MCO 456_ASU_ASSIGNMENT 2024_WEEK 6_THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN THE COMMUNICATION VORTEX

THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN THE COMMUNICATION VORTEX

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

MCO 456 - POLITICAL COMMUNICATION

WEEK 6

The Shifting Influence of Power in Communication:

Advances in communication and transportation technology have resulted in

increased community mobility, so that distance is not an obstacle to intensive

interaction and communication. As stated by Lee (1987:14) that: "improved

technology plays an important role in reducing barrier factors, and relationships

become easier and transportation is relatively cheap". Earlier in his research on

modernization in traditional societies, Lerner (1983:32) asserted "increased mobility

between regions in society is largely supported by adequate transportation and

communication facilities".

The availability of transportation and communication to rural areas is an

economically attractive factor for capital owners, as Mountjoy (1983:153) argues, "it

is the transportation factor that attracts capital owners to set up factories in villages".

In addition, there are other reasons such as the relatively cheap price of land, and the

availability of cooperative marginal labor in the early stages of physical development.

But capital owners realize that it is not easy to invest in villages that still maintain

their socio-cultural values. The step to minimize the rejection of the village

community towards the presence of capital owners, who are the elite in the economy,

is to take refuge under the state power apparatus and cooperate with the state with

informal leaders such as opinion leaders, to support the interests of the investment and

the operation of the company.

In the same vein, Kunio (1990:108) states that, "capitalists in Southeast Asia have

connections with the government and utilize them for business". In an effort to

encourage the growth of industrialization in the village, the government also used

opinion leaders to convey development programs, including investment efforts and the

establishment of factories to the community through various forums in the

countryside. The content of the information, in essence, contains the message that the

villagers should know and comply with everything the government has programmed.

This pattern of information delivery shows the dominance of the government with

all its powerful organs of power, but on the other hand emphasizes the powerlessness

of the local community in interactive communication with opinion leaders as elite

figures, supported by interest groups in the village. In fact, rural communities are still

dependent on the role of opinion leaders to defend and support socio-economic life in

agricultural villages.

The pattern of relations between the government, which has the power,

entrepreneurs with large capital, and opinion leaders who have wide influence in the

community, resulted in an integrative force to launch the establishment of factories in

the village. The relationship between the three elements was so close that the

community could not resist the presence of industrialization. Their fundamental

intellectual weakness and lack of skills meant that they tended to surrender, as they did

not have the ability to fight back rationally, prioritizing the interests of the agricultural

sector, which was still the mainstay of hope for most villagers.

The interaction and communication between the village community and opinion

leaders, government and capital owners in the industrialization situation has a complex

impact, such as changes outside the habits and customs of local life in socio-cultural,

economic and rural political issues that have been rooted for generations.

Industrialization that grows in agricultural villages has the potential to shift the

pattern of interaction that was originally homophily, where the interacting parties have

similar values, beliefs, status, and status social and other similar factors, turning into

heterophily, characterized by the interacting parties having multi-dimensional social

characteristics. This socioeconomic plurality creates problems that lead to

disharmonious relationships. Rural communities are divided into communities that are

more oriented towards individual and group interests, so that the spirit of collectivity

and mechanical solidarity, which is one of the characteristics of rural communities, is

increasingly difficult to find in a number of areas.

The development of industry in rural areas has also created a diversity of elite

roles as opinion leaders. In their capacity, elites who have advantages in social

position, rural opinion leaders who originally tended to be polymorphic, controlling a

number of issues, turned into monomorphic, with control over specific types of

information to be disseminated to their audiences. This pattern of information control

makes the position and role of opinion leaders in rural areas no longer dominant as a

reference for the village community.

Opinion leaders who should be able to anticipate change, in fact, some of those

who have a strong influence in the community, tend not to side with the village

community, but rather to defend large capital owners, state power and other interest

groups, which have a strong influence in industrial villages, through unbalanced

political communication, which denies the aspirations of the community.

The forces of industrialization, with its large capital, division of labor and

sustainable productivity, have created new groupings in socioeconomic status that

have led to conflicts of interest, both horizontally and vertically, within village

communities. However, the government and community leaders have paid little

attention to this issue, as a culture that values material goods has become increasingly

influential. On the other hand, the mass media, which is easy to find and access,

informs more about the success of government programs in industrialization than it

does about the various negative impacts faced by the community due to the

establishment of factories in agricultural villages.

Capital owners with their growing industries experienced a downturn when

economic and political problems occurred in Indonesia. The multi-dimensional crisis

in a short period of time affected Geertz (2000: 2) observes that "the occurrence of

economic difficulties in Indonesia has resulted in sluggish economic growth, reduced

industrial activity and layoffs in rural factories". The multi-dimensional crisis

penetrated into all sectors of people's lives in the countryside, from socio-cultural

issues, the economy, to the most sensitive issues such as political issues that were

previously more controlled by various organs of state power in the countryside.

The receding cycle of activity and industrial dynamics in rural areas has

implications for the freedom of rural communities to seek trusted sources of

information. The flow of information is no longer always dominated by opinion

leaders as in two-step communication, from the source of information to opinion

leaders, and opinion leaders disseminate to their audiences.

Information in villages can flow through multi-stage communication (Multi Step

Flow), which has various patterns of message dissemination from information sources

to audiences. In addition, the pattern of information dissemination, as in the

hypodermic needle model about the great power of mass media in influencing its

audience, also takes place in rural communities.

The multidimensional crisis situation, which is more characterized by

communication that refers to political activities, then has an impact on determining the

criteria or supporting factors for the credibility of the role of elite groups as opinion

leaders. The eligibility of the elite is not entirely dominated by the ideal characteristics

of the power holders, but depends on the choice of the village community, as the

masses who hold the democratic mandate.

The credibility of the role of opinion leaders in the situation of agricultural

villages, the development of industry and the decline of industry in rural areas are

interesting issues to be researched in a rural environment that is experiencing changes

triggered by easy access to technology and transportation to rural areas.

The development of communication and transportation technology has clearly

given impetus to the selection of factory sites in rural areas. Meanwhile, rapid physical

development, followed by a national economic downturn, has created complex

socioeconomic problems. This includes the patterns of communication and interaction

between opinion leaders and the community in industrial villages. The complexity of

regional development and the rolling of freedom in the frame of political

communication, encourage the emergence of various issues concerning the criteria for

information sources used by the community, as a reference in discussing problems and

circumstances around them. The pattern of communication between elites as opinion

leaders and village communities has changed. In the context of democratization

brought about by political reform, there are different assessments of the factors that

support or reduce the credibility of the role of opinion leaders in three different

situations, namely (1) from agricultural villages at the beginning of industrial

development, (2) when industrialization develops rapidly, (3) when industrialization

activities in the village recede.

In essence, the criteria that villagers set for the credibility of the role of leaders,

which was originally based on collective similarities to socio-cultural values, has

changed to individual characteristics that place a high value on economic factors.

Therefore, an examination of the credibility of opinion leaders as an elite group

includes:

1. Criteria set by the village community to identify sources of information that are

used as references in discussing problems or circumstances around them.

2. Interaction between opinion leaders and villagers, to find out communication

patterns in different conditions, namely the situation of agricultural villages, when

industrialization develops and after industrialization recedes and reduces its

activities.

3. The role of opinion leaders, to find out the factors that support or reduce the

credibility of opinion leaders in various situations of villages experiencing

changes

In addition, from an academic perspective, this paper is expected to enrich and expand

studies in social sciences, especially communication sciences. This research also seeks

to expand mass communication theory that reviews the credibility of opinion leaders,

social change, mass media and rural areas with all the complexities of change due to

industrialization. In addition, the expansion of aspects of mass communication theory

is expected to encourage the emergence of research in other social science studies.

As for the practical aspect, it is expected to contribute ideas about the changing

patterns of communication and interaction of opinion leaders in rural areas. The ideal

communication pattern in information dissemination, is expected to be used to deal

with problems arising from social change and industrialization in rural areas.

Communication Patterns in Community Interaction

The theory used to explain the credibility of opinion leaders is Max Weber's

Theory of Social Action, namely:

Action is human behavior to which the acting individual attaches subjective

meaning. It can be overt or inward and subjective. Action is social when, by virtue of

the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual(s), it takes account of the

behavior of others and is thereby guided. Social action may be oriented to past,

present, or predicted future behavior of others. Others may be concrete people or

indefinite pluralities.

In a more adaptive perspective, Social Action Theory refers to the following

definition: Social action is all human behavior when and to the extent that individuals

assign a subjective meaning to that behavior. Actions can be overt or covert, can be

positive interventions in a situation or deliberate silence as a sign of agreement in the

situation. (Weber in Mulyana, 2001: 60, Giddens, 1986: 186, Timasheff, 1967: 123).

The use of social action theory is oriented towards the grand theory as the basis of

Symbolic Interaction Theory, which is in line with the qualitative research tradition.

To comprehensively examine the framework, the theory of symbolic interactionism is

referred to as a contextual theoretical basis in communication science, the conception

of society or the impact of very complex social change.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory holds that social life is a process of interaction

that builds, maintains and changes certain habits; besides that meaning can change

over time, from context to context, and from one social group to another. The

symbolic interactionism approach that is well known in the social science paradigm is

the main idea of George Herbert Mead (in Littlejohn, 1982: 171) which states that,

"people are actors or actors in society, not reactors, while social action (social act) is

the umbrella". In this context, social action includes three interconnected parts,

namely: the initial gesture of an individual, the response to the gesture of the other

individual either overtly or covertly, and the outcome of the action is perceived by

both parties.

According to Manis and Meltzer (in Littlejohn, 1992: 169-170) there are seven

general propositions that underlie the thinking of symbolic interactionism theory,

namely: (1). Behavior and interactions between humans are carried out through the

mediation of symbols that contain meaning, (2). People become human after

interacting with other people, (3). Society is a set of interacting people (4). Humans

voluntarily actively shape their own behavior, (5). A person's consciousness or thought

process involves the process of interaction within him, (6). Humans build their

behavior in carrying out their actions, (7). To understand human behavior, it is

necessary to examine hidden behavior / actions.

While commonly used to examine communication theory, is the theory of

symbolic interaction in the perspective of Herbert Blumer (1969: 2) which states

"humans act towards something based on understanding the meaning of something,

understanding the meaning obtained through interaction and understanding the

meaning is also the result of the interpretation process". With the same substance,

Bowers and Bradac (1982: 4) or Myers and Myers (1988: 59), mention,

"communication is contextualized. Aspects of communicative context include language

style, affect displays and explicit comments on intentions".

Based on the characteristics of symbolic interactionism theory, an overview of

contextual theories that can support communication concepts or theories can be

obtained. An examination of the interaction patterns that occur between opinion

leaders and village communities will refer to group communication and mass

communication.

In group communication and mass communication there are various models, or

communication patterns that commonly appear in communication and interaction

between humans. According to Devito (1978: 24) "models in communication provide

a simple description of the communication process, and communication models can

organize various elements in the process of communication action".

The communication model as a reference in previous research includes a linear

model. Focusing on one-way view of communication, this model was adopted by

David Berlo (in Ruben, 1992: 33) by popularizing the process of "Source - Message -

Channel - Source - Message - Channel - Channel - Channel - Source - Message -

Channel – Channel-Receiver". The linear model in its development became a

reference to the hypodermic needle theory, which believes that mass media can have a

strong influence on audiences.

The second communication pattern was popularized by Wilbur Schramm (1977),

namely the interactional or convergence model (convergence) which introduced the

idea of feedback and two-way communication or (cyclical process). The basic

assumption of the convergence model is, "each participant has a dual role, in the sense

that at one time acting as a sender but at another time acting as a receiver". (Rogers

and Kincaid, 1981: 40). Furthermore, it is also stated as follows:

Information and mutual understanding are the dominant components of the

convergence model of communication. Information shared by two or more

participants in the communication process may lead to collective action, mutual

agreement and mutual understanding. (Rogers and Kincaid, 1981: 65).

While the third model is transactional, developed by Dean Barnlund (in Ruben,

1992: 67) which states "all human behavior is communicative, thus there is no single

behavior that cannot be communicated". Or according to Mulyana (2000:111),

"transactional shows that communication participants are interconnected, so we cannot

consider one without considering the other". Considering that the three models are

always visible in individual and group communication and interaction, it is very

feasible if used as a basis for examining communication problems.

In various communication patterns, the source of the message is one of the

elements involved in communication, and many studies on communication

effectiveness cannot be separated from the credibility or trustworthiness of the

message source. Research on modernization in a rural farming environment conducted

by Rogers and Svenning (1969: 184) provides an understanding of credibility, namely

"the level to which the communication source or communication channel can be

trusted and competent by the recipient". While the research of Hovland, Janis and

Kelley (1953: 21) or the writings of Kincaid and Schramm (1987: 34), states

"credibility was defined as the degree to which a communication source is perceived

by a receiver as trustworthy and competence".

The discussion about the existence of credibility is stated by Rogers and Kincaid

(1981: 36) which basically states that, "credibility is always shifting towards a higher

or lower direction, depending on the situation at the time of communication". Rogers

and Svenning's (1969:186) research on the credibility of rural opinion leaders also

found that "high credibility exists for opinion leaders who provide agricultural

innovations, while commercial change agents have very low credibility".

Individual and group attitudes towards the credibility of the message source are

not permanent as explained by Krech, Crutchfield and Ballachey (1962: 216) who

explain: "the attitude of individuals and groups in receiving information can be

incongruent, namely changes in attitudes that are opposite and congruent in the form

of two-way changes, namely increasing degrees of positivity or negativity".

Meanwhile, Ray (1982: 25) states, "trustworthiness can be divided into three zones,

namely (1). Acceptance, (2). Non-commitment and (3). Rejection". Issues that are in

accordance with existing knowledge may be accepted, issues that are outside a

person's life space will be rejected, and issues that lie between the two attitudes are

non-commitment zones that usually do not attract much attention from participants in

a communication situation.

The level of public trust in opinion leaders is based on the assumption that

"opinion leaders are people who have the ability to influence the attitudes and

behaviors of others informally in accordance with their wishes through social

relationships and fostered communication" (Rogers 1973: 103). In carrying out its

role, an opinion leader needs to be supported by credibility that is recognized by its

audience. However, research by Rogers and Svenning (1969), Rogers (1971),

MacBride (1980), Jayaweera and Amunugama (1987), Gonzales (1988) found that

"opinion leaders as development communicators often disagree with their audiences in

the delivery of factual information". Ideally, opinion leaders should be able to play a

role in line with their community and protect social values that have been going on for

generations.

Opinion leaders as pioneers of change in rural areas have leadership that comes

from a variety of authorities, values and formal roles in government. Supporting this

statement is the opinion of Max Weber (in http://www.src.uchicago. edu/ssr1/ Prelims/

Theory Weber.Html., 2003: 12):

3 Pure Types of Legitimate Authority: (1). Rational/legal grounds. belief in the

legality of patterns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority.

Traditional grounds. established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and

the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them. (3). Charismatic

grounds. devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary

character of an individual person, and of the normative pattern or order revealed by

him.

The three types of authority have various impacts on rural Indonesia, for example

rational legal authority supported by state power has the power to force the

community. Such support from government officials has resulted in the displacement

of rural leadership patterns based on traditional or charismatic values. Although

rational legal power is quite dominant, it will not be fully followed by the community

if it does not collaborate with opinion leaders who still have traditional and

charismatic authority in their audiences.

An examination of opinion leaders by Rogers and Svenning (1969:227) explains

that, "there are different functions of opinion leaders in modern and traditional

communities". In short, this asserts that in modern societies, the leadership of opinion

leaders is monomorphic with regard to a single matter; whereas in traditional societies,

the leadership of opinion leaders has polymorphic characteristics, dealing with all

matters and being general in nature.

The social function of opinion leaders in rural areas undergoing change cannot be

separated strictly in a polymorphic or monomorphic dichotomy. In fact, rural

communities undergoing social change, according to Lerner (1983:162), "are still

bound by polymorphic traditional values, but when adopting symbols of

modernization in rural areas, they still believe in monomorphic opinion leaders".

The conception of society in this study is oriented towards the theory of symbolic

interactionism which assumes that, "society is an active entity consisting of people

thinking and performing meaningful social actions". (Weber in Mulyana, 2001:61), or

according to Mead (in Littlejohn, 1992:168), "society is a set of cooperative actions

that take place among its members". Based on these criteria, society has a dynamic

position, including when responding to social changes that occur in its environment.

This understanding also rejects the idea that individuals are A passive organism whose

behavior is determined by forces or structures that exist outside of itself. According to

Mulyana (2001:61), "individuals continue to change so society also changes through

interaction, so interaction is an important variable that determines behavior, not the

structure of society".

Social change is the result of human interaction in adopting symbols around them

that contain meaning. Samuel Koenig (in Soekanto, 1981: 237) states, "social change

refers to modifications in the pattern of human life due to internal and external

causes". Thus the discussion of social change, industrialization and migration will all

refer to propositions in the theory of symbolic interactionism.

Various opinions about human action or human interaction confirm that social

change is a symptom that always appears in society. Daniel Chirot (1981: 141) states

"every society will experience changes such as changes in social values, social norms,

social institutions and others". Meanwhile, Davis (in Soekanto, 1981: 236) mentions

"social change as a change that occurs in the structure and function of society".

Another idea about social change was put forward by Marx (in Chirot, 1981: 146)

who stated, "increasing productivity produces employment opportunities in urban

factories and creates new economic classes, namely industrialists and workers".

Meanwhile Weber (in Chirot, 1981: 147) differs with Marx's philosophy of economic

determinism by arguing that although social change is the result of the interaction of

cultural systems and values that are possible in Marx's basic materialism, but actually

change is something complex including social factors including religion, material and

individual and group authority.

In a communication perspective, a factor that is often mentioned as a contributor

to social change is the existence of mass media. In his early writings, Schramm (1964:

67) said "the role of mass media in development is as an agent of social change". The

role of the mass media is to help accelerate the process of transitioning traditional

society into a modern society. Support is also expressed by McQuail (1984: 4) who

states "the mass media is most widely used to cause changes in large-scale

development programs".

The dominance of mass media is prominent in the bullet theory or hypodermic

needle theory. It is argued by Hernando Gonzales (in Jahi, 1988:7), that, "the mass

media are considered very powerful, with a direct and immediate effect on society".

Communicators use mass media to bombard audiences with persuasive messages that

they cannot resist. Alluding to the bullet theory DeFleur and Rokeach (1989:163)

mentioned, "messages from the mass media are like magic bullets that have great

power in mass communication".

Research on the direct influence of mass media on its audience, in its

development, plays less of a role, when the results of various studies show that the

messages disseminated through the mass media are not directly to the audience, but

through an opinion leader. The results of this study gave rise to a two-stage

communication model (two step flow model); which in essence the first stage is from

the source of information to opinion leaders, while the second stage is from opinion

leaders disseminated to their audiences (Katz and Lazarsfeld's Model (in Ruben, 1992:

29).

The complex situation of social change has resulted in the role of opinion leaders

also shifting, as happened in industrialized villages, which were previously

agricultural villages, especially rice fields. The entry and development of

industrialization creates new problems, because the countryside is a suitable habitat for

farmers and their rice fields. It is said by Finch (1957:19), "the village is the main

residence of the population, not as a center of trade and generally prioritizes

agriculture as a source of life". A more specific discussion that supports this statement

was put forward by Soekanto (1981: 119-112) which basically states that, rural

communities generally live from agriculture, have a closer and deeper relationship than

their relationship with other rural residents outside the boundaries, the life system of

rural communities based on groups and family systems.

The pattern of life that is based on the family system among opinion leaders and

the community, at the same time, must accept the program of change and

industrialization. In many developing countries, industrialization is the preferred

method of economic development, although this is not easy given the structural

problem of the inability of rural communities to develop intellectual and work skills.

The view of industrialization in a cultural context is expressed by Hofsteede (1991:28)

who states "industrialization is a process of division of labor between different groups

of workers, machines and the use of mechanical energy such as electricity and the

expansion of work methods in productive societies". However, the culture of farmers

or rural communities cannot quickly adapt to a strict industrial culture in

organizational work arrangements.

Regarding industrialization in the countryside, according to Lerner (1983:32), "the

emergence of industrialization in the countryside that displaces agricultural land is

solely an economic motive". The presence of industry in the countryside on the

negative side is that the social life of the community is increasingly excluded from

local values. In Chirot's view (1981: 137), "industrialization led to the development of

a culture of commercialization of agricultural land and other material cultures that

dissolved social ties".

Rural industrialization also encourages individual and group migration, which

enters or leaves the village of the industrial location in search of a better livelihood.

Affirmed by Mountjoy (1983:154), "the ease of transportation factor is an option for

setting up factories that can reduce transportation costs". Thus, it is very natural that

rural areas that are easy to reach are targeted for investing or setting up factories.

Many studies do not deny that in general urban areas or suburban areas that are used as

industrial areas will encourage the emergence of migrant workers. (Todaro, 1983:345,

Mountjoy, 1983:54, Bintarto, 1986:15, Collier et.al, 1996:27). If the socio-economic

changes take place in the environment of industrial villages, and on the other hand

traditional characteristics still color some parts of rural life, then a simple scheme can

be drawn as Based on this explanation, the postulates put forward are as follows:

1) Sources of information that are known to have positive characteristics, problem-

solving capabilities, close relationships with villagers, transparency, and criticality

in the face of irregularities are referrals for villagers to discuss their problems and

the state of the village or outside the village.

2) Orientation towards change, their position in formal and informal groups, the type

of information discussed and the situation at the time of interaction shape different

communication patterns between opinion leaders and villagers.

3) Social values in the community, individual characteristics or behavior, the type of

information and issues discussed, the relationship with various interest groups and

the situation at the time of communication, are factors that support and reduce the

credibility of the role of opinion leaders in rural communities.

DIMENSIONS OF OPINION LEADER COMMUNICATION

Development of Opinion Leader Review

The results of research, studies or scientific works on the existence of elites in

society in their figure as opinion leaders, appear in topics that examine changes and

shifts in public attitudes towards the credibility of opinion leaders, the role in the

spread of innovations, the influence of mass media on changes in public attitudes, the

effectiveness of information sources to create social change. Another widely

researched topic related to the credibility of opinion leaders is the credibility of

information sources due to the support of communication technology and the attributes

of physical and non-physical modernization in the lives of rural communities.

In addition to several research results and scientific writings on the credibility of

opinion leaders, there are concepts, theories and thoughts that, although not directly

related to the credibility of opinion leaders, can be used as a reference for this

research; such as writings on the role of individuals in a pluralistic society, the social

and cultural aspects of traditional community groups, especially on the island of Java

and those that have methodological substance in qualitative research writing.

In the repertoire of communication science, there is an assumption that the

credibility of information sources plays a strong role in convincing audiences. Early in

the development of communication science, researchers from Iowa State University

faced credibility problems when introducing hybrid corn in the 1920s (Ryan and

Gross, 1943). Many farmers did not believe in the new maize seeds, as they had no

experience with the new seeds. After enough evidence and repeated attempts by

opinion leaders to provide concrete evidence, more and more farmers knew about the

maize and formed positive opinions on it. A similar study was conducted by Rogers

(1971), when in 1950 the Peruvian government launched a campaign to cook drinking

water. The campaign, which was initially opposed by the rural population, was

gradually accepted when the government used opinion leaders from the local

population and religious leaders.

Lerner's participatory observations in the Middle East in The Passing of

Traditional Society: Modernization in the Middle East (1958), attributes the role of

opinion leaders to modernization in the Middle East. The passing of traditional society

due to the spread of modernization ideas was supported by opinion leaders who were

oriented towards western behavior and standards. The desire to modernize in the

region was supported by the mass media, which was so powerful that it dominated all

aspects of life. Traditional opinion leaders who still hold on to old values are

increasingly marginalized. But achieving modernization was not as easy as it was

propagated through the mass media by formal leaders. The modernization that took

centuries to achieve in the West, Middle Eastern leaders wanted to achieve in just a

few years. Moreover, they modernized in their own way, which was oriented towards

physical development. Whereas the ideal is that modernization should not only touch

the physical but also the mentality rooted in rational action to form a prosperous

society.

Lerner's critique of modernization in the Middle East is that what people need is

not the physical symbols of modernization but a modern morality that values diversity

and pluralism in all areas of life. Modernization also displaces people and their social,

economic and cultural environment so that they become non-participants in economic

development.

Quantitative research that leads directly to credibility was written by Hamijoyo

(1967) as a dissertation at Indiana University, with the title "Institutional Credibility

and Emotionality of Appeals as determinants off Attitude Change" It is argued that

attitude change is the influence of communicators, innovations, mass media and social

contests. That communication will be effective if it is emitted by communicators who

are credible authority, and authority contains two qualities, namely honesty

(trustworthiness) and expertise.

With the Multi Partial Correlation method, Chang, Jin-Park and Shim (2000) from

the University of Missouri examined the effectiveness of political advertising on

audiences in the United States, among others, it was stated that the credibility of the

communicator, the source of the message and the content of the message conveyed

influenced the response and attitude of the audience in supporting or rejecting a policy

set by the government.

In 1976, a scientific paper written by Rahim (1976) from observations in India,

China, Tanzania, Columbia and a number of other developing countries revealed that

opinion leaders are trusted as the main channel in rural development. The level of

community trust in opinion leaders can create community participation and is able to

mobilize the masses in rural development. Rogers' (1973) analysis of the role of

credibility of opinion leaders is similar, emphasizing that in the process of mass

communication opinion leaders have an important position to bridge the information

received from the mass media with the understanding of rural communities.

Still in developing countries, Belbase's (1987) survey conducted in Nepal,

although it did not clearly mention the role of opinion leaders, emphasized that

community leaders or project workers who can be accepted or trusted by rural

communities are those who are flexible and can adapt to the community environment.

The position of opinion leaders in mass media exposure in the context of

interpersonal communication was written by Rogers (1973) in the article "Mass Media

and Interpersonal Communication". Interpersonal communication is an important

aspect of communication theory, and Rogers analyzed existing theories in relation to

mass media. The Hypodermic Needle Model that assumes mass media has a direct

effect on the audience is exaggerated, simplistic and mechanistic, because in fact,

other studies show that mass media has a small role. The shift in opinion on the power

of the media was after the emergence of the two-stage communication theory (Two

Step Flow Model) where ideas are always spread through radio and print media, then

received by opinion leaders. It is through these opinion leaders that the idea is

channeled to the public.

Research on the credibility of information sources is also often related to

propaganda, rhetoric or the dissemination of information through communication

technology. The results of Xin's (2001) research from the University of Pennsylvania

in China during the Mao Zedong era, stated that people with high credibility were

party people who were always consistent with Mao's teachings. Slogans containing

Mao's advice in various forms including propaganda posters are always displayed in

every development activity in rural China.

Although not related to the credibility of opinion leaders in rural areas, it is worth

mentioning the research on source credibility and message content conducted by Hart

and friends (2001) from the University of Louisville. Using qualitative methods, they

analyzed the behavior of small consumers towards campaigns or business messages

carried out by large companies. In the context of advertising and marketing, Wright

(1993), also wrote about the importance of source credibility to influence consumer

choice.

An article in the American Communication Journal, Frobish (2000) discusses

religious broadcasts through web site channels, among other things, it is pointed out

that in line with the development of communication technology, the credibility of

online media needs to be utilized to broadcast religious information.

Another scientific work also mentioning credibility is from Sopory and Dillard

(2002). It is explained that the credibility of a communicator in the eyes of his

audience is very important to create effective communication. Kiewe (1999) from

Syracue University, analyzed President Clinton's speeches whose core purpose was to

maintain credibility in the eyes of the American people. A similar study conducted by

Garramone, Atkin, Pinkleton and Cole (1990) analyzed the negative effects of political

advertising, one of which can be caused by communicators who lack credibility.

An examination of opinion leaders against the background of rural environments

was written by Rogers and Svenning (1969) in "Modernization Among Peasants: The

Impact of Communication",. Such is the complex role of opinion leaders in the

delivery and dissemination of information in rural areas; where objective information

is mostly obtained from rural opinion leaders and spokespersons for interest groups

outside the government.

Credibility is particularly important if the aim is to change a person's, or group's,

basic beliefs about the environment in which they live. Whether or not a belief is valid

usually depends on the quality and amount of information held; in other words, the

validity of a belief depends on the beliefs and compatibility with traditional beliefs that

have been accepted and inherited from the past in relation to aspects of life.

Another discussion in the paper is the credibility of opinion leaders in traditional

systems. In traditional societies opinion leaders are generally not innovators because

innovators are often from the elite who are suspected and disliked by the villagers,

given this situation it is recommended that development agents in launching reforms

cooperate with opinion leaders if they expect the results to be successful.

In 1971 Rogers and Shoemaker through "Communication of Innovations: A Cross

Cultural Approach" examines the spread of innovation which includes the innovation

decision process, the nature of innovation and the speed of adoption and the

consequences caused by the spread of innovation. Socializing a new idea requires the

involvement of existing social system components such as innovation recipients,

agents of reform, communication channels used, social structures and norms

prevailing in the local community and the main ones are community leaders including

opinion leaders. Social change is a process that consists of three sequential stages,

namely: Invention as the process by which new ideas are created and developed;

diffusion which is the process by which new ideas are communicated in the social

system and Consequences which are changes in the social system as a result of

adopting or rejecting innovations.

If in Communication of Innovations, the study of innovation is in the perspective

and cultural approach, then in Diffusion of Innovations, the study of innovation and its

spread is more focused on methodology, critical examination of the nature of

innovation, the role of opinion leaders and change agents. According to Rogers

(1962), the elements of innovation diffusion include innovations that are useful to

society, the communication channels chosen for example through interpersonal, group

or mass communication, the time used to diffuse innovative messages and the

prevailing social system in society. Not all innovations introduced by opinion leaders

can be accepted by individuals or groups as adopters; there are classifications of

innovation recipients such as (1). innovators as people who find the courage to make

innovations; (2). early adopters, people who are the first to accept innovations; (3).

early majority in larger groups, (4). late majority as a group of people who are late in

accepting innovations and (5). laggards with traditional characteristics who are the last

to accept innovations.

Credibility in the perspective of interpersonal communication is written by Miller

and Steinberg in A New Analysis of Interpersonal Communication (1975) some

interesting things to listen to, namely, communication and information are needed as a

necessity to reduce uncertainty, act effectively, maintain or strengthen one's own

beliefs in dealing with various problems. But not all of this information can be

obtained easily from a source so that each individual must be selective about the

source of information or the meaning of the information received. The use of

competent sources of information that do not have political and economic interests is

not easy to find in rural communities in developing countries.

The nature of communication according to Noelle-Nouman (1974) in Return to the

Concept of Powerful Mass Media, Studies of Broadcasting, states that individuals

generally try to avoid isolation in the sense of being alone, maintaining certain

attitudes and beliefs, therefore people will observe their environment to learn which

views are not dominant or popular. If people feel that their views are among those that

are not dominant or unpopular, then they tend to be less willing to express them

because of the fear of isolation. Conversely, the dominant opinion will become more

widespread and stronger. As more and more people adjust their opinions, one group of

opinion leaders will become dominant, while others will shrink.

The discussion of credibility from the aspect of social psychology was carried out

by Krech, Crutchfield and Ballachey, in Individual in Society. Among other topics

discussed in this book are how the position of individuals in society and how

interactions take place between individuals in groups in which there are people who

are considered to have authority.

Credibility is analyzed from a Social Psychology angle, including the role of

cognition and motivation. Cognition is a person's ability to capturing objects, ideas or

a person's ability to respond to the objects of other people, objects or ideas that are

outside themselves; while motivation is the impetus for behavior determined by a

person in achieving goals. Behavior occurs because of the encouragement of what is

thought, believed and felt.

In the discussion of attitude formation, explained by Krech et.al., attitudes are

related to personality, desires, group affiliation and information. Changes in attitudes

not only cause changes that occur in a person but also cause changes in society and

culture.

It can be categorized in line with research on rural communities in which trusted

community leaders are discussed, is Clifford Geertz's research in East Java written in a

book entitled The Religion of Java in 1960; Geertz stated that the beliefs and religious

basis of Javanese society in all its behaviors such as political, economic and social

behavior always refer to the stigmatization of abangan, santri and priyayi. The

credibility of opinion leaders or public figures will depend on their audience, which is

divided into social classes. Although this situation may have changed, the

comprehensive model for exploring a social phenomenon can be used as a reference

for social research today.

Communication and Information in Political Dynamics

Communication as a necessity of human life; a classic opinion from Watzlawik (in

Bower and Bradac, 1982: 3) states, "one cannot not communicate". Humans are

creatures that cannot not communicate, in the sense that all behaviors made by a

person cause meaning; basically a person cannot be separated from communication as

a need to interact with others. There are various reasons that cause a person to interact

with others. According to Myers and Myers (1988:4-6), the purpose of a person

communicating is, among others, to learn about himself, to learn about the world

around him, to share information, to persuade or influence, to obtain pleasure, to play

and to reduce rigidity.

A more concise opinion is expressed by Reardon (1987:1), "communication is also

to entertain, influence, entertain, obtain information, show attention and so on". In line

with the context communication as a need Schutz classifies human needs into 3 (three)

basic needs, namely: (1). The need to be recognized as an individual who is different

from other individuals; (2). The need for control includes hard work to gain strength,

power, position to influence their environment; (3). Affection needs, usually carried

out by introverted people, who find it difficult to be intimate and difficult to enjoy

warm relationships, even with relatively chance acquaintances". (William Schutz in

Myers and Myers, 1988: 82-86)

These three needs can be met through interaction and communication with other

individuals and groups. An in-depth study of communication as a need to reduce

uncertainty, Miller and Steinberg (1975: 207) state that, "communication and

information are needed as a need to reduce uncertainty, act effectively, maintain or

strengthen one's own confidence in dealing with problems".

The idea of uncertainty reduction was proposed by Frank Dance (in Littlejohn,

1996:7) who explained:

One of the important aspects of communication is the concept of uncertainty

reduction; communication itself arises because of the need to reduce uncertainty, in

order to act effectively to protect or strengthen the ego concerned in individual and

group interactions.

To reduce uncertainty, humans must communicate and interact with the

surrounding environment, so that they can obtain information that is used as a basis for

behavior and take action for the benefit of individuals or groups.

The existence of information in communication, when associated with a

contextual perspective in interpersonal communication and intergroup communication

plays an important role. In general, Interpersonal Communication is communication

between individuals and is personal in nature that occurs directly without a medium or

indirectly through a medium. This communication generally focuses on observing the

form and nature of relationships, conversations (discourse), interactions and

characteristics of communicators. While Group Communication focuses on

interactions between people in small groups. The discussion is focused on group

dynamics, efficiency and effectiveness of delivery information in groups, patterns and

forms of interaction and decision-making.

Ruben (1992: 14) briefly states, "Human communication is the process through

which individuals-in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies-respond to

and create messages to relate to the environment and one another". While Barnlund's

opinion (in Bower and Bradac, 1982: 3) states "communication is a picture that arises

from the behavior of two parties, the relationship of the interacting parties is the

smallest unit of analysis". It can be concluded, communication is a dynamic process in

a human interaction with other humans and the environment.

Understanding group communication that refers to individual characteristics is

known as communication style, which is a set of behaviors commonly used in

communication. According to Koehler, Anatol and Applbaum (1981: 48) there are six

communication styles, namely:

(1). The Controlling Style is a communication style that is controlling and forces

others to comply with its will; (2). The Equalitarian Style is characterized by the flow

of verbal and written verbal messages that are two-way; (3). The Structuring Style

which focuses more on communication actions in accordance with organizational

systems and structures; (4). The Dynamic Style is a dynamic and aggressive

communication style because it is oriented towards real action;

(5). The Relinquishing Style is a communication style that reflects a willingness to

accept suggestions, opinions or ideas of others; (6). The Withdrawal Style is the

unwillingness to communicate with others due to various problems or difficulties in

interpersonal relationships when dealing with others.

The above communication styles do not eliminate the substance of general

communication. Bochner and Waugh (in Langsdorf and Smith, 1995: 213) mentioned:

Communication as the delivery of messages or as the transfer of messages from

one person to another is actually very simple but in reality communication produces

problems with the impression given in the process of delivering information.

Communication theory associated with individual and group activities was proposed

by MacBride (1980: 42) which states, Communication in a broad sense is not only the

exchange of news and messages but as individual and group activities regarding the

exchange of data, facts and ideas, so its functions in the social system include

information, socialization, motivation, debate and discussion, education, advancing

culture, entertainment and integration.

Communication has a broad scope when it is related to information that is

disseminated from one source to the recipient of information. The attachment of

communication and information is briefly stated by Kellerman (1984: 42),

"information as a universal element in communication". Another opinion from Mc

Leod (1996: 18), "information is data that has been processed or data that has

meaning". More specifically Allen (1996: 3) calls it,

Information means meaningful notice; while in terms of message flow,

information is the process by which one's experience is transmitted to the receiver of

information to encode messages, implement and learn from them; it is also a

complementary activity to informing.

Aligning information with communication Rogers (1986:209) has his own view

by stating, "communication is a process in which participants create and share

information with each other to achieve mutual understanding". Communication is

always a shared event, a process of information between two or more people;

communication networks consist of individuals who are interconnected and linked to

the flow of information through a certain pattern.

Examining communication and information in interpersonal or group relationships

also refers to the convergence model. Peirce's opinion (in Rogers and Kincaid, 1981:

44) that, "the basic principle underlying the convergence model is communication as a

dynamic process in the dissemination of information". The nature of information itself

is imprecise and uncertain so that it can cause new problems when communication is

carried out.

Furthermore, Rogers and Kincaid (1981: 65) stated that:

Information and mutual understanding are the dominant components of the

convergence model of communication. Information shared by two or more

participants in the communication process may lead to collective action, mutual

agreement and mutual understanding. (Rogers and Kincaid, 1981: 65).

Information and mutual understanding are the dominant components of the

convergence communication model. Information shared by two or more participants in

the communication process can lead to collective action, mutual agreement and shared

understanding of the symbols used in the interaction.

The symbols used in communication create a variety of different meanings in the

perception of individuals and groups that interact. Barnlund (in Ruben, 1992: 67)

briefly states "communication is generating meaning". In a discussion that links the

notion of communication with the use of symbols, Erns Casserer (in Bower and

Bradac, 1982: 3) states, "human communication is unique", human communication is

unique and in practice humans are the only creatures that use symbols and the use of

symbols is fundamental to humanity.

The study that links communication with the meaning of symbols is emphasized

by Bower and Bradac (1982: 4) that, "communication depends on the context, which

will critically affect the message, the situational context includes: social roles,

recognition of boundaries and knowledge of the type of event".

Specific attention regarding the use of symbols and giving meaning is presented

by Weaver (in Shannon and Weaver, 1972: 4) who suggests three communication

problems in the use of symbols and giving meanings including:

(1). How communication symbols are transmitted (technical problem); (2). How

the accuracy of the symbols that have been sent is able to generate the desired meaning

(semantic problem); (3). How the effectiveness of the received meaning can affect

desire and behavior (effectiveness problem).

Not all communication is desired by the parties involved in the interaction such as

reducing uncertainty, increasing knowledge and other benefits; it can actually cause

disharmony as Hooker and Wilmot (1978: 20) argue, "communication is the central

element in all interpersonal conflict". Communication behavior often creates conflict,

communication behavior reflects conflict; communication is a means for productive

and destructive conflict management.

Given that the relationship between opinion leaders as elites and their audiences

tends to be colored by discussions and assessments of government policies in various

matters concerning the lives of the people and their environment, the relationship with

political communication is very prominent. Substantially, political communication is

usually associated with political talk or the delivery of verbal and non-verbal political

messages, which can influence the people or power holders. According to Dan Nimmo

(1993: 8), "political communication is communication that refers to political

activities". Thus, all political activities carried out by the government, or state power

and its supporting institutions as well as those carried out by the people in general, can

be said to be a form of political communication.

Credibility of Information Sources in Communication

3.1.

The Essence of Credibility:

The credibility of information sources or communication channels is one of the

factors that support the creation of effective communication. If someone has relatively

high credibility compared to several other sources or channels, then what comes from

that person is more easily accepted by other individuals or groups.

Presented by Hovland, Janis and Kelley (1953) as follows:

The term credibility denotes the resultant value of expertness which is the extend

to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertions, and

trustworthiness which is the degree of confidence in the communicator's intent to

communicate the assertions considered most valid. (Hovland, Janis and Kelley in

Hamijoyo, 1978: 3),

Credibility indicates the value resulting from expertise that measures the extent to

which a communicator is accepted as a source of firm and valid statements.

Trustworthiness is a level of confidence in the purpose of communication that

considers truth.

Meanwhile, Kincaid and Schramm (1987: 111) argue, "credibility or trust is the

act of receiving information that is shared as legitimate and true". Trusting also means

accepting the sincerity of people who use information together. That way there are two

things that are trusted, namely trustworthiness message or information and the

trustworthiness of the source of the message. It is important to explain the difference

between these two trustworthiness traits.

In the study of Rogers and Svenning (1969: 169), "the issue of being trusted or not

trusted is very important if the goal is to change the beliefs of a person or group about

the environment in which they live". Whether or not a belief is valid depends on the

beliefs and the compatibility with the values held. This belief is more traditional in

nature that is inherited from the past. According to Rogers and Svenning (1969: 217),

"often have the support of respected figures and opinion leaders in a society".

Respected figures and community leaders seek to institutionalize traditional values.

Various studies on credibility, especially in traditional societies, show the nature

of subjectivism and refer to the value of truth that each individual or group believes in.

The assumption of value and truth is also inherent in the view of Kincaid and

Schramm (1987: 34), the measures to assess whether or not the source of a message is

trusted are: (1).His skills and competence regarding issues related to rural issues; (2).

The extent to which the source can be trusted to tell the truth; (3) Sometimes the

dynamism of the source in question is also assessed, as well as the spirit and attitude

of sincerity that appears when information is shared.

As long as a traditional opinion leader possesses the aforementioned attributes, as

well as his dignity and standing in society, he will continue to be trusted. But if an

opinion leader is no longer trusted, there is always a backup opinion leader to replace

him.

The subjectivity of credibility is increasingly evident in relationships between

culturally different individuals and groups. Explained by Samovar and Porter (1991:

274-279), culturally different message sources or individuals are difficult to interact

and communicate effectively because of: differences in communication goals,

ethnocentrism, lack of trust, withdrawal, absence of empathy, stereotypes and power

structures.

Supporting this statement, Michael L. Ray (1973: 147) argues, "attitudes of trust

and trustworthiness can be divided into three zones, namely acceptance, non-

commitment and rejection". Issues that are in line with existing knowledge may be

accepted, while issues that are not in line with existing knowledge may be rejected

outside of one's living space will be rejected. While issues that lie between these two

extremes will fall into the non-commitment zone, i.e. issues that have low involvement

and do not attract much attention from participants in a communication situation.

The study of the existence of credibility is often included in a dynamic discourse

as expressed by De Vito firmly (1987: 78) outlining various types of credibility,

namely:

(1) Initial credibility, is the degree to which the communicator is recognized before

actual communication begins, regardless of who we talk to or whose writing we read,

the source must already have credibility. Often this beginning is a function of

individual esteem or position. (2). Derived credibility is the credibility that a listener

receives based on what happens during the communication encounter; (3) Terminal

credibility, is the credibility that the communicator has after the communication

interaction is complete. This terminal credibility is a product of initial credibility and

acquisition credibility. Based on the initial credibility and credibility of the acquisition,

terminal credibility is formed.

In various scientific writings on communication, the communicator is often

equated with the source of the message, communication as interpersonal behavior, can

effectively change the attitude of its audience depending on the credibility of the

communicator.

There are a number of studies that show that the effectiveness of communication is

largely determined by communicator characteristics such as credibility, attractiveness

and group affiliation. Research by Hovland and Weiss (in Krech, Crutchfield and

Ballachey, 1962: 231) shows: communicators as sources of information who have a

high level of trust are more able to change attitudes and provide understanding than

communicators who have a low level of trust in the eyes of their audiences.

High trust is usually also related to individual characteristics, message content,

relationships with groups that have similar socio-cultural values, and the situation at

the time of communication. These factors are not absolute because in line with change,

individual interests also play an important role.

3.2.

Credibility and Opinion Formation

Credibility has a complex relationship in opinion formation. According to C.I.

Hovland, J.L. Janis and H.H. Kelley (in Hamijayo, 1978: 3-4) stated that, two

variables that bring about opinion change first is the credibility of the source and

second, emotional considerations in an argument. Credibility is one of several

characteristics of communicators such as one class of four communication stimuli,

while emotional consideration is one of several characteristics of another class of

communication stimuli.

Credibility is related to one of the characteristics of the message source or

communicator. In a rural environment or in a farming community, Rogers and

Svenning (1969:186) explain, "those considered to have the highest credibility are

opinion leaders or community leaders who are able to provide agricultural

innovations". People who have high credibility in rural areas include voluntary

workers, agricultural extension workers, teachers, radio and neighbors around their

neighborhood.

While the lowest credibility is newspapers; commercial change agents such as

traders have very low credibility. Kotler and Roberto (1989: 99) mention, "The typical

sources of information on social products are low credibility sources and therefore do

not generate higher-order beliefs" Society does want advantages in all aspects of an

information source so that information sources that are almost the same as the

recipient's behavior are low credibility sources of messages and are unable to generate

high trust in the community.

How credibility can be accepted by society at least Rogers and Kincaid (1981: 37)

also emphasize: "credibility includes competent credibility recognized for its expertise

and security credibility that is considered not to have the intention to manipulate others

or will draw personal benefits from what it says or what it will advocate". This view is

supported by Hovland, Janis and Kelly (in Hamijoyo, 1968: 7) theorized,

"communication will be effective if it is emitted by an authoritative communicator

(credible)". Authority in his opinion contains two qualities, namely: honesty

(trustworthines) and expertise (expertise). Thus, if a leader has authority, it is expected

that communication will be effective in accordance with the objectives to be achieved.

Credibility appears in writing about the effectiveness of communication in the

environment of people who have different cultures, Samovar, Porter and Jain (1981:

195) explain, "perception plays an important role in evaluating the credibility of

information sources that have different cultures". In other words, a person's credibility

depends on who perceives and judges.

Basically Samovar and Porter (1988: 24), "perception is an internal process for

selecting, evaluating and organizing stimuli from the external environment, in other

words converting the physical energy of our environment into meaningful

experiences". Perception is influenced by (1) belief systems, values and attitudes, (2)

world view and (3) social organization. Looking at this opinion, it turns out that

perception is a long and complicated process.

In short, in interactive communication, one's perception affects the assessment of

the credibility of the message source. In line with this context, Jackson (1959: 95)

states that, "one of the communication problems is the problem of trust and distrust of

message recipients regarding the source, channel and content of the information

disseminated by the communicator".

3.3.

Credibility of Development Communicators:

When opinion leaders must carry out their role in community development, the

discussion will touch on the issues of the role of a development communicator in

relation to the audience. One of the studies of development communication experts

revealed that in developing countries there is a tendency for development

communicators not to be in line with their audiences in the delivery of factual

information, even though the community expects communicators to contribute the best

ideas in the implementation of development in developing countries.

Development communicators in developing countries in the perspectives of

Rogers and Svenning (1969), Jayawera and Amunugama (1987) and MacBride (1980)

mostly support the political policies of the ruling government, become spokespersons

for interest groups that are not in line with local communities and collaborate more

with capital owners or other elite groups that control the political power of the state.

Under these conditions, development agents cannot be expected too much by the

community, because they tend to provide information that is not in favor of the general

public but rather supports a group of elites. In addition, the information conveyed to its

audience deviates from the reality at hand or reduces factual information to

information that is processed according to its interests. Ideally, development agents, in

the view of Kotler and Roberto (1989: 24), "are able to apply the concept of social

marketing as a strategy to change people's behavior by combining the best elements".

These elements include traditional approaches, social change orientation, framework,

use of technology and marketing skills in an integrated plan.

It is not something new if in the process of social change in rural environments

according to Rogers and Svenning (1969: 223) "development communicators are more

in favor of the government by spreading development messages unilaterally from the

point of interest of power holders". This includes political propaganda that is carried

out repeatedly as a form of pressure on the community to obey state power. Whereas

information provided repeatedly can lead to information saturation. Rogers and

Kincaid (1981: 97) suggest, "information saturation is a situation where individuals or

a system are no longer able to receive information input to be processed into more

meaningful information".

The difficulty of obtaining objective information was realized by Rogers and

Svenning (1969: 219) who stated, "even if there is hope for obtaining objective

messages, perhaps the right figures are traditional opinion leaders who are outside the

government and political power who still have an objective ideology". It is clear that

the objectivity of information is needed by individuals and society.

Underlining information as an individual interest, Miller and Steinberg (1975:207)

state, "communication and information are needed as a necessity to maintain or

strengthen one's own confidence in the face of various problems". Traditional opinion

leaders in rural areas lack legality, in contrast to formal leaders who are generally

bureaucrats in rural areas have a strong position because they are supported by

government regulations.

Position of opinion leaders in society

4.1.

Opinion Leader Leadership

When rural communities are more oriented towards achieving the physical

symbols of modernization, the position of opinion leaders becomes more complex.

Opinion leaders are required to lead their audiences to adapt to the symbols of

modernization. One representation of modernization is the use of communication

technology, which will also affect the dissemination of information. Tubb and Moss

(1996: 224) state, "communication technology is able to provide faster information to

all communities". With fast information, traditional leadership patterns that rely on

loyalty to local values must deal with modernization values transmitted through

various information channels.

The ease of access to information allows villagers to witness events in places far

from their physical reach through high-tech media channels. However, as Harrison

(1988;16) argues, "traditional societies have homogeneous characteristics in terms of

social, economic and cultural aspects that are not easy to adapt to new things", or a

brief opinion from Chirot (1976:5), "the lives of people in peripheral countries still

depend on formal and informal leadership patterns".

Digesting information directly from a source that is not well known, such as mass

media, can lead to various perceptions if it does not get a re-explanation from opinion

leaders. According to Samovar, Porter and Jain (1981:55), "perception will have

implications for the effectiveness of communication and information reception".

Lachsmana Rao (in Condon and Saito, 1976: 61) states, "the use of language, cultural

symbols, social customs, value systems, often economic and political ideologies affect

communication".

With a simple level of understanding, rural communities need leaders who are able

to provide explanations in accordance with traditional characteristics or mentality.

Facing such a situation requires a good leader who is acceptable to his followers.

According to Haiman (in Stogdil, 1974: 7), "leaders must have a leadership spirit,

while leadership is defined as an ability to influence in the process of interaction

through conversation or through the behavior of others".

In the view of Keith Davis (1977:79) "leadership is an ability to influence others

through communication and other activities in a spirited manner in order to achieve

predetermined goals". Meanwhile, Kotter and Hesket (1992: 94) emphasize that

"leaders are people who have broad communication insights who are able to overcome

potential crises".

Leadership in a more specific sense in the ability to communicate is inseparable

from the concept of opinion leaders. According to Rogers (1973:103), "as an ability to

informally influence a person's attitude and behavior in accordance with the will of the

leader through fostered social relationships". Previously Rogers and Shoemaker (1971:

199) mentioned, "people who have the ability to influence others are called

community leaders, opinion leaders and other similar designations". An earlier opinion

was expressed by Rosenberg and Hovland that, "opinion leaders are verbal expressions

of attitudes, in attitudes there are three main categories, namely cognitive thinking

actions, affective ability to feel and behavior". (Rosenberg and Hovland in Hamijoyo,

1978: 14).

Another analysis of opinion leaders by Van Den Ban (1981: 293) is as follows:

"opinion leaders have a number of attributes that distinguish them from others in their

community". They have a higher socioeconomic status, have more contact with

extension workers, use the mass media more and have relationships with people or

institutions outside their community. This attribute is also known as cosmopolitaness.

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971: 215-217) established criteria for determining

opinion leaders through the following method:

Sociometric Method, in this method it is asked to whom they ask and seek

information or advice about the societal problems faced. Leaders are those who

are members of the community and have the most information, this technique is

most valid for determining who the leaders in the community are in accordance

with the views of their followers.

Informant's Rating, in this method certain questions are asked of respondents who

are considered to be sources of information in the community regarding who are

the community leaders who really know their community.

Self-Designating Method, this method asks respondents to what extent they

consider themselves to be leaders in the community.

These three methods show the position and role of opinion leaders as leaders and

sources of information whose opinions are trusted by their audiences.

Role according to Soekanto (1981: 146), "is a dynamic aspect of position (status).

If someone carries out his rights and obligations in accordance with his position, then

he carries out a role". Krech, et.al (1962: 310-311) stated that, "roles can be seen as the

duties and obligations of a position that must be carried out". If the role is not carried

out properly, demands will arise from the surrounding environment that relate to the

status possessed.

The role refers to a standard situation, determining the behavior expected of

people when carrying out their position in particular. With the substance referring to

one's position Linton (1956: 114) explains that, "in every position, the role has two

meanings in the pattern of life association, namely determining what he does and what

opportunities society gives him".

The role of opinion leaders in rural areas is often described as ideal for the

community, because they are generally a group of rural elites. It is said by Rahim (in

Schramm and Lerner, 1978: 118), that, "rural opinion leaders consist of educators,

technicians, specialists and politicians, it often happens that the group of leaders is a

cadre of the party in power in the government".

Also explained by Schramm and Lerner (1978: 127), "each group of opinion

leaders has its own role in its interaction with rural communities". For example,

political cadres usually carry ideological development messages and explain ideas for

organizing or promoting social solidarity. The main channel for conveying messages

can be through mass media or interpersonal communication. However, these roles can

change or shift in line with changes in the environment.

The pressure and demands of roles in the view of audiences with different interests

can at times create conflict. In the view of Hoker and Wilmot (1978:6), "conflict is a

consequence of poor communication, misperception, miscalculation, socialization,

and other unconscious processes". Conflict occurs due to a mismatch between

expectations and reality and can arise in relation to the roles a person plays.

Parsons emphasized (in Stryker and Macke, 1978: 70), that "role conflict is a case

that occurs due to conflicting structural positions and behavioral inconsistencies

inherent in status". Role conflict can be in the form of structural competition that

refers to role differences, reactions from conflicts between individuals, differences or

lack of clarity in various expectations.

4.2.

Characteristics of opinion leaders

The characteristics of opinion leaders described by Rogers and Svenning

(1969:227) in their research in Colombia are: (1) more formal education;

(2) higher levels of functional literacy; (3) larger farms (acreage); (4) more farm and

home innovativeness; (5) higher social status; (6) lower achievement motivation; (7)

more mass media exposure; (8) higher empathy; (9) more political knowledgeability.

Not as detailed is the opinion of Rogers and Shoemaker (1971: 217) who mention,

"opinion leaders as public figures have advantages". For example, they have broader

social connections than their followers, travel more frequently, are often in contact

with agents of change and have certain skills or knowledge beyond the average person.

In essence, a community leader has a specific character, but Rogers and Svenning

(1969:227) confirm that, "there are differences in the function of opinion leaders in the

community" Opinion leaders in modern societies are monomorphic, dealing with only

one matter, whereas in traditional societies, opinion leader leadership is more

polymorphic, dealing with all matters and is general in nature.

Rogers and Svenning (1969:229) also link opinion leaders with the nature of

innovation by explaining; "in systems where the norm is traditional opinion leaders are

usually not innovators, because innovators in this system are often suspected and not

appreciated; whereas in systems where the norm is modern opinion leaders are more

innovative than their followers".

It is recommended that reform agents work with opinion leaders to avoid conflicts

that arise between rural communities and development agents. This is because in the

traditional perspective, even the slightest conflict has an unfavorable impact on reform

efforts.

Social Change and the Power of Media

5.1.

The Nature of Social Change

Many opinions emphasize that social change is a symptom that always appears in

society. Daniel Chirot (1981: 11) states, "every society will experience changes such

as changes in social values, social norms, social institutions and others". According to

Karl Mannheim (in Chirot, 1981: 19), "social change in early human history was a

discovery through trial and error". Meanwhile, Hoogvelt (1976: 9) states, "there is no

stagnant society, because every society experiences changes that occur quickly or

slowly".

Social change relates to the material aspect which includes economic and

technological factors for productivity; increased productivity generates employment

opportunities in factories in the city and new economic classes (industrialists and

workers) which shift the feudal system in cultural and political terms as well as the

categories of societal layers". (Karl Marx in Chirot, 1981: 23). In a more general

analysis, Bohanan and Glazer (1973:6), assert "slow change takes a long time, where

there is a series of small slow changes called evolution". In evolution, change occurs

on its own without a specific plan or will, the change occurs because of the

community's efforts to adapt to new needs, circumstances and conditions that arise in

line with the needs of society.

On the other hand, there is a concern as according to Berger (1986:3), that "rapid

change usually results in temporary disorganization in the process of adjustment,

disorganization will be followed by a reorganization that includes the establishment of

new rules and values".

An examination of the impact of changes caused by industrialization by Rogers

(1971:46) indicates that, "industrialization in agrarian societies is a change that brings

great influence, various social institutions will be affected". For example, labor

relations, land ownership systems, family relationships, community stratification and

so on. Meanwhile, Tehranian (1979:119) briefly mentions, "the change from agrarian

society to industrial society is caused by modernization and development".

Exploring further about social change; Rogers and Svenning (1969: 3-6) argue

that, "social change is the process of changing the structure and function of a social

system". There are two categories of change, namely immanent change, namely

changes created by people around the group itself so that it can be accepted easily and

contact change that occurs because it is introduced by sources that come from outside

the group. Furthermore, Rogers and Svenning (1969: 112) emphasized, "the way to

accept changes made by the community facing contact change is to select strictly

(selective contact change)". Public acceptance is getting better if it introduces the

same values to the target of change.

Maintaining local values in the process of social change has long been recognized

by researchers and in general there is common ground that maintaining local values is

the collective responsibility of the community. Emile Durkheim (in Abdullah and

Leeden, 1986:19) stated that, "social change requires morality that is appropriate to the

community". Ideal and moral social change is not easy to achieve as long as there is no

consistency from the actors or agents of change consisting of various community

groups. Berger (1982: 56) explicitly states, "the bureaucrats, businessmen and

intellectuals who are the bearers of the mystique of growth are not experts in

morality".

In Indonesia, according to Garna (1992:37, 1999:12) "social change is a change in

society that can include cultural change, which may take place slowly or quickly". In

this perspective, national development in Indonesia is considered and analogized as

social change.

Based on the description above, social change should be in line with the values

that apply to the local community, not the other way around marginalizing the culture

and values that are believed by the community for generations and are rooted in

tradition.

5.2.

Social Change and Mass Media

When various opinions arise about the role of mass media in the dissemination of

information, not a few researchers link it to social change in society. Research by

Rogers, Zao, Pan, Chen and Milton (1985: 179) in China concluded, "the mass media

plays a role in social change and spreads various substances of modernization and in

short the mass media as a magic multiplier". Without clearly mentioning the role of

mass media but with the same substance MacBride (1980: 60): Communication media

is a cultural tool that encourages or influences attitudes, motivates, develops behavior

patterns and causes social integration, it plays a major role in implementing cultural

policies and helps democratize culture. Based on these opinions, mass media is a

factor that accelerates change; while other factors involve so many aspects from

various disciplines.

In DeFleur's study (in Depari and MacAndrew, 1988: 4) on mass media, it is

stated, "the influence of mass media on individuals and groups has fostered rapid life

renewal". Renewal in the form of change (change) and development (development) is

generally a continuous process that involves the relationship between the media and

the masses.

Although various statements generally point to the role of mass media in social

change, Wilbur Schramm (in Depari and MacAndrews, 1988:31) believes that social

change can be achieved through interpersonal relationships, explained as follows:

"relying on the mass media in reform campaigns will limit success, because

interpersonal channels are even more successful in spreading development messages".

Schramm's opinion shows that interpersonal channels are one of the superior

communication media in disseminating development messages, although in the

development of communication technology, mass media still have an influence on

community interaction.

Mass media is a representation of mass communication, which is able to reach a

wider audience. The existence of mass media supported by communication technology

is shown by Gebner (in Corner, 1984: 164) by stating that "mass communication is a

technology and institution based on mass production and the widest possible

distribution to be shared continuously through public streams in industrial society".

Rogers' opinion linking technology and social change is that "new communication

technologies that have a wide range of information dissemination are one of the

important causes of social change in society". (Rogers, 1986: 110), further explained

in more detail as follows: New communication technology will have a major influence

as follows: (1). An increase in the amount of information delivered to all individuals

and audiences,

(2). A large increase in the amount of information for information richness, thus

deepening the information gap (3). Information overload will occur, especially on the

part of information richness

(4). Newer communication technologies create new information gaps before the old

information gaps are closed. (Rogers, 1986:169). Another topic that connects

communication technology with the conditions of developing countries is stated by

Goonasekera (1987:62), "the development of communication is influenced by the

information order that relies on technology and development programs assisted by

developed countries".

Studies that favor communication technology generally argue, "the power of

technology in disseminating information has united the world with different political

views, socio-economic and cultural systems that bring nations to the global order

(McQuail, 1991; Rogers, 1986; Barnlund, 1988.). By favoring technology Daniel

Lerner (1983: 187), argues briefly "the increasing mobility between regions in society

is mostly supported by the availability of adequate transportation facilities and

communication technology innovations". The description of Joseph E. Burn (1999: 2),

has no different substance, stating, "communication models such as the internet are

one technology that can be used for the diffusion of innovations even in a limited

audience".

Still about communication technology in people's lives, Rogers (1986: 254)

reveals as follows: "modernization in communication technology has made

community supervision more important, although more difficult to implement".

Although a number of opinions emphasize the superiority of communication

technology, Goulet (1977: 132), argues "communication technology is not something

neutral like other technologies, communication technology is also a carrier and

destroyer of the prevailing value system in society". In a similar vein, Bottomore

(1983:114) says, "as the wave of industrialization and modernization marked by

information technology moves outward and undermines previously trusted social and

political units".

The fading of social values due to the emergence of communication technology is

regretted by Rogers (1983:24) who strongly warns, "social order should be maintained

because it serves to solve various problems and goals of rural communities".

Meanwhile, Davis (1972:53) states: "institutionalized social order can avoid conflicts

in society", especially in developing countries.

In the study of rural development, mass media are considered to have great

potential to support development. Schramm's theory (in Jahi, 1988:126) states: Radio

and television have an enormous ability to deliver and disseminate development

messages to communities located in scattered and widely dispersed places such as

rural areas simultaneously at high speed. In a study that specifically looks at

television; Adoni, Cohen and Mane (1981: 189) state that, "information that is far

from its audience broadcast by television is more trusted and shapes the perception of

the audience than the actual social conditions experienced in daily life in the

environment".

Support for the role of mass media was firmly given by C. Wright Mills (1968:

32), by stating, "we still do not believe in information until we read or hear it from the

radio". In other words, the media is considered a means of justifying the information

received. According to Lippman (1998:468), "audience response is not only to actual

events but also to the pseudo environment". The picture of the pseudo environment

that raises the audience is called public opinion, and public opinion is formed by the

mass media.

Regarding the role of mass media in society Rogers, et.al. (1985: 45) explains,

"many demands still expect that the mass media provide information to the public

according to their needs". Meanwhile DeFleur and Rokeach (1989: 163) mention,

"messages from the mass media as a magic bullet and have great power in mass

communication". The media provide ideas in shaping public opinion and flowing

messages desired by communicators. With the same core issue as the role of mass

media MacBride (1980: 60) argues, communication media is a cultural tool that

encourages or influences attitudes, motivates, develops behavior patterns and causes

social integration, it plays a major role in implementing cultural policies and helps

democratize culture.

The mass media encourages the dissemination of information while shaping the

perception of its audience so that through the mass media people can find out about

events that occur around them and elsewhere. On other occasions, although the media

is considered the most instrumental channel in development and reform, Rogers, et.al.

(1985: 145) sees the lack of effectiveness of mass media in development as due to,

"the content of mass media is very much in favor of entertainment and advertising".

The content of the mass media tends to motivate the rural population to obtain a richer

life as shown by the mass media, but they do not have the effective ability to achieve

this goal.

5.3.

Mass Media and State Power

The tendency of state power to control its people has long been reviewed by

Durkheim (in Giddens, 1986: 126) who said, "the state is often the source of new ideas

and directs society as far as possible". Durkheim's thinking is certainly in the discourse

of a harmonious balance of roles rather than the imbalance of roles owned by society

and state power.

In its development, the state seeks to regulate all community actions including the

control of information disseminated by the mass media, as asserted by Chirot (1976:

5), "through its political power, the state controls all community activities related to

politics or nothing to do with politics, such as the dissemination of information". This

opinion is also supported by Duverger (1998:36) who says, "the establishment of a

dictatorship is always easier in a backward society than in a highly developed one".

In line with the role of state power, the study of mass media in developing

countries, many mass communication experts relate to the existence of the government

in controlling the mass media. According to DeFleur (1970: 11), "political power and

mass media have a very close relationship and both have power". The relationship

between these two things has always been an interesting issue to discuss, especially in

developing countries which are full of political communication problems.

The existence of mass media in developing countries that are full of political

problems causes the media to be unable to perform ideal functions such as the opinion

of Dreier and Gebner (in McQuail, 1987: 111) which states that, "political power is

very prominent in terms of controlling media content where censorship has a power

that cannot be resisted by the mass media". Such a large influence of political power

on the media in a country, generally as an effort to create the desired situation by the

government, namely the stability of power, and this statement is supported by Olien

(1983: 458) which more or less states, "the mass media has an integral relationship

with the existing political system in various institutions and groups in a country".

The fear of instability is one of the justifications for all strict measures to control

the mass media. State rulers do not care whether the actions taken shackle freedoms

that are incompatible with human rights. Because what is more important in the

ideology of state power is the continuity of government and business carried out by a

group of economically, politically and socially powerful elites.

Another research result that examines the relationship between state power and

mass media is stated by Katz and Wendel (1978: 237), "in the process of renewal,

power in the state acts as a planner of communication policy as a program delivery

system that is beneficial to the ruler". Controlling information by making a uniform

pattern in the dissemination of information will make it difficult for people to find

alternative information that is trusted and contains the truth.

The model of setting into one pattern in organizing or acting should be avoided,

given the diverse interests of society. In the perspective of organizations and groups,

Etzioni (1985: 204) states, The needs of society are so diverse that even in a

totalitarian society, all interactions in organizations or groups cannot be combined in

one pattern, because each society has its own differences. Marking the issue of

government involvement in information control, Gonzales (in Jahi, 1988: 56) explains,

"the flow of information in every country is often questioned, in the ideology of

development, the state has so much power over information control".

The strict control of mass media in general has a common reason, namely for the

sake of stability and the interests of the people, as shown in McQuail's (1987: 119)

theory of media development, which on outline, "the media shall carry out the

development tasks set by the state power". The state has the right to intervene in

restricting the operation of the media and means of censorship, subsidization and

direct control are justified by political power in developing countries.

Control through censorship always has a subjective interpretation from the public

or political authorities. To make matters worse, the concept of media development that

is always used by third world countries has the same elements as authoritarian media

theory". McQuail (1987: 112), among others, emphasizes that, "state power does not

give freedom to the mass media at all, it is forbidden to criticize those who damage the

authority of the ruler and the media". In the sense that forever the mass media must

submit to the authorities in all news that does not only concern politics.

In line with this thought is McQuail's opinion (1991: 109) that, "the dissemination

of information through the mass media is the dominance of political power so that it is

far from the right or freedom of the public to obtain information that is realistic,

accurate and from sources whose credibility is recognized". The role of the mass

media in a country, among other things, socializes politics to the public, but the

political effects that are often considered favorable to one group that plays an

important role in political life can be considered dangerous for the media, the audience

and the state.

A discussion of the relationship between mass media, audiences and power is put

forward by Harsono Suwardi (1993: 17); by explaining, "seen from its function the

mass media is able to describe political reality, but it must also be remembered that

press life in a country will follow the system that lives in the country concerned".

In fact, the media also has an ideology as argued by Dreier (1983: 439), "the mass

media plays two important roles in society, the first is the profit orientation desired by

the company, the second is the ideology of the institution as seen in the political,

economic and social news agenda". But whatever the role and ideology of the mass

media, McQuail (1987: 64) has previously assumed that, "the press system is a sub-

system of the political system". There is thus a link between the life of the press and

the model of power that exists in a country".

When referring to the above problems, the freedom to obtain objective and non-

manipulative information from message sources in developing countries is not easy.

Whereas freedom is important in a prosperous and democratic society, as Mac Bride

(1980: 46) argues, "freedom is part of the effort to achieve prosperity and freedom is a

condition for achieving the most valuable democracy". Prosperity is usually achieved

through an arduous struggle against economic, political and ruling forces, and

democracy is a process where individuals are active partners not just objects of

communication.

5.4.

Social Change in Rural Areas

A village or community village in the terms of Smith and Zopf (1970:34) is "a

concentration of people in a place that has various facilities that allow the life of a

community to take place". Meanwhile, Bintarto (1990:12) states that a village is the

result of a combination between the activities of a group of people and their

environment, the result of this combination is a form of compactness of the dynamics

of the earth caused by physiographic, social, economic, political, cultural elements that

integrate with each other. The value of the village is determined by the potential stored

in it, including economic potential, social potential, demographic potential, cultural

potential and so on.

On the basis of this view, it is also necessary to put forward the opinion of Finch

(1957: 19) which explains that, "villages are the main residence of the population and

not as a center of trade and generally prioritize agriculture as a source of life". More

briefly mentioned by Ogburn and Mayer (1953: 12), "villages are a collection of a

number of organizations of social life whose territory is limited".

In line with these two opinions and with more emphasis on the cultural aspect,

Boeke (in Sajogya and Sajogya, 1983:31) states, "the village is not for work but a

place of tranquility and tranquility is in essence the true life for the Orientals".

Although this opinion can still be debated further, it at least gives an idea that the rural

environment is synonymous with harmonious life.

Villages are often associated with the social life of people in a limited area, with

specific patterns of interaction, so various studies of rural areas touch on the term

community. According to Mac Iver and Page (1967:9), "community is an area of

social life characterized by a certain degree of social relations; the basics of the local

community are locality and local community feelings". In the community attached to

community sentiment is a feeling of mutual need, and the land they live on gives life to

all of them among its members. The elements of community sentiment are: like-

mindedness, comradeship and mutual need.

The study of the countryside also involves a discussion of the village community

with its socio-cultural environment and all the problems it faces. According to Roucek

(1987:339), "society is a group of people who more or less have a permanent unity and

are arranged in collective activities and they feel united". Meanwhile, the reasons for

the formation of society in the view of Kartohadikoesoemo, (1965: 5) are: "(1). to live,

namely looking for food, clothing and housing; (2). to defend his life against threats

from outside; and (3). to achieve progress in his life".

Discussing society by focusing on interactions within a collectivity, Polak (1987:

13) states, "society as a container of interrelationships consisting of many collectivities

and groups and each group consists of small groups and large groups". Small groups

or "small groups are groups of at least two people, where people relate to each other to

fulfill certain goals and consider the relationship itself important to them". (Cragan

and Wright, 1980; 213),

More specifically and related to this research, Soekanto (1985: 336) states,

"village community is a form of perpetual fellowship between humans and their

institutions in a local area where they live in farmhouses scattered in a common center

of activity". Rural communities (rural community) generally live from agriculture,

have a closer and deeper relationship. Their relations with people outside the

boundaries of their system are less close and their life cycle relies on the group in the

family system. In the paternalistic approach, Uphoff (1974:4) states, "villagers are

passive and fatalistic, uninterested in initiating and making efforts to improve their

living conditions". Villagers are therefore unable to develop village organizations to

improve their living conditions.

Supporting Uphoff's opinion is what Francis and Henderson (1992:11) describe,

"the problems affecting rural communities are poverty and incapacity, unemployment,

housing, health, and social inadequacy". In addition, there are other opinions that

emphasize the relationship between rural communities and the government as stated

by Redfield (1956:47), "the characteristics of rural farmers that stand out are, distrust

of people outside their group, limited ownership of goods for the production process,

hostility and dependence on the government".

Hostility arises because in efforts to modernize agriculture and industrialize rural

communities are often disadvantaged by the government, while dependence arises

more due to the power of the government in regulating the production process, land

ownership and all forms of control over rural institutions.

Wanasinghe supports this statement by stating, "in developing countries the

development strategy is entrusted to the bureaucracy to handle the implementation of

development projects and the organization of rural farmers". (Wanasinghe, 1979:448).

In practice, it often happens that rural communities are shackled in various rules about

development that they do not understand. The understanding of development is only

for people outside their traditional communities.

5.5.

Industrialization and Rural Development

When fertile farmland is cleared for factories or other symbols of modernization

such as housing, sports fields, recreational areas, farms, modernly managed plantations

and even cemeteries, the owners of capital or the government generally promise

villagers to work in these factories or projects. But these promises do not materialize

because modern industries or organizations only require a small amount of manual

labor.

On the other hand, skilled workers are very scarce in the countryside, even though

it was originally fertile land capable of accommodating a lot of labor. There should

have been so many provisions prohibiting the eviction of fertile land for industrial

purposes. Even in writing about peasant life in colonial Indonesia, Pelzer (1985:96)

asserts, "the problem is allowing the onderneming entrepreneurs to get enough land for

their plantation operations". Surely the problem lies only with the power holders who

have the authority to regulate state land, thus not the fault of the peasants, but the

perversion of land functions that have been inherent in rural communities for

generations.

Favoring industry in the hope that it will improve the welfare of the surrounding

community is a hope that is still difficult to achieve. Mountjoy (1982:135) also

dismisses the unfavorable conditions in rural communities, stating, "in the long run,

the success or failure of industrialization depends on the capacity and adaptation of the

surrounding people to adopt new technologies and new ways of life". Adaptation to

new values takes a long time, moreover the use of new technology is an impossibility

for traditional village communities. Instead, adoption is limited to the physical

symbols of modernization, which are easier to do without the need for a long learning

process.

Industrialization is indeed the choice of many developing countries in carrying out

economic development, although this method is not easy considering the very complex

structural problems of rural communities. According to Ponsioen (1969:158),

"industrialization as professionalism in production and changing manual work into

machine work and replacing it with mechanical energy". From this opinion,

industrialization is essentially productivity-oriented; but the problem that always arises

in developing countries is the negative impact on society, especially in rural areas.

Furthermore, Todaro (1981:97) states, "rural communities, especially farmers, are

communities that are unable to compete with technological and industrial

developments that are always used as symbols of multi-dimensional economic

development in developing countries". This statement is in principle in line with the

thoughts of Milikan and Blakmer (1961:17), namely "most of the people in

underdeveloped countries consist of poor farmers who live in rural areas, still think

and work in a very simple way that still characterizes traditional society". If we look

closely, of course, this opinion is different from the intention of ideal development,

namely, a way of thinking that is considered less favorable towards a more favorable

way of thinking. Development also forces and shapes human relations and social

values". (Phillip Ruopp, 1953:13).

With similar substance but more emphasis on the economic aspect, Weyner

(1997:87) states, "the purpose of economic development itself is to enable everyone to

achieve a decent standard of living, the idea of development requires a change in

human character to achieve the goal". Development should be able to significantly

provide economic welfare for the community, not the other way around, "local

villagers are very little absorbed in companies operating in the village".

(Tjokrowinoto, 1985: 82).

Batten (1979:1) states that "village community development is a process in which

villagers first discuss and determine their desires, then plan and work together to fulfill

those desires". If development is carried out with Batten's concept, then the village

community should be invited to participate in determining various development

policies in their area.

Specifically directed towards rural development, Manfred Leopolt (1991:34) states

that the objectives of integrated rural development are:

(1) Increase agricultural productivity with special emphasis on subsystem farmers

(farm laborers) without forgetting environmental sustainability,

(2) Improving income distribution and non-material aspects including social security

(3) Improving consumption patterns, especially improved nutrition (4) Seeking

progress in social integration.

These various opinions remind us that the ideal development is one that can be

enjoyed by all levels of society proportionally, not solely oriented towards

industrialization, which does not necessarily provide a trickle of prosperity to the

surrounding community. According to Thompson (1953:23), "industry is not a

panacea for economic backwardness and welfare but one of the forms of development

and progress that the state does more than other sectors of the economy".

Addressing the problem of development in developing countries should not

merely be about adopting the industrialization model in developed countries. As Vogel

(1979: 47) writes, "the earlier development model based on total step-by-step imitation

of the Western model of industrialization cannot be an accurate development process".

Successes such as those achieved by South Korea and Singapore were developed on

the basis of selective adoption and refinement of western technologies and institutions

within an indigenous framework.

Adjustment to local conditions is absolutely necessary, especially in rural

communities. Support for this statement is provided by Berger (1982:170) who states,

"in a society that is oriented towards modernization, the right includes the right to

choose meaning for oneself which includes the right to adhere to tradition".

In line with the conception of development and its relationship to industrialization,

Rogers (1971: 46) states, "development with industrialization in agrarian societies is a

change that brings great influence". Various social institutions will be affected by it

such as labor relations, land ownership systems, family relations, community

stratification and so on.

According to Hayami and Kikuchi (1981:76), "new technologies that cause change

will destroy traditional institutions based on the principle of mutual cooperation".

Modernization will not give place to traditional institutions that are inefficient and

uncalculative in their actions. The emergence of industry in rural areas on the negative

side is that the socio-economic life of the community is deteriorating, because

industrialization is followed by the growth of a culture of commercialization of

agricultural land. Daniel Chirot (1981:134) supports this statement by asserting, "the

commercialization of agricultural land in peripheral countries changed from a form of

land ownership based on residence to a system of private ownership based on money".

Land commercialization implies pressure on people to sell land. Land brokers roam

the villages, often supported by government officials. As a traditional community,

peasants have limitations, but have the will to resist any form of repression.

According to Saung (1991:168) in Burma, which is in line with rural conditions in

Indonesia, "almost all farmers are desperate about their situation, so that if equipped

with weapons they will not be able to use them hesitate to obtain their rights". Saung's

statement has a lot in common with other characteristics of farmers in various

developing countries, including in Indonesia, where under pressure farmers can defy

or resist unfavorable government policies.

Linking land commercialization with power, Neil G. Rolling (in Rogers, 1995:71)

states, "the direct involvement of state power in the affairs of farmers and the

emergence of commercialization of agricultural land is something that contributes to

socio-cultural changes in the environment of farmers who do not provide material

benefits". This opinion is in line with the statement of Collier, et.al. (1996:106), "in the

1960s in villages it was almost impossible for a farmer to sell a paddy field to an

outsider, but now there are quite active land markets in villages". Partly this is because

the old role of leaders who valued land ownership has receded and also because

village landowners are unable to resist the power of capital owners who seek village

land as an investment.

From the description above, it can be concluded that industrialization is breaking

down historical ties in agricultural land ownership and orientation towards industry

also does not contribute much positively to the welfare of rural communities, most of

whom are farmers. In other words, the trickle down effect, which expects welfare to

trickle down, has not been achieved.

5.6.

Industrial Estate Villages and Population Mobility

In many studies of industrialization in developing countries, adequate

transportation and favorable regional potential have been cited as options for

establishing factories in rural areas. The availability of transportation not only

facilitates increased productivity but also encourages the mobility of rural

communities from one area to another from one village to another or from rural to

urban areas. Mobility has various implications for the lives of rural communities.

Dependence due to the development of an area is stated by Friedman (1966; 59) in

essence as follows, the incipient industrial stage or incipient - industrialization is

characterized by the presence of major cities that dominate large areas and take

advantage of peripheral areas, so that the economy in the periphery will be heavily

influenced by the city or tied to the city ".

Actually, population movement and mobility are not only caused by urban factors

with industrialization. It is said by Mountjoy (1982:273), "the motives for migration

include the desire for a better economic life, opportunism and political ambition".

Meanwhile Stark (1991:37) states, "the decision to migrate is not solely an individual

decision but is related to the surrounding environment, especially the family

environment, nor is it solely determined by maximum gains but also minimal losses in

the market". The reasons for migration are summarized by Friedman, John and Robert

Wulff (1979:78) who state, "Migrants with potential energy are those who move to

work in a new place because of external influences". While migrants with kinetic

energy are those who move to work in a new place on their own awareness and

willingness without the influence of others.

In another study, migration is considered a natural thing, as stated by Kunz (1973:

126), "the decisions and motivations taken by individuals in migration are very

different between economic reasons and political reasons". Meanwhile, Broeck (1996:

74) explains that "population mobility is a process of survival". Thus, migration is an

effort to survive in community life socially and economically.

MCO 456_ASU_ASSIGNMENT 2024_WEEK 6_THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN THE COMMUNICATION VORTEX

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