operations to the Dominican Republic have relied on their
managers, due to their technical knowledge to manage the cross-cultural teams in the host
country.
The movement of U.S. manufacturing to foreign countries has created changes in
the workplace that has led top management to rely on their managers (Chen, Kirkman,
Kim, Farh, & Tangirala, 2010). However, this reliance has created a problem for top
management in corporations due to the inability of expatriate managers to manage cross-
cultural teams (Yuxiang & Hyungmin, 2013). Cross-cultural teams bring different
challenges, such as language, education level, skills, communication, and trust. It is
important that top management and expatriates identify, understand, and respond to these
cultural challenges. Dong and Liu (2010) wrote that many organizations are conducting
business internationally, and few of these organizations understand the cultural
challenges to managing cross-cultural teams. Many of these organizations have made
investments in foreign countries and have failed because they did not understand the
culture.
Expatriate managers and employees who are unprepared to meet the challenges in
a foreign country fail their mission (Mansour & Wood, 2010). Mansour and Wood (2010)
indicated “the challenges to enable people to work effectively across cultures have forced
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multinational companies to provide their expatriates with adequate cross-cultural
training” (p. 382). However, top management in corporations has raised the question of
whether these cross-cultural training programs prepare the expatriates to operate in
foreign countries (Mansours & Wood, 2010). The results of this study may help top
management in corporations understand the importance of cross-cultural training.
This chapter contains the following elements: (a) background of the study, (b)
problem statement, (c) purpose, (d) research question, (e) conceptual framework, (f)
nature of the study, (g) definition of terms, (h) assumptions, (i) delimitations, (j)
limitations, (k) significance of the study, and (l) summary.
Background of the Study
Cross-cultural training programs are important for expatriate managers to
effectively manage cross-cultural teams and be successful in the host country. Expatriate
managers face many management problems, which they can only address if they are
properly prepared through cross-cultural training (Ching, Ko, & Yang, 2011). These
cross-cultural training programs are used to train the expatriate managers to be effective
in the host country. Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) defined cross-cultural training as a
program designed to prepare individuals to handle an assignment. Also, cross-cultural
training provides expatriate managers with an environment to interact with the foreign
team. Misra (2012) indicated that managers should be given training on cultural
differences so that there are smooth interactions with employees in the host country.
Moreover, Mansour and Wood (2010) stated that expatriate development and training
programs are critical to the growth and performance of expatriates. Expatriate managers
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who have not received adequate training from their organizations may not be able to
achieve business goals, which define their success or failure in their assignment.
There are several reasons why expatriate managers fail their international
assignment. Mansour and Wood (2010) noted that the failure of expatriates and the
termination of their assignments are due to poor cross-cultural training. Moreover,
Mansour and Wood noted that expatriates who are unprepared to meet the challenges in a
foreign country fail their mission, and this is costly to the organization. According to
Yuxiang and Hyungmin (2013), the average cost per failure was estimated between
$300,000 and $1,000,000 annually per expatriate. Many corporations do not implement
cross-cultural training for several reasons, which may affect the success of the expatriate
manager. There is a lack of research on effective training to identify a relationship
between productivity and quality (Kontoghiorghes, 2001). Black and Mendenhall (1990)
mentioned that corporations do not implement cross-cultural training because they lack a
systematic approach to training. With a lack of consistency for training programs,
organizations continue to believe that the training programs will not be effective for their
expatriate managers. However, Black and Mendenhall claimed that corporations may not
provide cross-cultural training based on the assumption that good managers are effective
in any place. Decision makers may conclude that cross-cultural training is not needed or
justified (Black & Mendenhall, 1990, p. 513). Through the identification of methods to
improve the effectiveness of expatriate managers, I could demonstrate to top management
in corporations that cross-cultural training is necessary to improve the effectiveness of
expatriate managers.
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Problem Statement
There are several reasons why multinational corporations operate out of U.S.
territory. Maertz, Hassan, and Magnusson (2009) claimed that globalization and the
liberalization of trade and services in many parts of the world have created an opportunity
for multinational corporations to operate in a diverse geographical environment.
However, many of these relocations have impacted the economy of the United States.
These relocations have impacted the salaries and jobs of citizens of the United States.
Spence (2011) established that relocating some parts of the international supply chain
have affected the price of goods, jobs, and wages in the United States. However, these
movements are due to economics, new regulations, higher costs of a labor force, society,
and government laws, which have resulted in transferring operations to other countries
that provide a lower cost of production. These forces prompted many companies to adopt
policies of outsourcing their manufacturing operations to Latin American and Asian
countries.
U.S. companies move their operations to foreign countries for many reasons.
According to Kumar and Arbi (2008), in the past decade, many U.S. manufacturers have
moved their operations to foreign countries due to attractive tax policies and cheap labor
costs. Meanwhile, several companies have decided to move back their manufacturing
operations to the United States. Ellram, Tate, and Petersen (2013) noted that a number of
reasons have driven this decision, such as the rising cost of fuel in transportation, an
increase in the cost of labor in low-cost countries, slow supply chain, currency valuation,
and theft of intellectual properties. This movement back to the United States may also be
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due to globalization where foreign citizens are better informed and are requesting more
benefits and a higher quality of job.
Companies that choose to keep their operations overseas depend on the quality of
their leaders. According to Reilly and Karounos (2009), successful oversea businesses
depend on effective leadership. Large companies, such as Baxter Medical Devices,
Johnson and Johnson, Intel, Motorola, GE Corporation, HP, Dell, Apple, and Guidant,
have adopted different methods to help expatriate managers to improve the quality of
their leadership when dealing with cross-cultural teams. Baxter, Johnson and Johnson,
GE Corporation, and Guidant have adopted training programs on personal skills and
human rights, while Intel, HP, Dell, and Apple have established a rotational plan in
foreign countries to study people, business, and traditions. According to Mansours and
Wood (2010), cross-cultural training programs are designed to equip their employees
with the basic skills to deal with many problems in the host country, such as history,
politics, business norms, and education systems. However, developing these skills may
have little value for some organizations. The lack of training can prevent expatriate
leaders from being successful.
Management skills are important for the success of expatriate managers in host
countries. According to Bird, Mendenhall, Stevens, and Oddous (2010), successful
expatriates must have effective skills to influence the host teams. Cross-cultural training
programs could provide these skills, such as the art of negotiation, conflict management,
effective interpersonal communication, empowering others, results-oriented performance,
accountability, relationship building, integrity, and motivation. Bird et al. indicated that
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these skills are necessary to live and work in multicultural business environments. In
order to be successful in the global marketplace, leaders must increase their cross-cultural
skills to be effective in achieving organizational objectives, such as quality, production,
budget, and sales. With these skills, managers will become knowledge experts as well as
effective facilitators in order to lead cross-cultural teams to success.
Global leaders require tools for arriving at shared meaning and common
understanding of one another in order to develop effective cross-cultural relationships
(Mingji, Kessler, Khilji, & Gopalakrishnan, 2014). Companies that operate
manufacturing processes in foreign countries need to prepare their expatriate managers to
manage cultural problems and be competitive in global business; however, many
companies fail to equip their expatriate managers with specialized training to be able to
manage cross-cultural teams effectively. Ko and Yang (2011) noted that one-third of the
expatriates who completed their assignments did not perform as expected. Yuxiang and
Hyungmin (2013) established that 30% to 50% of expatriates are considered ineffective
by their top management. These high rates of ineffectiveness from the expatriate
managers have caused a problem for top management in corporations (Katarina & Sethi
2013). Therefore, the problem researched in this study was to explore why so many
expatriate managers are ineffective in managing cross-cultural teams outside U.S.
territory.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to explore the shared
lived experiences of expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of
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U.S. territory, specifically in the manufacturing environment of companies located in the
Dominican Republic. The expatriate managers who participated in this study had at least
10 years of experience working day-to-day with manufacturing cross-cultural teams
outside U.S. territories and dealing with various cultural problems. These expatriate
managers worked with the cultural diversity of the host country to find the best ways to
build quality products, as well as design effective organizations to meet the goals of their
companies.
Research Questions
The following three questions guided this study:
1. What are the experiences of expatriate managers regarding the effective
management of cross-cultural teams in the manufacturing environment in
the Dominican Republic?
2. What are the perceptions of expatriate managers regarding the
effectiveness of cross-cultural training?
3. What do expatriate managers suggest to improve the effectiveness of
future expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams in the
Dominican Republic?
Conceptual Framework for the Study
There were three conceptual lenses that provided the main frameworks for this
study: social learning theory, culture shock theory, and experiential learning theory.
These theorists explored the learning process, experience, organization behavior, and the
adaptation of the individuals. Social learning theory and social cognitive theory are used
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to explain the positive effect of cross-cultural training programs (Nam, Cho, & Lee,
2014). Social learning theorists have established that individuals learn by observation and
experience. Moreover, proponents of social learning theory indicate that the key variables
that influence the development of the trainee are the environment, individual, behavior,
and attitudes (Boyce, 2011).
There are some elements from the social learning theory that supports cross-
cultural training programs. According to Chien (2012), the social learning theory has four
elements of cross-cultural training: attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives.
Cross-cultural training provides individuals with learning, knowledge, and skills to
reduce misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors (Black & Mendenhall, 1990).
With these elements, managers can improve their knowledge in cross-cultural
management when managing their teams.
Researchers have indicated that social learning theory provides a way to
understand the process of the expatriate adjustment. Therefore, expatriates are better
equipped to learn to recognize the behavior in the host country (Gojer, 2012). This theory
was appropriate to examine the learning capacity and adjustments of the expatriates to
understand their behavior in the host country. Understanding the process of adjustment
and the knowledge acquired for expatriates provided answers to address the research
questions.
Culture shock theory refers to the disorientation that a person feels when he or she
functions within a different and unknown culture (Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul,
2011). Culture shock affects the life of the expatriate because he or she needs to adapt
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and adjust to a new culture. Gojer (2012) claimed that culture shock creates stress,
anxiety, confusion, disruption, helplessness, and irritability. Culture shock may cause
expatriates to fail their assignments (Wang, 2014). Expatriate managers face culture
shock at the moment of their relocation due to the unfamiliarity with the country or
teams, which can create frustration and anger that could affect the performance of the
expatriate. Befus (1998) mentioned that cross-cultural training programs might address
the problems associated with culture shock. The cultural shock theory provided a
conceptual framework for this study to explain the processes of adaptation and
adjustment that expatriate managers face when managing new cross-cultural teams in a
foreign country.
Experiential learning theorists emphasize how managers learn from experience.
Nam et al. (2014) noted that the experiential learning theory is used to determine a
process for creating knowledge. In addition, experiential learning is a cycle of learning
that starts with learners being involved in the experience (Butler & Gheorghiu, 2010).
According to Nam et al., experiential learning theory has been used to develop cross-
cultural learning competencies that are necessary for the success of expatriate managers.
Several researchers have called experiential learning the “heart of higher
ambitions" because this is where individuals learn from their experiences. Smith (2011)
stated that the experiential learning theory is a process where the individuals take the
information and process the information to use it. In applying this theory to cross-cultural
training programs, managers may acquire knowledge and competency to deal with cross-
cultural teams. These conceptual frameworks were appropriate for the methodology
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because I used them to examine the cross-cultural training, knowledge process, problems,
culture shock, and adaptation that expatriate managers experienced during their
assignment in foreign countries. Moreover, these theories provided information on how
cross-cultural training programs can be applied to improving the effectiveness in
managing cross-cultural teams or the creation of new methods.
Nature of the Study
The study was a qualitative, phenomenological research approach that focused on
the life experiences of the phenomenon of several individuals. Patton (2002) defined
phenomenon as a program, organization, or culture. For this study, the individuals who
were expatriate managers had knowledge and experience with cross-cultural teams from
different foreign countries. The participants provided information in this study to answer
the research questions.
I used a phenomenological approach to collect data from individuals who had
experience with cross-cultural teams and their problems. Patton (2002) claimed that
phenomenologists focus on how to put together the phenomena and on how the
individual experiences the real world. Using this approach in the study provided me with
an opportunity to develop a narrative report from the expatriate managers on how they
managed the cross-cultural teams. The data collection for a phenomenological approach
involves interviews with individuals who have the knowledge and experience of the
phenomenon. According to Englander (2012), the phenomenological approach includes
using an interview to collect data. The interview process in this study included open-
ended questions to encourage the participants to provide their life experiences about the
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effectiveness of managing cross-cultural teams. Phenomenological studies involve many
sources of data collection, such as poems, observations, and documents. Englander
(2012) commented that the best sample size for an interview in a phenomenological study
includes at least three to five participants with experience in the phenomenon. Based on
this, the sample size of my study was 20 expatriate managers with enough experience in
managing cross-cultural teams.
The data collected in this phenomenological study were analyzed using NVivo
software to capture themes, significant statements, sentences, or quotes that provided an
understanding of how the participants experienced the phenomenon. In addition, the
participants provided tools, strategies, processes, and procedures that they used to deal
with cross-cultural teams. In addition, NVivo software was used for the codification of
different themes. There are two types of phenomenology approaches-hermeneutic and
empirical transcendental. The best approach for my study was the empirical
transcendental because it focuses more on the experiences of the participants and less on
the interpretation.
In this study, I focused on finding methods to improve expatriate manager
effectiveness while managing manufacturing cross-cultural teams outside the U.S.
territory. Other qualitative approaches would have been less effective because the intent
of this study was to explore the culture of that country through the experiences of
expatriate managers. In a qualitative research study, researchers use multiple approaches,
such as narrative, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. These qualitative
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research approaches were considered but rejected because a phenomenological study
allows for evaluating the experiences of individuals in the research problem.
Approaches, such as ethnographic research, could be used to explore the cultural
behavior of a cultural sharing group. However, this approach was not appropriate to this
study because this type of study involves extensive time from the researcher for analyze
the behavior of the culture. On the other hand, a case study could have been used for the
study, but was not appropriate because the research must have a case, such as a process,
activity, or event to analyze. A narrative approach was considered, but this approach only
explored the life of a single individual. Lastly, grounded theory was not considered in this
study because I did not wish to develop a new theory.
Definition of Terms
Cross-cultural team: A team or group of people from two or more different
nationalities working together, face-to-face, to run a business, produce a product, solve a
problem, or make a decision (Misra, 2012).
Cross-cultural management: Skills to manage cultural differences and establish a
plan to deal with their effects (Bird et al., 2010).
Culture: Culture is social behavior patterns, beliefs, and institutions (Gerdhe
2012).
Cultural differences: The characteristics between two cultures that demonstrate
certain behavior patterns (Kim & Egan, 2011).
Cultural diversity: Different nationalities with different experiences, languages,
and behavior (Ramalu et al., 2012).
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Expatriate: An individual from an organization who is sent to a foreign country to
manage global operations (Mansour & Wood, 2010).
Host country: The host country is the new location where the organization will
establish their business (Dong & Liu, 2010).
Assumptions
I made several assumptions in this study. The first assumption was that the
expatriate managers would respond to the interview questions truthfully. In the study, all
of the participants were guaranteed that their responses in the interview process were
confidential and that the information would not be disclosed. The second assumption was
that the participants had experience working with cross-cultural teams. The third
assumption was that all of the expatriate managers agreed to participate in the interview
process. The managers’ time was an important factor for the interview because managers
have a busy agenda, which make it difficult to coordinate a meeting with them. I created
a schedule to allow the managers to select their free time to participate in the interview
process.
The focus group interview approach was considered in this study because it
provides tools for sharing ideas, cooperation, and more information from the participants.
This approach was rejected because not all of the managers had the same available time
to participate in the process. A one-to-one interview approach was selected because it
was practical, and I was able to obtain the most useful information to answer the research
questions. One-to-one interviews provided flexibility for the research because some
interviews were performed by phone.
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Delimitations
The study delimitations included a small number of expatriate managers from the
manufacturing industry who currently were working or had returned from their
assignment. There were 20 participants (n=20) used in this qualitative study, which is
sufficient and acceptable for this phenomenological study. All of the data sources were
limited to the interview process.
Limitations
A potential limitation of the study was the available time that the participants had
for the interview process. The schedule of all of the participants was verified, and the
interview was set up based on their available time. A confidentiality agreement was
developed to protect the participants. Another limitation of the study was a small budget
available for the investigation.
Another problem was the logistics of the investigation because most of the
expatriate managers were located in different manufacturing facilities, such as Dominican
Republic and Puerto Rico, while I was located in California. To address this problem, I
coordinated with the plant managers of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic
facilities so that I could travel to the islands. Finally, another limitation was in
coordinating all of the managers to perform the interview because most of them traveled
a lot. Therefore, a conference call was arranged using Skype with all of the expatriate
managers to complete the interviews.
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Significance of the Study
Due to globalization, U.S. manufacturing companies have confronted problems of
high cost in order to be competitive in the market; some have transferred their operations
to foreign countries with lower labor rates. I expected to make three contributions to the
area of cross-cultural management. First, I wished to identify and evaluate methods to
improve the effectiveness of expatriate managers while managing cross-cultural teams
outside the U.S. territory. This study might contribute towards a better understanding of
the manufacturing operations and the quality of life of expatriate managers in foreign
countries. In addition, this study might provide information to top management in
corporations who are establishing their operations in foreign countries to deal with the
cultural problems.
Moreover, the results of the study might be used to assist U.S. companies that
plan to transfer operations to foreign countries by providing a better understanding of
how to manage employees from different cultures by providing an efficient training
program to their expatriates while managing cross-cultural teams. The results of this
study may be instrumental for organizations to be more effective and improve their
business knowledge in cultural diversity. Furthermore, this study has the potential to
improve the business practices in foreign countries. Lastly, the study results might be
used to provide more knowledge of cultural behavior to expatriate managers who
currently are in overseas assignments working with a cross-cultural team. This study
might provide top management in corporations new standards for improving their cross-
cultural training programs for their expatriates before their assignment overseas.
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Summary
In this chapter, I introduced the concept of cross-cultural training, including the
problem of high inefficiency rates of expatriate managers that cause problems to the top
management in corporations. The problem researched in this study was to explore why
some expatriate managers are inefficient in managing cross-cultural teams outside the
U.S. territory. Theories, such as social learning theory, culture shock theory, and
experiential learning theory were the conceptual frameworks for the study.
I used a qualitative method with a phenomenological approach in order to identify
methods to improve the effectiveness of expatriate managers when managing cross-
cultural teams outside of the U.S. territory. The participants in the study were expatriate
managers with more than 10 years of experience working with teams with different
cultures. These expatriate managers might provide methods to identify all of the factors
needed to improve their effectiveness overseas while managing cross-cultural teams.
Chapter 2 contains a literature review on the analysis of the theories of cross-
cultural training, cross-cultural management, and cross-cultural teams.
24
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
As the world economy is becoming more globalized, U.S. companies are
expanding their businesses in the international market to increase their profitability
(Misra, 2012). Therefore, international companies must understand cultural diversity.
Cultural differences affect managerial behavior and practices, such as organizing,
staffing, and controlling (Adekunle & Jude, 2014). The purpose of this qualitative
phenomenological study was to explore the shared lived experiences of expatriate
managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the U.S. territory, specifically in
the manufacturing environment of companies located in the Dominican Republic, in
order to identify methods to improve their effectiveness during their overseas assignment.
This chapter contains a literature review of articles on cross-cultural management,
cross-cultural training, and organizational behaviors that affect the performance of
individuals in different environments. The discussion includes a description and
definition of culture. Also, I will discuss cross-cultural management issues and factors
that deal with cross-cultural teams. In the literature review, I present different cross-
cultural problems, as well as a process to design effective organizations. Moreover, I
discuss the responsibility of the leaders or managers in managing cultural differences.
The chapter ends with a conclusion on the significance of cross-cultural management
concepts and the skills that expatriate managers must receive during their cross-cultural
training programs.
25
Literature Review Strategy
Information about cross-cultural training came from different sources, such as
articles, books, websites, and blogs. The search of peer-reviewed journals for the
literature review included using the Walden University Library databases, such as
EBSCO host database, ProQuest database, Sage Database, ABI database, Business and
Management database, Emeralds Management database, and Science Direct database.
Several Google and Yahoo online searches were also used to find information about
cross-cultural teams and expatriation. The information accessed from publications,
newspapers, and dissertations were also used to create a literature review. The keywords,
terms, and phrases used to search information included cross-cultural management,
cross-cultural teams, expatriate, management, cross-cultural training, culture shock,
theory, social learning theory, experiential learning theory, and cross-cultural problems.
Conceptual Framework
The following section includes a review of three conceptual frameworks that
provide information on understanding cross-cultural training programs. The discussion
includes the needed knowledge required of expatriate managers to manage cross-cultural
teams. The three conceptual frameworks discussed have some similarity and
characteristics related to the cross-cultural training process. These theories are social
learning theory, culture shock theory, and experiential learning theory.
Culture Shock Theory
Researchers have studied cultural shock as a factor that affects expatriate
managers’ behavior when arriving in a foreign environment. Culture shock has been
26
described as an anxiety or stress that expatriates feel immediately by an unfamiliarity of
social practices in the host country (Shi & Wang, 2014). Also, culture shock is defined as
a normal process of transition, adaptation, and adjustment in which an individual
experiences some degree of anxiety (Gojer, 2012). Expatriates can exhibit culture shock
in many ways, including anger, frustration, depression, and homesickness (Shi & Wang,
2014). Wilkelman (1994) established that culture shock has four different phases that
affect expatriates, such as the honeymoon/tourist, crises, adjustment, and adaptation.
There are different causes of cultural shocks, such as a stress reaction, roles shock,
personal shock, and cognitive fatigue (Wilkeman, 1994).
Researchers have noted that expatriate manager failure is due primarily to culture
shock and the different challenges that expatriate managers face in the host country. Shi
and Wang (2014) indicated that there are different cross-cultural factors that contribute to
expatriate failures, such as dress code, language, education, eating habits, infrastructure,
religious beliefs, entertainment, and family life. These factors can be a problem if the
expatriate managers are not exposed to adequate cross-cultural training programs to
minimize their shock. Cross-cultural training programs can be used to help with the
adjustment or adaptation of expatriates to the host country to reduce their culture shock.
The process of successful adjustment to a new culture should be supported by cross-
cultural training (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Cross-cultural training facilitates
adjustment, adaptation, skill development, performance, and effectiveness (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990).
27
Expatriate managers must adapt to the host country to be successful. Shi and
Wang (2014) wrote that sufficient cross-cultural adaptation training provided by
corporations could be essential in improving the performance and effectiveness of
expatriates. There is a need for cross-cultural training programs to reduce culture shock
for expatriates. Cross-cultural training is needed for professionals to avoid chances of
cultural shock (Muhammad, Ahmed, & Khan, 2012). With effective training programs,
expatriate managers could avoid negative cultural impacts and manage their cross-
cultural teams effectively.
Many researchers have investigated the effectiveness of cross-cultural training
programs. Muhammad et al. (2012) conducted a study of health care professionals and
the effects of cultural shock in foreign countries, and they found that culture shock and
inadequate preparation were the major reasons for failure. Selmer (1999) examined
culture shock in China and mentioned that the lack of cross-cultural training could lead to
a stressful experience for expatriates.
Existing training programs are too short to provide the basic knowledge needed
for the expatriate managers to avoid culture shock. Selmer (1999) claimed that the
majority of cross-cultural training programs are too short to achieve many fundamental
changes to reduce culture shock to expatriates. Selmer noted that the training duration
must be between 3 to 6 months after the arrival in the host country to be effective in
reducing culture shock. The cultural shock theory provides information on the nature of
the shock that expatriate managers face when they are transferred to a different culture.
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Furthermore, the cultural shock theory can be used to explain how the training program
can be effective to minimize cultural shock and improve the performance of expatriates.
Experiential Learning Theory
The learning experience is important for expatriate managers on international
assignments. Experiential learning is a process where individuals learn by experience,
also known as the heart of higher ambitions (Akella, 2010). The experiential learning
theory is used to understand the various stages of learning and the different ways people
receive and process new information (Akella, 2010). The experiential learning theory is
one of the most common theories used to understand how managers learn (Nam et al.,
2014).
Experiential learning theorists have suggested that gaining and revising
experiences is fundamental to the learning process (Butler & Gheorghiu, 2010).
Experiential learning theory has been used in management learning research for more
than 25 years (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). According to Smith (2011), experiential learning
theory involves two dialectical processes: the process of taking information and the
process of using information. Smith indicated that the first step is the process of
absorbing information through the experience, and the second step is the process of
transformation. Expatriate managers on their international assignments need to learn
about the culture of the host country to adapt to the environment and laws of the foreign
country. The learning process is a cycle where expatriate managers are in a continuing
learning process to improve their skills. Kayes (2005) noted that, according to the
experiential learning theory, individuals learn by engaging in concrete experiences,
29
reflective observations, abstract conceptualizations, and activate experimentations. These
learning cycles are used by individuals for developing new skills (Kayes, 2005).
Moreover, individuals prefer to learn through creating, imaging possibilities, and
generating new ideas (Kayes, 2005).
Experiential learning theory is a process of creating knowledge. Based on this,
experiential learning is the appropriate theory for examining how cultural knowledge is
acquired (Lenartowicz, Johnson, & Konopaske, 2014). Cultural knowledge is a tacit
knowledge that is based on actions, ideas, values, and emotions and is the root of
personal experience (Lenartowicz et al., 2014). The most effective way to disseminate
cultural knowledge in multinational companies is through cross-cultural training (Black
& Mendenhall, 1990). Cross-cultural training programs provide the knowledge that
expatriate managers need to be effective in foreign countries
There are several gaps in cross-cultural training programs. Nam et al. (2014)
evaluated the gaps in current cross-cultural training, and they used the experiential
learning theory to evaluate the effectiveness of cross-cultural training for Western
companies. Nam et al. found that there is a lack of cross-cultural training by corporations.
Moreover, Nam et al. indicated four issues that need to be included in cross-cultural
training: cross-cultural assessment, family factors, domestic assignment, and trainer
quality to improve the effectiveness of the expatriates. Santoso and Lossemore (2013)
examined expatriate management in Australia using the experiential learning theory.
Santoso and Lossemore found that the preparation was outsourced, and the expatriates
felt unsupported during their overseas assignments and this caused the failure of the
30
expatriates. This theory was used in this study to understand the knowledge acquired by
expatriates based on their experiences in managing cross-cultural teams and the type of
support that they received from their organizations.
Social Learning Theory
Researchers have described the social learning theory as a process where
individuals learn by observation. An individual’s learning occurs when information or
knowledge flows from one way to another (Moon, Choi, & Jung, 2012). The social
learning theory was developed by Bandura and is known as a social cognitive theory
(Boyce, 2011). The premise of this theory is that an individual can learn by example.
According to Bandura (1971), most of the behaviors that people display are learned
through the influence of an example.
There are some elements of the social learning theory that support cross-cultural
training programs and help expatriate managers in their adaptation to the host country.
Social learning theory has created many positive effects on cross-cultural training (Nam
et al., 2014). Social learning theory has four central elements that help organizations to
improve the life of their expatriates: attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives
(Chien, 2012). According to Black and Mendenhall (1990), social learning theory
elements have been used to develop a framework for intercultural training. Social
learning theory provides the expatriate managers a learning process and skills to be
effective in the host country. These learning processes and skills facilitate the adaptation
of individuals. This intercultural training helps individuals to learn knowledge and skills
that facilitate positive intercultural interactions (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Moreover,
31
Black and Mendenhall (1990) established that cross-cultural training is considered a
learning process in which expatriates acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities through
observation or experience. Moon et al. (2012) noted that learning about different cultures
can enhance an individual's competencies.
The social learning theory has been applied to the learning situations that occur
over an individual's life in coping with problems (Gibson, 2004). Kauppinen and Juho
(2012) used the social learning theory to understand the internationalization of small and
medium enterprises and knowledge transfer. Kauppien and Juho indicated that the theory
helped to address four issues for the internationalization: dynamics, acceleration, ideas,
and the chaotic process that organizations experienced. In addition, Zhuang, Wu, and
Wen (2013) examined mentoring functions for the expatriate adjustment and found that
the social learning theory helps them to understand how the multinational companies use
different mentors to provide knowledge to expatriates in adjusting to the host country.
This theory was appropriate for this study because I explored the learning capacity of
expatriates and their adjustment to understanding the behaviors in the host country.
Understanding the process of adjustment for expatriates and the knowledge acquired can
be used to evaluate how this knowledge and adjustment impacted the effectiveness of the
expatriates in the host country.
Defining Culture
Culture refers to universal human capacity, especially through education. Gerdhe
(2012) defined culture as a complex process that includes knowledge, belief, art, law,
morality, custom, and other capabilities acquired by humans as members of a society.
32
Culture is a powerful tool for human survival, and there are two layers of cultures:
subcultures and universal cultures (Gerdhe, 2012). Subculture is the diversity of people
who come from different parts of the world. In the other hand, universal cultures include
the behaviors, traditions, and language of a culture. Pasmore (1988) stated that culture is
a complex process due to the influence that organizations have in society. Pasmore
(1988) also mentioned, “Cultural barriers to sociotechnical systems change become
especially apparent when an organization previously located in a stable environment
enters an era of increasing environmental complexity” (p. 37).
Cross-Cultural Training
Cross-cultural training has been studied by several researchers in regards to
expatriates. According to Wurtz (2014), multinational corporations are interested in
learning about cross-cultural training because they can implement a cross-cultural
training program for their managers. Also, training companies or consulting firms are
interested in cross-cultural training research to assess the results of the success of these
programs and to provide better information to corporations (Wurtz, 2014). Despite the
research in the field, the there are many gaps in determining effective cross-cultural
training (Wurtz, 2014). However, Black and Mendenhall (1990) established that, despite
the gaps, cross-cultural training programs are enhanced through cultural adjustment and
effectiveness of the expatriates. Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) mentioned that cross-cultural
training programs improve the manager's effectiveness and performance in the host
country. Qin and Baruch (2010) indicated that cross-cultural training stimulates the
communication and activities of the business. Moreover, cross-cultural training may
33
reduce culture shock. According to Qin and Baruch (2010), expatriates who receive
cross-cultural training are more effective.
Cross-cultural training programs have been used to improve the cultural
awareness of domestic employees to empower them to interact with individuals from
other cultural backgrounds (Gojer, 2012). Cross-cultural training has been used to reduce
pressure, uncertainty, and negative attitudes toward work (Qin & Baruch, 2010). Qin and
Baruch (2010) found that cross-cultural training helps employees in managing cross-
cultural teams and improving their performance.
Cross-Cultural Management
Culture is a common understanding that is shared among organizational members,
such as different philosophies, ideologies, values, expectations, norms, behaviors, and
traditions (Sambasivan & Yen, 2010). Cultural change happens when people from
different ethnic groups work together and have different languages and communication
styles, manners, religions, political views, food, appearance, and clothing. Based on these
changes, it is the responsibility of the organizations to provide managers the skills needed
to manage these cultural differences and establish a plan to deal with these effects.
Schomer (2000) established 10 skills for managing in a culturally diverse environment:
1. Self-knowledge: Understand your own culture values
2. Global thinking: Keep informed about events and global changes
3. Cultural curiosity: Observe cultural behaviors
4. Flexibility: Adapt to business style and social environment
5. Inclusivity: Make people feel understood and value their perspective
34
6. Managing diversity: Get people to work together effectively as unified
teams
7. Interpersonal communication: Express yourself
8. Motivational leadership: Lead in ways that inspire employees to take
responsibility
9. Credibility: Exercise integrity, openness, and trust in all interpersonal
dealings
10. Patience: Keep the focus on the long-term goal and do not waste time
getting immediate results. (para. 6)
Schomer (2000) established that, with these skills, expatriate managers can increase their
effectiveness in understanding how organizations function in different cultures (para. 5).
Canals (2014) noted that expatriates are senior managers who have the
responsibility of making business and technical decisions internationally. Canals claimed
that expatriates must establish mission and meaning, strategy, execution, integration, and
leadership development. Moreover, Canals indicated that cross-cultural management in
the global business plays a role in each one of those competencies because they introduce
new challenges that make development more complex to some expatriates.
In Latin American countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and
Mexico, their workforces are different and complex even though they speak the same
language. These countries have a different culture, different needs, and different
education levels. The cultural process includes three levels, and expatriate managers must
understand each of them (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2012). The first level is includes different
35
behaviors in how people react to different situations. The behaviors include written
expression, dress, and language. The second levels are the values and beliefs that
represent the operating principles that guide decision making. The third level includes
assumptions, which are a combination of values and beliefs that are ingrained and are
believed to be unquestionably true. Caligiuri and Tarique (2012) established that these
cultural levels help organizations to understand cultural management, group behavior,
and cross-cultural competencies. Caligiuri and Tarique claimed that these cultural levels
are acquired through cross-cultural training. Moreover, Caligiuri and Tarique indicated
that to be successful in foreign countries with these cultural levels, organizations must
understand and reduce cultural differences, cultural adaptation, and tolerance of
ambiguity from their expatriates.
In Latin America, it is important to establish these levels because expatriate
managers must observe and understand the behavior of the groups to understand how to
manage them. Also, expatriates must understand the group's capacity, training, education,
and experiences. Chen, Sun, and McQueen (2010) established that the culture levels may
be difficult for organizations and expatriates, but can be improved by using a cross-
cultural management model like the model adopted Holden as shown in Figure 1.
36
Figure 1. Cross-cultural management model
Chen et al. (2010) indicated that this cross-cultural model is a cycle in which the
cross-cultural experiences never end. Chen et al. claimed that the cross-cultural
management model is used as a knowledge management approach to increase the
confidence and adaptation of the expatriate to the host countries. Chen et al. stated, “that
knowledge is embedded in individuals, in the organization's rules, routines, structures,
and technologies and knowledge may be embedded within its original context” (p. 299).
In addition, Birasnav (2014) established that cross-cultural management processes
provides expatriates two dimensions to support cultural knowledge: (a) tacit knowledge
or the knowledge that is inimitable, valuable, and resides in the employee's brain and (b)
explicit knowledge that is distributable, easy to handle, and storable. These dimensions
provide the expatriates a knowledge process to establish their strategies. Cross-cultural
management provides different perspectives to help expatriates to understand cultural
differences, such as classical, anthropologist, physiological, stereotyping, systems
thinking, and knowledge management.
Cross-Cultural Adjustment
In an international environment, expatriates must be able to adapt and integrate
into a foreign country. Okpara and Kabongo (2011) defined adjustment as the process of
37
adaptation in a foreign culture. Baxter and Sommerville (2011) established that
adjustment plays a role in the cross-cultural process and the success of expatriates.
Peltokorpi and Froese (2012) mentioned that there are several factors that affect
expatriates adjustments, such as job satisfaction, stress, attitudes, language, team
composition, family food, appearance, and clothing. According to Peltokorpi and Froese
(2012), some expatriates adjust to the foreign country easier than others. However, Tian
and Borges (2012) mentioned that these adjustment changes are a learning process for the
success and adjustment of the expatriates. Job satisfaction is connected to adjustment
because the expatriates must choose to be in the host country (Qin & Baruch, 2010).
Furthermore, Siamwalla (2012) claimed that, in order for expatriates to adapt to
the host country, they need to have the cultural sensitivity to be effective in performing
their work. Siamwalla indicated that for expatriate managers to have cultural sensitivity,
they need to have cultural intelligence. Siamwalla wrote that cultural intelligence
provides the expatriate an awareness of cultural differences in the host country.
Moreover, this cultural intelligence allows expatriates to better adjust in the host country
because they will be able to identify the behavior of the host team. Peltokorpi and Froese
(2012) indicated that the expatriates who are culturally adjusted are more open to the host
country and introduce new behaviors, norms, and rules in the host country. Peltokorpi
and Froese established that expatriates who are not adjusted in the host country
experience anxiety and stress, which leads to poor performance.
38
Cross-Cultural Factors
Tian and Borges (2012) established that there are several cross-cultural factors
that affect expatriates, such as language, motivation, communication, manner, religion,
and political organization. Tian and Borges found that communication and language are
the most important factors that affect the expatriate managers’ ability to be successful in
the host country. In Hispanic society, communication is the most fundamental instrument
because in countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and Costa
Rica, the language is expressive, humorous, energetic, loud, and informal. U.S.
organizations and expatriate managers must take into consideration these differences
because people in the United States may be more formal, quiet, and nonexpressive.
Communication can drive a wedge between groups that could lead to misunderstandings
of instructions, leading to incorrect work or work delays. Tian and Borges noted that
English is the international business language in most foreign countries, and expatriates
should be careful during conversations because words may be misunderstood as English
is not the native language of the country.
Expatriate managers must understand personal relationships and space in different
cultures (Tian & Borges, 2012). In Latin America, workers want more face-to-face
conversations, and in some countries in Latin America like the Dominican Republic and
Puerto Rico, instead of shaking hands, they prefer physical contact such as giving a good
morning pat on the back or a kiss on the cheek. However, people in the United States
may prefer their individual space, and their face-to-face interactions are limited.
39
Motivation is an important value for the workforces in Latin America. When
teams or members in the organization perform good work or meet their goals, these
members expect and believe they are entitled to feedback or some rewards from
management. These rewards could be in the form of a gift certificate or cash. Some
countries are more sensitive to this process, and expatriates must understand this
difference. Time is another factor because, for some people in the United States, the time
is an important priority because it is a way to increase and improve efficiency and
production. However, in Latin American countries, time is less important compared to
relationships and lifestyle.
The recruiting process is another factor for expatriates in Latin American
countries. U.S. manufacturing companies require more technical expertise and knowledge
in certain areas, such as PLC, solid work, heat transfer, material sciences, biomedical
engineering, molding process, and statistics. It is difficult to find engineers with this
knowledge in these countries. For example, in the Dominican Republic, many graduate
students are in engineering, mostly industrial engineering, and their technical expertise
and experience is limited. Cultural factors function as an invisible barrier, and expatriate
managers who manage cross-cultural teams need to identify these factors and manage
these differences between cultures (Tian & Borges, 2012).
Expatriation
U.S. organizations spend money and time to recruit engineers with different
backgrounds in foreign countries to run their operations, but the process is complicated.
Most U.S. organizations provide training that could increase technical knowledge in these
40
foreign countries, but it takes time to acquire the level of knowledge that the U.S.
organizations want. For that reason, U.S. manufacturing companies rely on expatriate
managers to run their operations in these foreign companies to minimize these
weaknesses (Chen et al., 2010). These expatriates are relocated not only to run operations
in foreign countries, but also to transfer their technical knowledge to the members of the
organization in the host locations (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). However, the expatriates
create other issues for organizations, such as family situations, adaptability, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and communication.
According to Okpara and Kabongo (2011), one of the reasons that an assignment
fails is due to the adaptation of the expatriates and their spouses in the host country.
Another reason for failure is communication because this process is important between
family members and the expatriates during the adjustment in the host country (Qin &
Baruch, 2010). Qin and Baruch (2010) noted that an organization's commitment plays a
role during the expatriate assignment because this could affect their performance. Other
issues for expatriates include integration, management style, conflicts with cross-cultural
teams, and adjustment in the country. To avoid these issues, expatriates and organizations
must create strategies to deal with different cultures. These strategies can help the
expatriates to learn the communication style, the language of the culture, and the social
activities and customs of the culture. Organizations and expatriates must be able to
understand what the culture has to offer, take risks, develop cultural sensitivity, be
patient, have realistic expectations, and have the courage to experience culture shock
41
(Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). According to Bhawuk and Brislin (2000), therefore,
organizations must provide cross-cultural training and eliminate culture shock.
Bird et al. (2010) indicated that, to be successful in an overseas assignment,
expatriates must be effective in task completion and relationship building. However, the
expatriates’ characteristics can influence the success or failure of organizations. This
depends on personality factors of the expatriate, such as emotional stability,
agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness (Bird et al., 2010). These factors could
make or break the organization due to the extent to which the expatriates are willing to
adapt to the culture of the host country. The workforce in Latin America prefers leaders
who are flexible and open because that is the general personality of Latin Americans.
Cross-Cultural Team Organization
Expatriate managers in the host country must set the strategies and align them
based on the cross-cultural team’s needs. These strategies must be clear such that the
team can understand and implement them. In Latin America, goals and strategies must be
clear and simple and must be transmitted to the cross-cultural team in a process that can
understand. This process should follow some basic elements, such as (a) the mission is
clear, (b) the values represent the host organization, (c) the milestones are identified for
the host organization, and (d) the needed tools (Trkman, 2010). These basic elements
help the expatriate managers in the host country to establish the operational values for
manufacturing support and accomplishment. These steps must be communicated on a
day-to-day basis. Expatriate managers may find problems during the implementation of
these steps.
42
Expatriates and organizations must design an organizational structure that will
lead to a successful business model. Trkman (2010) commented that the design of an
organization must fit with the environment and the subsystem. In addition, Aseidu,
Aaworb-nang, and Opare (2014) claimed that the individual is the engine of the
organization. During the process of designing the organization, expatriates and
organizations must take into consideration the following characteristics to be successful:
academic degree, skills, gender, experience, flexibility, commitment, communication,
attitude, critical thinking, and technical knowledge (Aseidu et al., 2014). These
characteristics help the expatriates to create a group with the knowledge and capability to
develop the workforce to meet the goals and mission of the organization.
In the designing of an organization, expatriates must take into consideration the
external and internal environment that affects their groups. Organizations and expatriates
must follow the properties and performance characteristics of highly effective groups
adapted by Likert (as cited in Pasmore, 1988, p. 32). Likert adapted these characteristics
to help organizations to design and develop an effective organization structure to
function. These 22-design characteristics are
1. Members are skilled in the various leadership and membership roles
required for effective interaction
2. The group has existed long enough for good working relationships to
develop
3. Members are attracted to the group and are loyal to its leader
4. Members help to shape group values
43
5. Members who are linked to other groups see a commonality of values
across group settings
6. Individuals support pivotal group norms
7. Members are highly motivated to help the group succeed
8. Members engage in critical but mutually supportive problem solving
9. Leaders share information and create supportive problem solving
10. The group provides relevant technical knowledge to help each member
develop his or her full potential
11. Group norms encourage striving for maximum performance
12. Help is provided to members who need it
13. Creative approaches are highly valued
14. Value is placed on constructive but not excessive conformity
15. Information is communicated efficiently
16. Information is taken at face value
17. Members share information crucial for success
18. There is a high degree of shared influence
19. Leaders are kept well-informed
20. The group examines proposed changes carefully, but is flexible when
appropriate
21. Individuals are free to make relevant decisions for the group
22. Leaders are chosen carefully for their ability to facilitate the group’s task
and maintenance activities. (as cited in Pasmore, 1988, p. 32)
44
These characteristics allow groups and expatriates to perform any task and improve their
effectiveness. In addition, Aseidu et al. (2014) stated, “Individuals and groups needs the
following support such as leadership, purpose of the organization, its culture, structure,
relationships, and the external environment to act as catalyst that facilitate the effective
work of expatriates and teams in the organization” (p. 45).
The effective design of the organization in cross-cultural teams can be affected by
the tasks assigned to the groups or members. In Latin American countries, the structure of
the organization must not be complicated and needs to have minimal layers to maintain
coordination and control with limited bureaucracy. In a functional organization,
expatriates must be flexible in the organization to control problems. Organizations with
more layers will have more problems to control, more bureaucracy, and the status of the
hierarchy may be a problem (Aseidu et al., 2014). The organization structure in Latin
America must be designed to help the expatriates to create innovation, rapid changes,
new technology, and new processes.
Designing effective organizations includes providing stabilization, increased
productivity, and increased innovation processes of the host organization (Aseidu et al.,
2014). Expatriates and organizations must establish strategies to hire the correct
workforces in these countries. For example, the Dominican Republic manufacturing plant
is located in an industrial park which is managed by a board of directors that includes the
general manager and human resources manager for each facility established in the
industrial park. The selection of the hiring process for manufacturing operators in the
Dominican Republic follows this process: first, an interview with the manager of human
45
resource of the industrial park; second, perform a math test, followed with reading and
writing tests in Spanish; and third, perform a skill test for manufacturing. After these
screening processes, the human resource department of the industrial park provides
feedback and refers the employee to the site. After this feedback, the human resource
representative from the plant performs an internal screening process that consists of an
interview with the hiring supervisor, plant human resources manager, and staff. In
addition, the new hire is submitted to a skill test for manufacturing and certification
process for manufacturing. These processes are the filter for expatriates and organizations
to create an effective organizational structure, which will lead to the success of the
business in the host country (Caligiuri, 2013).
According to Caligiuri (2013), “The current lack of cultural agile expatriates is
affecting organizations’ global competitiveness and their plans for future strategic
growth” (p. 175). Caligiuri commented that expatriates and organizations fail because
they ignore the culture in which the business is being relocated. Furthermore, Pasmore
(1988) mentioned, “effective organizations are those which produce excellent results by
any measure of cost, quality, or efficiency while simultaneously enhancing the energy
and commitment of organizational members to the success of the organization” (p. 1).
Organizations must provide a training program for their expatriate managers to create an
effective team that will handle the issues in the host country.
Leadership
Leaders are better educated than leaders from 20 years ago (Pasmore, 1988, p.
140). These leaders are prepared to manage their business or operations due to all of the
46
technologies that they have at their disposal and experiences from their education.
According to Cotae (2010), “leadership is the behavior of an individual in directing
through communication and interpersonal influence, the activities of a group toward a
shared goal” (p. 6).
The primary functions of a leader are controlling, organizing, leading, and
planning. These functions are the key factors for expatriate managers to achieve the
organizational objective and manage their resources. These resources are based on
human, financial, physical, and information. The managers perform these functions
simultaneously, and each function is dependent on the other. According to Darling and
Heller (2009), management must incorporate the leadership values, and these values must
be important for the success of the organization. According to Darling and Heller, these
values are joy, hope, charity, and peace. Darling and Heller (2009) indicated that
managerial leaders who use these values are the most successful in achieving their
objectives and strategies. These leaders are not necessarily the smartest, the best
educated, the most experienced, the highest paid, or have the greater skills or abilities;
however, they possess both the drive and business savvy to create a successful business
organization. Successful leaders focus on their vision, mentoring, and ability to
communicate and interact with others. Leaders not only create the future for themselves,
but also the future of the organization.
According to Darling and Heller (2009), managers should lead by example to
create a positive attitude in organizations and set expectations to meet the organizational
goals. Cotae (2010) established that managers are responsible for getting things done and
47
understanding the organization’s needs. Cotae claimed that leadership deals with changes
in the business and social, cultural, and political aspects of the host country. Leaders are
appreciative of the contributions of the members in their organizations. These
characteristics help the organization in creating a positive environment and expectations
for the future.
Hopen (2010) stated that successful expatriate managers learn to become more
aware of their expectations to achieve better team performance. Moreover, Hopen
indicated that expatriates set the direction for the followers to carry out their work. Reilly
and Karounos (2009) noted that expatriates must have the following characteristics to be
effective: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. Reilly
and Kaounos established that, in addition to these characteristics, the expatriates must
have four characteristics to continue growing in their effectiveness: trustworthiness,
integrity, comfort with ambiguity, decision maker, delegate responsibility, and openness
to change. Reilly and Karounos established that expatriates contribute to the success of
the organization when they apply these tools when managing groups with diversity.
Researchers have established that leadership is an integral part of the learning process.
Organizations of the future will not be able to use their current methods for managing
because the future expatriates must act as facilitator, liaison, and decision maker. Bird et
al. (2010) listed several competencies that expatriate managers must have during
managing cross-cultural teams, such as influencing the stakeholder, making complex
ethical decisions, leading change, fostering innovation, and ensuring social capital. Reilly
and Karounos (2009) stated, “expatriate leaders should attempt to match their leadership
48
styles to the various conditions” (p. 10).
Type of Environments Needed to be a Successful Leader
To ensure that leaders are successful in foreign countries, companies have created
several programs that are designed to provide the expatriates an opportunity to work in
one or more foreign countries and create an adaptive environment. These programs help
the global leaders to improve their performance and help the organization fulfill the
operational strategic plan (Caligiuri, 2006). Caligiuri (2006) identified three different
programs that create value for expatriates. First, the didactic learning program includes
cross-cultural training in diversity and language to help the managers to perform their
tasks and manage their foreign teams’ task. Second, the experiential opportunities
program establishes an individualized coaching and mentoring process. According to
Caligiuri, experiential opportunities provide the strength and development needed for
expatriates to gain cultural sensitivity and cultural knowledge. The last program is the
intensive cultural experience which provides the expatriates an opportunity to live and
work in the foreign country.
The intensive cultural experience is designed to provide expatriates an exposure
to the culture and the language of the host country. The success of the expatriates in an
international assignment is based on the alliances that they create in the host countries.
These alliances will provide the expatriates with the confidence to accomplish their
objectives. Rodriguez (2005) stated, “At the heart of alliances successes, managers and
top management teams play a critical role, they have the ability to inspire, influence,
change, and conduct thinking, attitudes, and behavior of the people” (p. 2). Expatriate
49
managers must create operational and business strategies to implement and establish the
initiatives by using their alliances. Rodriguez established that the alliances play a role in
the culture based on the value, vision, and motivation of the workforce and the business.
Hopen (2010) established that some environmental factors can affect the success
of the leaders. New expatriate leaders face organizational challenges, as well as new
requirements. One of the factors is group diversity, which impacts managing and
completing projects. Another factor is the change of technology, which impacts the
delivery, service, and design of the product. Other factors that affect the environment of
the expatriate leaders include the knowledge of the work force and organization
composition; these factors are crucial for the success of the expatriates in the host
country. According to Hopen, the key to success in these environmental issues is to
acquire the correct knowledge to handle these factors. Hopen stated, “instead of trying to
‘out-think’ and ‘out-smart’ expatriates need to do everything possible to acquire the
knowledge” (p. 7). Gabrielsson, Seristo, and Darling (2009) claimed, “ successful
managerial expatriates learn to become more aware of their intention, and as they learn to
change these intentions and their perceptions” (p. 316).
Competencies of Successful Cross-Cultural Leaders
Successful expatriates are a competitive advantage for multinational firms
(Caligiuri, 2006). However, organizations must provide quality training which addresses
deficiencies in individuals, develops competencies, and focuses on tangible aspects of
improving performance. Expatriates’ knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform
can be developed through training and development interventions, such as formal
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education, individualized mentoring, immersion programs, and developmental
assignments (Caligiuri, 2006). Bird et al. (2010) suggested that intercultural
competencies, as they relate to global leadership, are comprised of three forms of
management: perception management, relationship management, and self-management.
Perception management includes a person's mental flexibility when confronted with
cultural differences. Relationship management addresses how aware people are of others
and their interaction styles and values and the level of awareness they have of themselves
and their impact on others. Self-management includes people's strength of identity and
their ability to effectively manage their emotions and stress. Success within the realm of
intercultural situations depends upon having a clear sense of self.
Metaphors, poetry, and storytelling have been used for to engage, educate, and
bond with one another. According to Grisham (2006), these three elements are valuable
when used within cross-cultural leadership. They help to establish trust, empathy,
transformation, power, and communication of multicultural leadership. Grisham (2006)
claimed that metaphors include linguistic, conceptual, social-cultural, neutral, and bodily
components, which human beings have used to make sense of the universe. The novice
multicultural leader may encounter difficulties relating to the values of another culture.
The metaphor expresses the underlying values of any given culture. Grisham (2006)
suggested that metaphors achieve intimacy (empathy and trust) between the speaker and
the hearer. In business, time is limited and so expatriates must find creative ways to
shorten the time necessary to transfer knowledge (Grisham, 2006). Poetry provides a
simple manner of conveying complex ideas and stories. Effective storytelling makes the
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truth come alive, it keeps people focused, and it can introduce new ideas by starting with
a familiar platform. This allows each person to discover the truth and avoid confronting
people with their own inadequacies (Grisham, 2006). Denning (as cited by Grisham,
2006) suggested that storytelling creates transformation, trust, and empathy; transmits
values; fosters collaboration; tames rumors; shares knowledge; and leads people into the
future. Storytelling is a great way to get humans to venture into the unknown (Grisham,
2006).
Knowledge Management
Knowledge management consists of the strategies and practices used in
organizations to create a learning environment for its expatriates. Learning is defined as a
process of creating knowledge based on an experience. The focus on knowledge
management is to provide expatriates with an objective or focus, innovation, lesson,
integrity, improvement and performance, knowledge, culture integration, communication,
infrastructure, and technology. Knowledge management provides the expatriates a role in
the decision making, innovation, and cultural issues. Vorakulpipat and Rezgui (2008)
commented that knowledge management creates value for expatriates. According to
Vorakulpipat and Rezgui, the knowledge-based perspective of the organization has
emerged in strategic management. Organizational management is recognized as a key
resource of the deployment of knowledge and an organizational advantage. Vorakulpipat
and Rezgui mentioned that one part of knowledge management is knowledge sharing,
which means that people in the organization can acquire knowledge through experience.
Knowledge sharing is defined as a process of transmitting to a received target, as
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well as the demand for knowledge management. According to Vorakulpipat and Rezgui
(2008), traditional organizations are beginning to comprehend that knowledge
management is a crucial factor for gaining and sustaining competitive advantages for
their expatriates. According to Vorakulpipat and Rezgui, these advantages emphasize
three dimensions of knowledge management: social organization, learning process, and
sociotechnical. Knowledge sharing is a first generation of knowledge management and is
the process of learning the best practices for the organization and expatriates. Knowledge
sharing is the transmission and absorption used in the organizations. In knowledge
management, it is important to define the skill of the expatriates as trainer, coach, writer,
influencer, facilitator, marketer, communicator, and project manager. These skills provide
the organizations an expatriate who can be effective. To be effective, expatriates must
understand the different styles of leadership across cultures.
Massingham and Diment (2009) established that organizations must provide their
expatriates with a process to develop an understanding of the culture in the foreign
country. Expatriate managers with international assignment will have different challenges
that could affect the strategies of the business. However, NG, Dyne, and ANG (2009)
agreed stated, “cross-cultural interaction provides concrete experiences where individuals
receive real-time feedback on their behavior and effectiveness based on reactions from
other parties during cultural interactions” (p. 518). Massingham and Diment found a
relationship between the organization commitment and the knowledge management
initiatives. Massingham and Diment defined organizational commitment as an exchange
agreement between the individual and the organization. In addition, Massingham and
53
Diment claimed that an organization must effectively manage its resources to respond to
change and to learn from experience.
Massingham and Diment (2009) provided four models that help expatriates to
improve their knowledge management: (a) organizational learning that is the process that
an organization adapts to change and uses to acquire new knowledge, (b) skills and
behaviors, (c) knowledge transfer that is the movement of knowledge within an
organization, and (d) organization capability that is a process that creates an environment.
These four models provide expatriates a process to maximize their knowledge and deal
with issues in cross-cultural countries. Vorakulpipat and Rezgui (2008) stated, “managers
can use this finding by increasing organizational commitment” (p. 137). According to
Vorakulpipat and Rezgui, knowledge management has three dimensions: sociotechnical,
socio-organizational, and learning processes; these dimensions define the knowledge
process where organizations establish their strategies for knowledge transfer.
Collaboration Engineering in Cross-Cultural Management
U.S. manufacturing industries are searching for opportunities outside of the
United States to reduce their operation costs. Collaboration engineering has a role during
this transformation process. Yang, Dong, and Helander (2012) noted that organizations
require an effective and efficient leader to be successful in the collaboration process.
Popescu, Aldea, and Draghici (2012) established that this collaboration process has
created some misunderstandings between expatriates and cross-cultural teams.
Collaboration engineering provides tools that can help expatriates to deal with these
problems. In addition, Popescu et al. listed several skills that leaders can use to manage
54
cross-cultural communication issues, such as speaking slowly, avoiding negative
questions, taking turns, and being supportive. Moreover, Popescu et al. established two
processes to minimize these problems: the mutual participation of each team in the
process and an environment to generate collaboration among groups. Dourado, Silvia,
and Silvia (2011) claimed that collaboration in the cross-cultural process can impact new
product development due to market competition and product lifecycle due to the
customer requirements. Organizations need to provide a structured method to assist the
expatriate leaders in meeting the tasks and activities to generate collaboration between
cross-cultural teams.
U.S. manufacturing industries need to provide adequate training and knowledge to
the expatriates to be effective. According to Deshpande (2013), the creation of a cross-
functional team an important dimension of the collaboration engineering process because
this creates effective training and cultivates community practices to create transcultural
partnerships to support the adaptation of the expatriates. Popescu et al. (2012) established
that communication is one problem for cross-cultural management during collaboration
engineering. However, collaboration brings together different people from different
cultures giving expatriate managers the opportunity to create something together in an
innovative way and integrated manner, avoiding communication barriers (Popescu et al.,
2012).
Expatriate managers need to understand that cross-cultural teams working on
collaborations can experience cultural misunderstandings. However, Popescu et al.
(2012) indicated that misunderstanding is a positive process for cross-cultural teams and
55
expatriates because it provides a process of adaptation to understand each other and earn
respect. In collaboration engineering, expatriate managers may experience challenges
because they need to find the best solution to ensure that the team works as one cohesive
group for the benefit of the organization. Sometime this is a problem due to the culture
and the interactions of the teams. Popescu et al. noted that cultural differences increase
misunderstandings and affect the communication between groups. In addition, Popescu et
al. established that communication has two factors, sender and receiver; if one of these
factors gets the wrong information, this creates a misunderstanding. Misunderstanding
occurs when collaborative engineering teams have various types of communication tools,
such as social software and 3-dimensional models.
Organization
The development process in the organizations is necessary for the success of
expatriates. Organizations must invest in the education of their expatriates and involve
them in the creative process. Organization development provides people the opportunity
to function, develop their potential, increase effectiveness to meet the goal, create an
environment for a challenging work, and an opportunity to influence. These values create
a changing process in organizations in which expatriates apply their knowledge to solve
their own problems in the workplace, allowing them to create and develop the best
workforce. Expatriates must act as a role model for their members and groups. In
addition, organizations must reinforce the learning process, support the development of
their expatriates, share values, and challenge their expatriates to continue to learn.
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The continuous development process in an organization is affected by factors,
such as time, focus, and a lack of a developmental process. These factors impact the
effectiveness of the business and the confidence of the members of the organization.
Organizations are exploring other alternatives to grow their business, and these
alternatives are the movement of their operations to foreign countries to reduce their
production cost and to be competitive in the market. Meanwhile, organizations must
provide to their expatriates a learning development process to deal with cultural
differences when they are assigned to an international position. NG et al. (2009)
established that, despite the role that international assignments play in global businesses,
organizations have adopted a performance perspective, focusing on performance and
adjustment of the expatriates. Organizations must establish a system to develop their
expatriate managers to deal with cultural differences before the movement to foreign
countries.
Expatriate managers must understand the behavior of the culture. According to
NG et al. (2009), effective expatriate managers need to have ethnorelative attitudes to
understand the behavior of the culture. NG et al. established that ethnorelative is the
acknowledgement of the values and beliefs of another, which generates sensitivity and a
respect for the other culture. Organizations must provide their expatriate leaders with a
developmental process to improve their skill of influence while managing cross-cultural
teams. According to Bird et al. (2010), successful expatriates must have three dimensions
that influence different cultures: self-oriented dimension, other-oriented dimension, and
perpetual dimensions. These factors provide the expatriate leaders with the knowledge to
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understand the individual’s performance in the global workplace. In addition, Bird et al.
claimed that an organization must provide their expatriate leaders with the skill of self-
awareness. Self-awareness refers to the strengths and weaknesses of interpersonal skills,
values, and the relationships with others. Moreover, Bird et al. indicated effective
expatriate managers understand the values of global culture. Irving (2010) established
that organizations need to develop expatriates to manage all the challenges in the global
world.
Summary
The literature review included a discussion of three theories: social learning
theory, culture shock systems theory, and experiential learning theory. These theories
were used to address the importance of cross-cultural training programs for expatriate
managers during their adaptation to the host country. In the discussion, several
researchers have demonstrated the impact of the expatriates in foreign countries. Most of
these theories have helped researchers to evaluate the challenges, changes, and stresses
that expatriates have experienced with cross-cultural teams to be competitive and
effective in global business. Based on the review, there are gaps in training, which need
to be addressed to improve the effectiveness of the expatriate managers while managing
cross-cultural teams.
Extensive changes are taking place, and organizations have to adapt by learning
requisite processes and procedures, thereby affording the opportunity to design and train
effective expatriate managers for success. The organizations must continue to maintain a
developmental process that cultivates a stronger competency of its expatriates. Creating
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stronger competencies and training will help expatriates in making their decisions in
solving problems that benefit their organizations. However, organizations must take into
consideration all of the cultural factors that affect the society. According to social
learning theory, culture shock theory, and experiential learning theory, factors such as
language, communication, and behavior affect the expatriate managers in a new
environment.
In the literature review, I discussed factors that influence the decision to move
manufacturing operations to foreign countries, such as the Dominican Republic. I also
analyzed the factors needed to manage teams in Hispanic societies. In the business world,
cross-cultural management has transformed the way of doing business, and U.S.
corporations must dedicate time to learning how to manage the social behavior of
different cultures to establish their goal. Expatriate managers must receive effective
training for managing cross-cultural teams in the global market. Organizations need to
develop their leaders to manage cross-cultural teams. Reserchers have established skills
needed to manage cross-cultural teams; however, organizations have not implemented
these skills or have not provided the right competencies to their expatriate managers.
There are many roles that expatriate managers have to influence their teams and
meet the organization’s objectives. Expatriates must operate cross-cultural teams.
Effective expatriates need to understand cultural adaptation, cultural minimization, and
cultural integration to be competitive in the global business. This knowledge is important
for expatriate managers to develop relationships and transfer ideas to the cross-cultural
teams. To have these skills, it is important that organizations provide effective training to
59
their expatriates for their success in the host country. The training will help the expatriate
to improve their skills, abilities, and communications to be effective with the cross-
cultural team.
In the literature review, I discussed all of the tools and techniques that managers
need to have when leading a cross-cultural team. However, researchers have not
discussed the operational problems that expatriate managers face when leading their
cross-cultural team. In this study, I filled these gaps by interviewing expatriate managers
with experience in managing cross-cultural teams. This study will provide information
about methods to help the expatriates to be effective when managing cross-cultural teams
in foreign countries.
Chapter 3 includes a detailed description of the methodology of the study, the
research design, population, role of the researcher, sampling, instrumentation, pilot study,
data analysis plan, trustworthiness, ethical concerns, and a summary.
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Chapter 3: Research Method
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the shared
lived experiences of expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the
U.S. territory, specifically in the manufacturing environment of companies located in the
Dominican Republic, in order to identify methods to improve their effectiveness during
their overseas assignment. I wished to determine the reasons why some expatriate
managers are inefficient in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the U.S. territory.
When companies move their operation to foreign countries, they may fail to be successful
due to the lack of training provided to their expatriate managers.
This chapter includes the methodology and research design of the study. This
chapter is organized into the following sections: (a) research design, (b) role of the
researcher, (c) population, (d) sampling procedure, (e) instrumentation, (f) data
collection, (g) pilot study, (h) data analysis plan, (i) trustworthiness, and (j) ethical
concerns. A summary of the methodological design of the study is given at the end of this
chapter.
Research Design and Rationale
The study involved using a qualitative phenomenology research approach in order
to identify methods to improve the effectiveness of expatriate managers in managing
cross-cultural teams that might contribute to reducing the failure rate.
The main research questions that guided the study were as follows:
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1. What are the experiences of expatriate managers regarding the effective
management of cross-cultural teams in the manufacturing environment in
the Dominican Republic?
2. What are the perceptions of expatriate managers regarding the
effectiveness of cross-cultural training?
3. What do expatriate managers suggest to improve the effectiveness of
future expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams in the
Dominican Republic?
Other qualitative methods would be less effective to perform this study, as I
needed the real-life cultural experiences of the expatriate managers. In qualitative
research studies, researchers use multiple approaches, such as narrative, grounded theory,
ethnography, and case study. These qualitative approaches received consideration, but
were rejected because the phenomenology method allows a researcher to find out the
experiences of individuals in the specific phenomenon.
A qualitative method design was appropriate for this study because it can be used
to describe how to understand an individual who has experienced a social problem. The
qualitative method is used when researchers are trying to understand the problem that the
participants are addressing. Also, a qualitative design provides an opportunity to generate
open-ended questions during the interview process. Qualitative research has enjoyed
growing popularity over the past 3 decades, and its contributions have become
increasingly valued (Hodges, 2011, p. 90).
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The phenomenological, qualitative approach best fit this investigation because I
focused on the life experiences of the phenomenon from a single individual to several
individuals. Patton (2002) established that the phenomenology approach is used to
investigate the meaning of the lived experiences of a person or a group of people. This
methodology originated in Germany at the start of the 20th century and had its roots in
psychology and philosophy (Petty, Thomson, & Stew, 2012, p. 379). A
phenomenological study is used to collect data from individuals who have experience
with the problem. According to Petty et al. (2012), the focus of this design is on
understanding the uniquely lived experiences of the individuals who constantly had
contact with the problem to be investigated. Moreover, Petty et al. indicated that
phenomenological methodologists collect descriptive data to understand the
phenomenon. The phenomenological qualitative approach provides flexibility for the
study, allowing the researchers to tell the story of the phenomenon using a variety of data
and approaches that provides different types of information and multifaceted
interpretation possibilities (Shin, Kim, & Chung, 2009, p. 850).
The phenomenon investigated in this study was the cross-cultural management of
the manufacturing team in the Dominican Republic with expatriate managers from
different areas assigned to this country. The Dominican Republic is an island located in
the Caribbean region commonly called Hispaniola, which shares its territory with Haiti.
The Dominican Republic is the second largest island in the Caribbean, and its estimated
population is 10 million people (Dapena & Ortega, 2014). Several U.S. manufacturing
companies have located their companies to this island, such as GE, Baxter, B Braun,
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Edwards Lifesciences, and Ethicon due to the geographical location and the low labor
costs. All of these companies have expatriate managers running their operations day-
to0day. The intention of this study was to identify methods to improve the effectiveness
of the expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams.
The data collection method used in this study was the interview. The interview
involved expatriate managers with experience with cross-cultural team processes. A
structured interview data collection was prepared to get an accurate response from the
participants. This interview was conducted face-to-face or by conference call using
Skype.
Role of the Researcher
My primary role as the researcher in the study was to collect information from the
participants who had more than 10 years of experience working with a cross-cultural
team. These participants had worked, or are still working, in the medical device
industries, and they led groups of employees in the Dominican Republic. These
participants were located in Puerto Rico, Singapore, California, and the Dominican
Republic. The selected expatriate managers participated in an interview process
consisting of 10 questions that was designed to obtain accurate information about their
experiences. The identity of all of the participants was protected. A number was assigned
to each participant instead of the name. Moreover, to ensure reliability, the interview was
recorded and transcribed.
For data analysis of this study, NVivo software version 10 was used. NVivo
software is a data management tool that assists researchers in managing the materials so
64
that the researcher can classify, sort, and arrange information in an organized way that
can generate codes for the information collected from the interview. The participants'
responses were analyzed by using common themes, trends, words, and patterns from their
experiences. With the help of the NVivo software, a final report was created summarizing
the results of all of the findings that contributed to the cross-cultural management. The
proposal was submitted to the institutional review board (IRB) for their approval, and the
approval number was secured (Approval No. 02-06-15-0268466).
Population
The target population was 40 expatriate managers who worked in the medical
device industry. The sample in this study consisted of 20 successful expatriate managers
who worked in the medical device industry. Each of these managers had more than 10
years of experience working day-to-day with cross-cultural teams managing different
cultural problems. These managers came from different experiences, such as finance,
R&D, production, engineering, supply chain, and manufacturing. The size of the sample
used for a qualitative project is influenced by both theoretical and practical considerations
(Robison, 2014, p. 29). Robison (2014) established that most studies require a provisional
decision on sample size at the initial design stage while choosing a new location or new
research to compare. There are several debates concerning about what is the right sample
size for research (Dworkin, 2012, p. 1319). However, Dworkin (2012) mentioned that
saturation is the most important factor for sample size selection. Dworkin defined
saturation in qualitative research as the point at which the data collection no longer offers
any new data.
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The sample size for my study depended on the population of employees at the
manufacturing facility in the Dominican Republic. According to Englander (2012), for
the phenomenological study, the participants must have experience with the specific
phenomenon. The manufacturing facility in the Dominican Republic had 1,200
employees with 40 expatriate managers. I am a senior engineering manager for this
manufacturing organization in Irvine, California. My primary role is to design new
methods for the manufacturing processes in this facility and to evaluate the
implementation of these new processes. However, none of the participants in this study
reported directly to me; they reported only to the plant manager or manufacturing vice
president.
The study was focused only on the administrators. These administrators included
expatriate managers/engineers from finance, manufacturing, human resources,
manufacturing, research and development, material sciences, IT, and supply chain who
had been assigned or had worked in the Dominican Republic. The sample consisted of a
diverse group of expatriate managers who worked in different departments: finances
(one), manufacturing (five), human resources (one), manufacturing engineers (five),
R&D (five), material science engineering (one), IT (one), and supply chain (one). This
sample size was selected based on the accessibility that I have with the expatriates. The
sample of managers was selected based on the willingness of the managers to participate,
and I selected these participants because of the easy access to the managers for
conducting the interviews. The 20 participants were a representative sample size of the
whole population. The participants had similar experiences and a background with
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medical devices. These expatriates had not only worked in the Dominican Republic, but
also had lived in countries such as Singapore, China, Japan, Mexico, and Thailand.
Englander (2012) mentioned that, for a phenomenological study, the participants must
have experienced the phenomenon. Also, Englander mentioned that, in phenomenological
research, the sampling strategy is narrow. In this study, I captured the knowledge that the
participants had with cross-cultural teams.
In this study, I used purposeful sampling because the participants understood the
central phenomenon of the study. According to Dworkin (2012), the purposeful sampling
strategy does not necessarily include random samplings or a large number of participants
and sites as typically found in quantitative research method. Moreover, Englander (2012)
claimed that an important process for the phenomenological approach is the amount of
information that can be obtained from the lived experience of the participants.
Sampling
The sampling plan selected for this investigation was a judgment sampling or
purposeful sampling. Specifically, a homogeneous sampling was chosen because my
investigation included a discrete subgroup. I selected a homogeneous group of
participants in my sample. According to Nachimias and Nachimias (2008), homogeneous
sampling is used to understand and describe a group in-depth. Nachimias and Nachimias
indicated that homogeneous sampling consists of a group or individuals with similar
characteristics. The approach that was used in this study facilitated the interview process,
simplified the analysis, and reduced variation. The selection of the participants was based
67
on their accessibility, experience working with cross-cultural teams, and their willingness
to participate in the study.
To verify that all of the participants were willing to participate in the study, I sent
a communication via e-mail explaining the reason and purpose of the study. As soon as
the participants agreed to collaborate in the study, I sent a consent form to them via e-
mail (See Appendix A). This consent form explained to the participants all of their rights
and their protection of privacy.
In this study, I had the opportunity to interview 20 expatriate managers with
similar experiences as my sample (n=20). A larger sample size would have been difficult
to attain due to the lack of access to more participants. This sample size fit in my research
plan because the expatriate managers who had experience with cross-cultural teams had a
busy agenda. Moreover, in the qualitative research method, the appropriate sample size is
the one that best answers the research questions. Patton (2002) stated that a qualitative
method produces data in a smaller number of people and causes. Englander (2012)
established that the recommended sample size is at least three participants. However,
Englander indicated that the more interviews a researcher performs, the more information
the researcher finds out about the phenomenon. Based on this, the selection of 20
participants in the study was appropriate.
Instrumentation
The appropriate data collection for this investigation included the interviewing
process because my three research questions addressed the experience of expatriate
managers with a cross-cultural team outside of U.S. territory, specifically in the
68
Dominican Republic. The interviewing process helped me to answer my research
questions with accurate data. The interview process used in the study was the
standardized open-ended interview. Patton (2002) wrote that the standardized open-ended
interview has several advantages, such as minimized variation, time is used efficiently,
easy to analyze, and easy to compare. All of the participants received and signed the
consent form (see Appendix A) to protect their privacy. I used the standardized open-
ended interview, and I prepared the protocol and questions in advance (see Appendix B).
An open-ended interview provides the researcher with the ability to ask the same
question in the same order for all of the participants. According to Patton (2002), this
process reduces the interviewer effect and bias. Open-ended questions are created to
encourage the participants to provide full responses and to be comfortable during the
process. A copy of the interview questions was provided to all of the participants.
According to Janesick (2011), this is a format used to prepare the interview process. The
interview was digitally recorded, and field notes were taken during the interview. The
interviews were transcribed for analysis and downloaded in the NVivo data management
software version 10 to save the information and to code the data.
Pilot Study
A pilot study was developed for refining the research instrument of my study.
According to Maxwell (2013), the function of the pilot study is to test the study methods
and to explore any implications. Researchers perform pilot studies, or at least components
of piloting techniques, to sharpen their skills (Janesick, 2011). Furthermore, the pilot
study helped me to identify any problems in the interview protocol. Maxwell indicated
69
that pilot studies help the researcher to develop an understanding of the concepts from the
people who are studied. This pilot study allowed me to improve the protocol for the
interview and to evaluate the questions that were asked of the participants. Also, the pilot
study helped me in sharpen my interviewing skills.
For the pilot study, I used three participants who were not a part of my sample
size, but came from the same manufacturing organization in the Dominican Republic for
testing my interview questions and verifying any gaps in the protocol method. Based on
the feedback from the three participants in the pilot study, no modifications needed to be
performed to the interview protocol questions. Therefore, a request for changes form was
not submitted to IRB.
Data Analysis Plan
The data analysis plan included using NVivo data management software version
10. NVivo 10 is a helpful tool to analyze and organize the files and it generates the codes
of the information from the interview. The NVivo software assists the researcher in
organizing the material during the classification, sorting, and arrangement of the
information. The NVivo software helped me to examine the data and compile the analysis
with links related to the investigation, such as audio files, pictures, Excel spreadsheets,
and PDF files. The NVivo software was used to manage the data, ideas, and query;
provide graphics; create nodes; export data; analyze audio; identify words; and create a
final report of the investigation. In the study, I conducted all of the interviews by using a
recording process, and this helped me to organize my information and notes. A
transcribed process was generated to create the coding of each interview.
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In the data collection, I performed a verification to understand how the data were
been managed. The data management techniques that were implemented in this research
plan included backing up all of the information using an external hard drive to maintain
copies of the information generated from the interview. Also, another computer with the
same information was used as a backup. A master list was created to develop a matrix of
the data collection as a tracking system.
Trustworthiness
Credibility in a qualitative study depends on the following three elements:
rigorous methods, a credibility of the research, and a belief in the value of the qualitative
inquiry. According to Patton (2002), a qualitative research strategy is necessary to use in
order for study to be credible. In this study, an interview protocol was prepared with 10
open-ended questions so that the participants felt comfortable in providing their answers.
For the credibility process, I reviewed and practiced my interview questions to get
a deeper knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon in the study and used a
purposeful sampling to provide accuracy in my data collection. Moreover, to ensure the
quality, trustworthiness, and credibility of my investigation, I asked my participants to
verify and judge the data from the interview and to review the validity of the conclusions
I generated..
Furthermore, I used an external person as an auditor who did not have a
connection with the study to examine and measure the accuracy of the process. The use
of an external auditor increases the accuracy in the study (Janesick, 2011). To improve
the reliability of the study, I recorded in detail the field notes during the interview. Also, I
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verified the quality of my recorder and made sure that the transcribing process was
processed in detail.
Ethical Concerns
During the planning and design process of my investigation, I evaluated all of the
ethical issues that could affect the study and analyzed how they could be addressed.
Based on this, I have established a procedure that was used in the study as follows:
• The investigation was submitted to IRB Approval No. 02-06-15-0268466
• I sent a letter of cooperation from the human resources department of the
company in the Dominican Republic to perform the investigation
• Permission was requested from the expatriate managers to use them in the
study
Prior to the interview process, I provided the general purpose of the study to all of
the participants. Also, I provided a brief description of how the data would be collected
from the participants and a discussion of how and where the data would be used. With
this procedure, I created trust and access to all the participants. During the interview
process in the study, the privacy of the participants was respected to protect their
anonymity.
All of the participants were assigned a number for their privacy. During the
development of the final report, I used all of the guidelines from the American
Psychological Association (APA, 2010) using the appropriate unbiased language and
appropriate level of specificity. Patton (2002) established that ethical problems do not
stop with the data collection or analysis, but should be analyzed in the final report. All of
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the electronic data were saved and will be locked on my laptop for 5 years after the
completion of the research. After those 5 years, all of the data will be destroyed and
deleted from my laptop.
Copies of the final investigation report, including results, were e-mailed to all of
participants for their review and feedback. I gathered high-quality data from the
participants, and the interview was neutral. I followed several steps to ensure ethics:
• Explain purpose
• Risk assessment
• Confidentiality
• Ownership
• Inform results
• open-ended questions
• Advice
• Data access and management
• Sensitivity
Furthermore, Patton (2002) established that an important ethical issue is when the
researcher shares the personal experience with the participant in the interview about the
phenomenon that is under investigation. I was an expatriate manager who worked with
cross-cultural teams, but avoided making any comments or sharing my experience with
the participants in the interview process. This helped me to get the correct information
from the participants in the study. Lastly, the final results of the research were shared
with the participants through e-mail after receiving approval from Walden University that
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my degree has been conferred. The final report was an executive summary that contained
three to five pages of the results and conclusions of the investigation.
Summary
In this chapter, I described all of the steps that were used for the study including
the research design, the role of the research, the instrumentation, and the research plan.
Also, the population and sample size were presented to provide an overview of the
participants and the responsibility of the researcher. All of the participants were
expatriate managers with more than 10 years of experience managing cross-cultural
teams. Moreover, this chapter contained the pilot test that was performed to gain
confidence with the interview process. The pilot test helped me to improve the interview
process and gain confidence with the participants.
Furthermore, this chapter included a description of the data collection and the
steps taken to ensure the trustworthiness and the credibility of the study. I allowed the
participants to review the final report to ensure credibility. To ensure quality in the
study, all the data were analyzed using NVivo data management, which improves the
accuracy of the study and generates the coding themes to answer the research questions.
Chapter 4 will include a detailed description of the field study results, such as the data
analysis, setting for the interview results, and findings of the investigation regarding the
research questions.
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Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the shared
lived experiences of expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the
U.S. territory, specifically in the manufacturing environment of companies located in the
Dominican Republic, in order to identify methods to improve their effectiveness during
their overseas assignment. The interviews with expatriate managers with 10 years of
experience from different functional areas managing cross-cultural teams involved the
identification of methods to improve their effectiveness when managing cross-cultural
teams.
This chapter contains the following elements of the results of the study: (a) pilot
study results, (b) data collection, (c) data analysis, and (d) results. The chapter ends with
a summary and short transition to Chapter 5.
Pilot Study Results
A pilot study was performed to test the interview questions for the study. These
questions were field-tested based on the recommendations of three randomly selected
participants who were a not part of my sample size, but came from the same
manufacturing organization in the Dominican Republic. The three participants indicated
that all of the interview questions were appropriate and would provide useful information
for the study. The three participants mentioned that the questions were designed to
provide them with the opportunity to contribute more information. As a result of these
recommendations, no modifications were required to the original interview questions.
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Participant 1 stated that all of the questions were useful in providing a method to
improve the effectiveness of managing cross-cultural teams. Also, Participant 1 noted
that the questions addressed the strengths and weaknesses in managing teams outside the
U.S. territory. Participant 2 in the pilot study indicated that the questions provided an
opportunity to contribute more information in the study about how to manage effective
cross-cultural teams. Lastly, Participant 3 noted that the questions were appropriate to
discover how expatriate managers managed effective cross-cultural teams.
Data Collection
The study involved 20 expatriate managers with more than 10 years of experience
working in a medical device industry. The participants had worked, or were currently
working, with cross-cultural teams in the Dominican Republic. The 20 participants
worked in different departments, such as finances, manufacturing, human resources,
manufacturing engineering, R&D engineering, material sciences, IT, and supply chain
management.
The data collection used in this study was the interview. An invitation letter was
sent via e-mail to all of the participants to verify their availability to participate in the
research. The 20 participants responded to the e-mail invitation letter in 3 to 5 business
days; 25% of the participants responded to the invitation letter in 3 days, 55% in 4 days,
and 20% in 5 days. After this, all of the interviews were scheduled using their Microsoft
Outlook calendar. E-mails were sent to all of the participants as a reminder of the
interview, as well as the reason for the study.
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Before the interview, all of the participants read and signed the consent form and
sent it to my personal e-mail address. The duration of each interview was on average
approximately 30 minutes. All of the interviews were performed by conference calls and
were recorded using a digital recorder with an iPhone application. Each participant
answered the 10 interview questions and provided detailed information that supported the
study. The data collection followed the strategy established in Chapter 3. No variations
were made in the data collections that were planned in the strategy outlined in the
proposal.
Data Analysis
All of the interviews were recorded and transcribed in a Microsoft Word file
using the same format. After the formatting process, all of the interview documents were
imported to NVivo software. The analysis of the qualitative data involved using NVivo
Version 10 to organize and store the data for accurate and reliable analysis. NVivo is a
qualitative data analysis software tool that assists researchers in examining and compiling
the data to classify, sort, and arrange the information in an organized process to generate
different themes or codes from the interview. The coding application in the NVivo
software was used to identify words and phrases linked by themes that came from the
interview transcripts. The data were examined using coding for linking phrases,
sentences, or words that were similar from the participants. Nodes were created in NVivo
to correlate the specific themes that participants were provided using the same
information. These nodes helped me in the analysis to look for patterns or ideas. The
coding process is a fundamental task of a qualitative research study, and this helped me to
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identify the participants’ comments, the consistency of their ideas, and the sources in the
interview to correlate the effective methods to be used in managing teams in foreign
countries.
The results of the interview analysis process in the NVivo software produced
several themes. The thematic categories were (a) participants with experience managing
cross-cultural teams, (b) challenges of managing cross-cultural teams, (c) benefits of
managing cross-cultural teams, (d) effective tools to manage cross-cultural teams, (e)
cross-cultural training received, (f) competencies for future expatriate, (g) improving
effectiveness, and (h) being successful in managing cross-cultural teams.
Results
This section contains the results of all of the findings from the study. The results
were organized based on eight themes with their codes that came from the data analysis
performed using the software NVivo 10. This section also includes tables and direct
quotes from the participants for clarity of the results.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was as follows: What are the experiences of expatriate
managers regarding the effective management of cross-cultural teams in the
manufacturing environment in the Dominican Republic? Four themes arose in the
analysis of the first research question, such as places with experiences in managing cross-
cultural teams, the challenges of managing cross-cultural teams, the benefits of managing
cross-cultural teams, and effective tools to manage cross-cultural teams.
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Theme 1: Participants with experiences in managing cross-cultural teams.
Twenty participants (100%) had the experience of working with a cross-cultural team in
the Dominican Republic. However, there were other participants who had worked with
cross-cultural teams in other countries. Eight participants (40%) had experienced
managing cross-cultural teams in Puerto Rico, five participants (25%) had experienced
managing cross-cultural team in Singapore, and four participants (20%) had experienced
managing cross-cultural teams in Mexico. Table 1 shows the codes as per the
participant’s interview.
Table 1
Codes for Participants with Experiences in Managing Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Dominican Republic 20 100
Puerto Rico 8 40
Singapore 5 25
Mexico 4 20
Brazil 3 15
China 3 15
Japan 3 15
Netherlands 1 5
The majority of the participants reported that their transfers to these countries had
been to perform a leadership role as transferring manufacturing lines with high
technology, installation of the networking systems, establishment of financial process, or
establishment of production capability for new products. Participant 5 emphasized that
the primary objective of the expatriates included oversight, support, and the engagement
of the team to complete facility expansion, validations, and quality policies.
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Theme 2: Challenges of managing cross-cultural teams. The majority of the
participants (95%) claimed that the major challenge of managing a cross-cultural team
was the communication process. However, 70% of the participants (14 of 20) stated that
the main challenge is language. Table 2 shows the codes as per the participants’
interviews.
Table 2
Codes for the Challenges of Managing Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to
offer this experience
% of Participants
offer this experience
Communication 19 95
Language 14 70
Technology Knowledge 7 35
Ethic 4 20
Planning 3 15
Accountability 2 10
Government 2 10
Location 2 10
Lack of Initiative 1 5
Participant 13 noted, “Oftentimes the message that was communicated was not
understood by the team and different directions were followed, resulting on redoing the
work and delay of projects, this is why the communication needs to be clear and
accurate.” Participant 12 had the same experienced and mentioned, “The limited
vocabulary in communication causes delay of the projects is important the information is
transferred effectively and clearly to the team.” Participant 8 spoke about the difficulty of
transferring the information to the team: “Communication seems to be the biggest
challenge. Having the team understand what you are trying to convey can be more
difficult than it seems.” Participant 18 shared the same experience and mentioned that
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communication needs to be robust because it will create a roadblock in the process.
However, Participant 5 noted, “The communication is critical, especially if there is a
language barrier that needs to be overcome and written communication is the best way to
deal with communication problems.”
Several participants indicated that language is a challenge when managing cross-
cultural teams. Participant 4 stated, “Major challenges included the language, it is really a
huge road-block if the team is not using the standard language during the project
assigned.” Participant 1 mentioned, “The language barrier is a big problem when having
technical discussions with the team this creates confusion and mistakes.” Participant 15
noted, “Language barrier can be a force to be reckoned with to ensure communication is
effective and clear when managing cross-cultural teams.” Participant 17 commented,
“Language became a challenge because all the standard operating procedures are in
English, and this is an issue to manage with the team when they spoke Spanish.”
Theme 3: Benefits of managing cross-cultural teams. The participants in the
study provided their experience about the benefit of managing cross-cultural teams.
Eleven participants (55%) stated that a benefit of managing a cross-cultural team is that
the team members are willing to learn. On the other hand, seven participants (35%)
claimed that the benefits of managing a cross-cultural team include sharing ideas, which
help the team to perform their job effectively. In addition, five participants (25%) noted
collaboration as a benefit. Table 3 shows the codes as per the participants’ interviews.
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Table 3
Codes for the Benefits of Managing Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Willing to Learn 11 55
Sharing Ideas 7 35
Collaboration 5 25
Energetic 3 15
Responsible 2 10
Career Advancement 1 5
Dynamic 1 5
Enthusiastic 1 5
Hard Worker 1 5
Several participants expressed that a benefit of managing cross-cultural teams was
their willingness to learn. This helps them to manage the team more effectively.
Participant 10 claimed that cross-cultural teams are eager to learn new ideas and methods.
Participant 13 echoed the same experience about the benefits of managing cross-cultural
teams and mentioned, “This enriched each side and provided to the team and managers a
unique opportunity to ensure the knowledge transfer. This is critical for the project that
involves design, product or processes.”
Participant 12 stated that a willingness to learn creates an opportunity to improve
the business strategy. Some participants indicated that an employee’s willingness to learn
provided opportunities for sharing ideas, and this made it easier to manage the team
effectively. Participant 17 mentioned, “This creates an opportunity to learn different
approaches to solving problems and manage the situation, create access to potential
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talents, an opportunity to focus on the important areas, and increased the freedom of
trying new things.”
Some participants indicated that sharing ideas was beneficial during managing
cross-cultural teams, which provides an enrichment for potential solutions and
innovation. Participant 2 spoke about the benefit of sharing ideas with cross-cultural
team: “Sharing ideas with the team increase the creativity and encourage innovation of
the team.” Participant 14 mentioned, “The strength of managing cross-cultural teams is
the process of sharing ideas to generate different opinions and suggestions.” Another
benefit experienced by the participants was the collaboration. Participant 20 noted
“Collaboration opened the opportunity for improving the communication with the team
and created the opportunity for a better strategy.”
Theme 4: Effective tools for managing cross-cultural teams. The participants
in the study provided their experiences regarding effective tools for managing cross-
cultural teams. Fifteen participants (75%) claimed that, in order to manage a cross-
cultural team, effective project management was needed. Five participants (20%)
experienced project management at their tea meetings. Table 4 shows the codes as per the
participants’ interviews.
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Table 4
Codes for Effective Tools for Managing Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Project Management 15 75
Team Meetings 5 20
Negotiation 2 10
Respect 2 10
Written Communication 1 5
SMART Approach 1 5
Speak Slowly 1 5
The majority of the participants indicated that an effective tool for managing
cross-cultural teams was project management. Participant 13 mentioned, “Having clear
end goal and milestones that ensure project completion.” Participant 5 spoke about how
project management is effective for managing cross-cultural team: “Setting objectives
with the team is essential to understand the local constraints and ways of doing things;
here is where project management tools help to organize the ideas.” Participant 20
mentioned, “establishment of priorities and ownership is effective for managing cross-
cultural teams, which is what project management provide.” Moreover, Participant 4
noted, “The project management is a key process of planning to align the team and the
proper selection of the project.” Other participants identified that team meetings are a tool
needed to manage cross-cultural teams. Participant 11 mentioned, “Team meetings set the
ground rules and the perspective of the team, this helps to be aligned.” Participant 7
indicated, “Team meetings helps to set expectations and clarify concerns with the teams,
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this make sure that the project will be completed.” Participant 20 emphasized that team
meetings are a tool to track projects and their status.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was as follows: What are the perceptions of expatriate
managers regarding the effectiveness of cross-cultural training? One theme arose in the
analysis about the cross-cultural training.
Theme 5: Cross-cultural training received to manage cross-cultural teams.
The majority of the participants in the study expressed their experiences about cross-
cultural training received for managing cross-cultural teams. Twenty participants (100%)
did not received cross-cultural training from the corporation. However, (20%) of the
participants (four of 20) received cross-cultural training outside of their corporations.
Table 5 shows the codes as per the participants’ interviews.
Table 5
Codes for the Cross-Cultural Training received to Manage Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
No Training from corporation 20 100
Outside 4 20
All of the participants indicated that they had not received cross-cultural training
from the corporations. Therefore, the participants did not provide their perception about
cross-cultural training. However, Participant 18 spoke about the importance of the cross-
cultural training for the expatriate managers; while he did not receive training, he applied
some of the learning concepts to deal with cross-cultural issues. “I had no specific
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training about the management of cross-cultural teams, but I tried to apply the knowledge
and concepts learned in the East Lothian Learning Partnership (ELLP) training, OZ
principle training, plus my previous leadership experience.” Participant 17 mentioned,
“No cross-cultural training. However, as the operation strategy leader, I have access to a
very knowledgeable network of colleagues that have tremendous practical knowledge of
the global business.” Participant 5 had similar experiences and noted, “Very minimal
guidance from Corporation HR, but I worked with current expats from the US and
Switzerland to best integrate and learn myself with them.”
Four participants (20%) noted that their cross-cultural training was not provided
by the corporation, and they took the initiative to search for training outside of the
corporation. Participant 9 mentioned, “Training from the corporation was limited, but I
attended several courses at the University of California, Irvine such as Latin and Asia
culture training and cultural issues.” Participant 19 had the same experience, and he
mentioned, “I had taken a modern anthropology class at the California State University at
Long Beach, which focused on business, cultural differences due to that cross-cultural
training from the corporation was limited.”
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was as follows: What do expatriate managers suggest to
improve the effectiveness of future expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams
in the Dominican Republic? Three themes arose in the analysis about suggested
improvements for future expatriate managers, such as competencies for future expatriate,
improving effectiveness, and being successful in managing cross-cultural teams.
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Theme 6: Competencies for future expatriates. The majority of the participants
in the study provided their suggestions based on their experiences about the competencies
that future expatriate managers must have when managing cross-cultural teams in foreign
countries. Fifteen participants (75%) suggested that one of the key competencies that
future expatriate managers must have is communication skills. Thirteen participants
(65%) suggested that leadership skills are important to be effective in managing cross-
cultural teams, and seven participants (35%) suggested that language is important for
managing cross-cultural teams. Table 6 shows the codes as per the participants’
interviews.
Table 6
Codes for the Competencies for Future Expatriates
Codes No. of participants to
offer this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Communication Skill 15 75
Leadership Skill 13 65
Language 7 35
Result Oriented 5 25
Adaptable 3 15
Influence 3 15
Listener 3 15
Organization Skill 3 15
Relationship Skill 3 15
Patience 2 10
Detail Oriented 1 5
The participants indicated that communication skills are a key competency to
managing cross-cultural teams. Participant 1 mentioned, “Communication is the most
important skill in managing a team and needs to be adjusted to fit the local team better
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and effectively to motivate the team.” Participant 14 noted, “The communication style to
be employed is relevant to be effective in driving action and results.” Participant 17
claimed that communication improves the motivation of the team:
Communication skills will keep the organization motivated, focused on achieving
short-long term goals of the corporation and as result individuals will feel they are
working within a fair environment that provides opportunities for development
and advancement based on merit. This also creates an opportunity to continue
learning.
Participant 3 spoke about the importance of leadership competencies for future
expatriates: “Good leadership skill is essential for managing a cross-cultural team to
obtain good results.” Participant 2 mentioned, “Leadership skills reduce the risk of wrong
decisions and helps to achieve corporate goals.” Participant 2 suggested, “Leadership is a
competency that guarantees the success of your work because if the team sees you as a
good leader they will follow you to any place.”
Participant 8 spoke about the importance of speaking the same language to
effectively manage a cross-cultural team: “Speaking the same language is necessary for
managing cross-cultural teams because this can avoid misunderstanding and confusion
when providing directions.” Participant 6 echoed the same suggestion about speaking the
same language: “Speaking the same language would be at the top of my list because this
creates a perfect environment for collaboration.”
Theme 7: Improving effectiveness. The majority of the participants in the study
provided their suggestions based on their experiences on how to improve the
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effectiveness of futures expatriate managers when managing cross-cultural teams in
foreign countries. Nineteen participants (95%) suggested that future expatriate managers
must have cross-cultural training to effectively manage cross-cultural teams. Six
participants (30%) indicated that future expatriate managers must have planning
knowledge to manage cross-cultural teams in foreign countries. Table 7 shows the codes
as per the participants’ interviews.
Table 7
Codes for Improving Effectiveness
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Cross-Cultural Training 19 95
Planning knowledge 6 30
Strategy Alignment 3 15
Motivation 2 10
Be Proactive 1 5
Define Objective 1 5
The participants indicated that cross-cultural training is necessary to improve
cross-cultural teams. Participant 1 mentioned, “Companies should promote the right
cross-cultural training where the individual can develop their cross-cultural skills.”
Participant 11 stated, “With cross-cultural training the manager can identify how to
influence and motivate the team.”
Participant 5 spoke about how the managers need to collaborate with human
resources to get the necessary training to be effective in the host country:
The U.S. managers should collaborate with Human Resources to be thoroughly
trained and aware of the culture he is to be immersed in before departure. This
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will provide knowledge to recognize and accelerate the integration, adaptability
and management of the team upon arrival.
Participant 15 noted, “Cross-cultural training would be very helpful in building
better leaders that can manage cross-cultural teams.” Participant 8 emphasized that cross-
cultural training is beneficial for the adaptation of the host country: “Cross-cultural
training provides skills to be adapted to the new cultures and this help to be effective at
the work.”
Other participants indicated that, to improve the effectiveness of managing cross-
cultural teams, expatriate managers should have planning knowledge. Participant 11
mentioned, “Expatriate managers should have knowledge on planning to establish real,
achievable goals this will be helpful to the host team.” Participant 10 noted, “Planning
knowledge can be beneficial to the team as a way to get everyone on the same page for
completing a project.”
Participant 20 claimed that expatriate managers with planning knowledge
improve the effectiveness of the cross-cultural team: “The key to making the cross-
cultural teams work well, is focusing on a set objectives. This planning process is the
main output to generate the ideas and solutions.” Participant 18 stated that planning
knowledge ensures the alignment of the team and the corporation: “The planning skills
guarantee the alignment of corporate and cross-cultural teams to support the business
strategies.”
Theme 8: Be successful in managing cross-cultural teams. The participants in
the study provided their suggestions based on their experiences on how to be successful
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when managing cross-cultural teams in foreign countries. Nine participants (50%)
suggested that future expatriates need to understand the culture. Five participants (25%)
suggested that future expatriate managers must receive coaching to manage cross-cultural
teams in foreign countries. Table 8 shows the codes as per the participants’ interviews.
Table 8
Codes for be Successful in Managing Cross-Cultural Teams
Codes No. of participants to offer
this experience
% of Participants offer
this experience
Understand the culture 10 50
Coaching 5 25
Learn about Local Law 3 15
Set clear expectations 2 10
Team Building 2 10
Bilingual 1 5
Several participants stated that, in order for expatriate managers to be successful
while managing cross-cultural teams, they need to understand the culture. Participant 18
mentioned,
We must spend quality time on understanding the culture and their differences.
Based on that, we must create and work the new experiences that will create and
build the expected beliefs that will influence the right actions that will get us to
the success.
Participant 20 echoed the same ideas about needing to understand the culture to
be successful in managing cross-cultural teams: “Understanding the culture facilitates the
establishment of the open communication with the host team and improves the adaptation
of the expatriate.” Participant 10 said, “I would suggest to the leader to immerse himself
91
into the culture to better understand the ideas and conflict of the team, this will help to
deal with the team members.” Similarly, Participant 16 mentioned, “It is important to
know your team members very well and their potential, based on this is important to learn
and understand their culture to be successful.” Participant 20 said, “Understand the
cultural differences of the host country and what is important for them is an important
step for the success of the leader because it creates confidence and an open environment
to meet company goals.”
Others participants focused on the importance of coaching to be successful while
managing cross-cultural teams. Participant 9 mentioned, “To be successful in the host
country the leader must get continuing coaching from human resources or a supervisor.
This will establish future expectations, improvements, and adjustments that need to be
done.” Participant 4 said, “Coaching is vital to understanding and knowing what the
corporation is expecting from you during the assignment.”
Summary
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the shared
lived experiences of expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the
U.S. territory, specifically in the manufacturing environment of companies located in the
Dominican Republic. The purpose was to identify methods to improve management
effectiveness during their overseas assignment. The analysis helped me to analyze the 20
interviews and create themes and patterns. The results generated eight themes:
1. Participants with experiences in managing cross-cultural teams
2. Challenges of managing cross-cultural teams
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3. Benefits of managing cross-cultural teams
4. Effective tools for managing cross-cultural teams
5. Cross-cultural training received for managing cross-cultural teams
6. Competencies for future expatriate managers
7. Improving the effectiveness for managing cross-cultural teams
8. Be successful in managing cross-cultural teams
All of the participants described the places that they have worked in managing
cross-cultural teams. The participants mentioned that they had managed teams in the
Dominican Republic. Also, other participants had managed cross-cultural teams in Puerto
Rico, Singapore, and Mexico. Their primary role in these overseas countries was as a
leader in charge of facility expansion, process validation, and quality implementation.
In terms of the challenges of managing cross-cultural teams in the Dominican
Republic, most of the participants claimed that communication is the biggest challenge,
followed by language and technology knowledge. Participants identified several benefits
of managing cross-cultural teams in the Dominican Republic. Some of the benefits cited
were willing to learn, sharing ideas, and collaboration.
In terms of effective tools needed to manage a cross-cultural team in the
Dominican Republic, the participants cited project management, team meetings, and
negotiation. No participants received cross-cultural training from the corporation
previous to their departure to the host country; the majority of the participants had not
received training experience.
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All of the participants described several competencies for future expatriate
managers, such as a communication skills, leadership skills, and communicating in the
same language. In terms of how to improve the effectiveness of future managers, the
participants cited cross-cultural training and planning knowledge as being important.
Most of the participants provided suggestions about how to be successful while managing
cross-cultural teams, such as understanding the culture and coaching. Chapter 5 contains
the interpretation of the findings, limitations and strengths, recommendations,
implications, and the conclusion of the study.
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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the shared
lived experiences of expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams outside of the
U.S. territory, specifically in the manufacturing environment of companies located in the
Dominican Republic, in order to identify methods to improve their effectiveness during
their overseas assignment. The interview process involved 20 expatriate managers with
more than 10 years of experience working with cross-cultural teams in foreign countries.
The interviews were important because all of the expatriate managers helped to identify
methods to improve their effectiveness while managing cross-cultural teams in foreign
countries. Also, the study provided information about cross-cultural training and
recommendations for top management in corporations to be included in their business
strategies. The results provided factors to improve the effectiveness of expatriate
managers when managing cross-cultural teams.
Chapter 5 contains a summary, interpretation of the findings, strengths and
limitations of the study, recommendations for future studies, the implication for social
change, and conclusions. Chapter 5 also provides the results in Chapter 4 in correlation
with the information provided in Chapter 1 and the literature review presented in Chapter
2.
Summary
The analysis for this qualitative phenomenology study included data obtained
from interviews with 20 expatriate managers who are working or have worked with
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cross-cultural teams outside of the United States, specifically in the manufacturing
environment of the Dominican Republic. The qualitative data analysis provided themes
that were used to respond the research questions for this study. This analysis produced
eight themes:
1. Participants with experiences in managing cross-cultural teams
2. Challenges of managing cross-cultural teams
3. Benefits of managing cross-cultural teams
4. Effective tools for managing cross-cultural teams
5. Cross-cultural training received for managing cross-cultural teams
6. Competencies for future expatriate managers
7. Improving effectiveness for managing cross-cultural teams
8. Being successful in managing cross-cultural teams
These themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews conducted with the
expatriate managers. All 20 of the expatriate managers were interviewed on their idle
time, and all of the participants had the same amount of time to express their experiences.
All of the interviews were conducted during a week and a half without any cancellations
or rescheduling. Moreover, the interviews were conducted in privacy by conference calls
or using Skype. The use of the NVivo software provided a quality analysis to obtain
better results.
Interpretation of the Findings
In this section, I describe an analysis of the findings, applying the literature
review and conceptual frameworks. The literature and frameworks provided information
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about cross-cultural training and how to effectively manage cross-cultural teams that will
help the expatriate managers during their overseas assignments. The discussion is
organized based on the research questions of the study.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was as follows: What are the experiences of expatriate
managers regarding the effective management of cross-cultural teams in the
manufacturing environment in the Dominican Republic? A majority of the participants
expressed that there are several challenges to managing effective cross-cultural teams.
One of these challenges was the communication process with the host country team. The
participants claimed that this process affects the effectiveness of the team if the
information is not understood by the team, which can create confusion and a delay of the
project.
Another challenge that the participants experienced was the language barrier.
Participants indicated that this could be a roadblock in the process of technical
discussions or transfer of knowledge and made it more difficult to manage the team. This
confirms Tian and Borges’ (2012) analysis who found that communication and language
are the most important factors that affect the success of expatriate managers in the host
country. These challenges can affect the performance of the expatriates, creating
frustration and anger. According to the cultural shock theory, these challenges can create
frustration and failure in the assignment (Shi & Wang, 2014).
However, the participants showed that there are some benefits and tools for
managing effective cross-cultural teams. Regarding the benefits of managing cross-
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cultural teams, the participants expressed that the cross-cultural teams are willing to
learn, and this process helps the expatriates to ensure the transfer of the knowledge. The
experiential learning theory confirmed this in the literature, which is used to understand
the learning received by the individual and the processing of the information (Akella,
2010).
In terms of effective tools for managing cross-cultural teams, the participants
indicated that project management is an effective tool for setting objectives and
organizing the team. In addition, the participants noted that project management is key to
aligning the team to set the strategies and meet the project milestones. The organization
of the expatriates is important in managing an effective team. According to Trkman
(2010), the goals, missions, and strategies must be clear and simple for the cross-cultural
team. In addition, the expatriates must establish mission and meaning, strategy,
execution, integration, and leadership development (Canals, 2014). The participants
mentioned that setting clear expectation and priorities for the team is effective for the
host team. Aaworb-nang and Opare (2014) confirmed that this process increases the
productivity and stabilization of the host team. The design of a cross-cultural team is
important for the expatriate managers for the stabilization of the team to increase the
performance of the group in meeting the company goals.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was as follows: What are the perceptions of expatriate
managers regarding the effectiveness of cross-cultural training? According to the study
results, the majority of the participants were not exposed to cross-cultural training
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previous to their departure for their assignments. Due to the lack of cross-cultural
training, the participants did not provide their perception about cross-cultural training;
therefore, Research Question 2 was an end point for the interview. Despite the lack of
cross-cultural training, the participants in the study mentioned that they learned by
themselves or from other expats about how to manage cultural diversity. This is
confirmed in the conceptual framework theory, where the self-learning experience of the
expatriate managers includes a process of creating knowledge to minimize their impact
on adaptation, and this is supported by the experiential learning theory. According to
Kayes (2005), the experiential learning theory has a learning cycle in which an individual
learns by engaging in concrete experiences, reflective observations, abstract
conceptualizations, and experimentations.
Due to the participants’ lack of cross-cultural training, it is evident that
corporations may have doubts about the benefits of cross-cultural training for their
expatriate managers to improve their performance, adaptation, and effectiveness in
foreign countries. This is confirmed in the analysis of the literature review where Wurtz
(2014) mentioned that there are many gaps in cross-cultural training in corporations.
However, some participants took the initiative to search outside cross-cultural
training to improve their effectiveness during their assignment in the host country. With
this initiative, the expatriate managers acquired the knowledge to deal with the host team.
Gabrielson, Seristo, and Darling (2009) confirmed that successful expatriates learn to
become more aware of their intention. Hope (2010) mentioned that successful expatriate
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managers must learn to become more aware of their expectations to achieve better
performance.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was as follows: What do expatriate managers suggest to
improve the effectiveness of future expatriate managers in managing cross-cultural teams
in the Dominican Republic? According to the results of the study, the expatriate
managers suggested that future expatriate managers need to have several competencies,
such as communication and leadership skills. These skills provide confidence and
motivate the host team to meet their goals. Popescu et al. (2012) noted that
misunderstandings increase with cultural differences, which affects the communication
between groups. Communication tactics, such as slowing down to speak, avoiding
negative questions, taking turns talking, and being supportive improves the effectiveness
of the expatriates (Popescu et al., 2012). Expatriate managers need to use an effective
communication process to transfer the information to their teams. According to the study
results, participants mentioned that leadership skill is essential for future expatriates and
will reduce the risks and bad decisions that prevent employees from achieving the
company goals. Coate (2010) confirmed that leadership plays a role in dealing with the
changes in business, social, cultural, and political areas. Management must incorporate
the leadership values, and these must be important for the success of the organization
(Darling & Heller, 2009).
The majority of the participants suggested that future expatriate managers should
receive cross-cultural training. In the answers to Research Question 2, the majority of the
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participants stated that they did not receive cross-cultural training by their corporations.
The participants mentioned that companies should promote cross-cultural training
because this helps the expatriate managers to identify problems and improve adaptation,
integration, and management of the host team. Cross-cultural training helps the expatriate
managers to feel better while managing cross-cultural teams and improves their
performance (Qin & Baruch, 2010).
Not only does cross-cultural training program help the expatriate managers in
their adaptation and integration process in foreign countries, but it also reduces culture
shock. Cross-cultural training is being considered as a positive phase for professionals to
avoid cultural shock (Muhammad et al., 2012). Muhammad et al. (2012) claimed that the
effects of cultural shock in foreign countries and inadequate preparation are two of the
major reasons for failure of the expatriate managers. The lack of cross-cultural training
could lead to a stressful experience for the expatriate manager (Selmer, 1999).
Moreover, the participants indicated that future expatriate managers must
understand the culture. The participants indicated that understanding the culture improves
communication and adaptation, which creates confidence in their ability to manage a
cross-cultural team. Expatriate managers must understand cultural process, such as how
the people react, values and beliefs, and their assumptions (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2012).
Knowledge of cultural process is acquired by cross-cultural training (Caligiuri & Tarique,
2012).
The participants indicated that future expatriate managers need to immerse
themselves in the culture to understand the values and needs of the team. To be effective,
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expatriate managers need to understand their values (Oddus, 2010). The effectiveness of
the expatriate managers depends on the quality of the cross-cultural training that they
receive.
Strengths and Limitations of the Study
The strengths of the study included the identification of methods to improve the
effectiveness of expatriate managers during their overseas assignments. Another strength
of the study was the information needed to demonstrate to the top management in
corporations the importance of cross-cultural training to improve the effectiveness of the
expatriate managers in foreign countries. The results of the study provided information
regarding the experiences of expatriate managers who are working or have worked with
cross-cultural teams in a manufacturing environment of the Dominican Republic. Few
expatriate managers received cross-cultural training from their corporation to deal with
cultural problems in foreign countries. As a consequence, several expatriate managers
decided to search outside training or self-learning to improve their performance and adapt
to their host country. However, the participants demonstrated several methods for future
expatriate managers for improving their effectiveness, such as communication,
leadership, and cultural awareness.
The results of the study were consistent with the literature review regarding the
importance of cross-cultural training and the different methods to be effective while
managing cross-cultural teams. In addition, the participants confirmed the conceptual
framework theories (experiential learning theory, social learning theory, and cultural
shock theory) about what the expatriates have learned from their experience or
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observations and the challenges that the expatriate managers have with cross-cultural
teams and their adaptation in foreign countries.
The study was not without limitations. The study was based on the experiences of
a small number of expatriate managers using one culture; therefore, the results of the
study cannot be generalized because these topics need more investigation using different
cultures. Also, the study was bounded by one type of organization. Another limitation
was the way that the interview was performed with some participants using Skype. The
use of a Skype communication limited the observation of the participant’s body language,
and the face-to-face interaction was limited due to connectivity issues. Also, all the
participants in the study came from middle management managers from an organization
overseas. The results of the study can be used by future scholars to learn more about
cross-cultural training and its effectiveness.
Recommendations for Future Study
There are several recommendations that can be made for future investigation
about cross-cultural teams and cross-cultural training based on the findings of this study.
Future investigators may include expatriates from different cultures to compare the
behavior of culture differences. Another recommendation for future study is to
investigate the quality and process of cross-cultural training provided to the expatriate
managers from external contractors. Moreover, further investigation must include cross-
cultural teams to obtain their experiences with expat managers.
One suggestion for future studies is to perform research using a quantitative
method to provide statistical evidence that includes characteristics of the members, such
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as age, gender, and education. Another recommendation for future studies is to explore
the coaching that the expatriate managers receive from their supervisors during their
assignments. Also, future researchers can focus on exploring the lives of female
expatriate managers in foreign countries. Scholars could include a comparison between
female and male expatriates, the techniques that they used to manage teams, and the
adaptation of their family. Furthermore, future researchers can explore the effectiveness
and quality of the cross-cultural training programs provided by corporations. This
research can include the type of resources, existing practices, places, trainer experiences,
and time. Finally, future researchers may take into consideration an evaluation of the
performance and practice of U.S. corporations in foreign countries, such as corporate
social responsibility, to understand the contributions that U.S. organization made to
foreign societies and governments.
Implications for Social Change
The results of the study provided information about the effectiveness of managing
cross-cultural teams in foreign countries. The participants shared the challenges that the
expatriate managers have during managing cross-cultural teams. Also, the participants
showed the lack of training provided to these expatriate managers. Top management in
corporations must understand the importance of cross-cultural training for their managers
before the assignment. Also, it may clarify the assumption that top management in
corporations has that good managers are effective in any place (Black & Mendenhall,
1990).
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Top management in corporations should ensure that the implementations of cross-
cultural training programs for future expatriate managers to develop their capacity to deal
with all the challenges of being assigned to foreign countries. Based on the results, top
management in corporations may include cross-cultural training programs not only for
their expatriate managers, but also for their local U.S. managers due to the cultural
diversity that is found in the United States. The results of this study may help U.S.
companies that plan to transfer operations to foreign countries to better understand
cultural diversity. Also, the results may be instrumental for organizations to be more
effective and improve their business knowledge in cultural diversity. This study has the
potential to improve business practices in foreign countries. Lastly, this study might
provide new standards to implement or improve cross-cultural training programs.
Conclusion
In this study, I focused on the investigation of the effectiveness of expatriate
managers while managing cross-cultural teams in foreign countries. For expatriate
managers be effective in managing cross-cultural team, they need cross-cultural training
to acquire competencies to deal with different challenges in the host country. Also, the
participants demonstrated that there is a lack of cross-cultural training programs and top
management in corporations are not preparing their managers to deal with cultural
problems. The participants in the study indicated that future expatriate managers must
have specific competencies to deal with cross-cultural teams, such as leadership and
communication skills to effectively manage cross-cultural teams. Moreover, the
participants indicated that future expatriate managers must understand the culture, and
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they need to receive coaching from their supervisor or human resources. In this study, I
demonstrated the importance of cross-cultural training programs for managers who
accept assignments in foreign countries. Not all managers are prepared to deal with
cultural diversity, even though they are good managers in the United States. This study
contributed to the knowledge and best practices on how to improve the effectiveness of
expatriate managers during their overseas assignments.
