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POLITICAL ELITES IN THE POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
MCO 456 - POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
WEEK 2
Outcomes of this material So that readers can analyze the meaning of the importance of
political elites as follows:
•
understanding of the political elite
•
political elite discernment
•
classification of political elites
•
conflict theory
•
Purpose of conflict
•
Causes of conflict
A. Definition of Political Elites:
In a general sense, the elite refers to a group of people who exist in society and
occupy a high position. In a special sense, it can be interpreted as a group of people
who are prominent in certain fields and especially a minority group that holds power.
In social studies, a minority group that is in an upper position that can functionally rule
and determine is known as the elite.
An elite is a minority of individuals appointed to serve a collectivity in a socially
valuable way. In the sociological and political sense, the elite is the ruling class, a
group that holds power both formally and informally in a social stratum. With their
position, they can influence the development of society in a reciprocal relationship.
Thus, it can also be said that the elite is a product of its society. And, the relationship
between elites is always in communication so that the creation and spirit of one
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generation is continued or translated into its new form by the next generation.
The political elite itself is divided into two parts including local political elites
and non-local political elites, the local political elite is a person who occupies political
positions (power) in the executive and legislative branches elected through elections
and chosen in a democratic political process at the local level. They hold high political
positions at the local level that make and implement political policies. Political elites
include: Governors, Regents, Mayors, DPRD Chairpersons, and political party leaders.
Meanwhile, the Local Non-Political Elite is someone who occupies strategic
positions and has the influence to command others within the community. These non-
political elites include: religious elites, elites of community organizations, youth,
professions and so on. The different types of local elites are expected to not only
differentiate their scope, but also provide an explanation of the relationship between
political elites and community elites in the process of Regional Head Elections at the
local level. In elite circulation, conflicts can arise from within the group itself as well as
between business groups and counter-groups.
B. Elite circulation
According to Pareto, it occurs in two categories, namely:
First, alternation occurs between self-governing groups, and
Second, turnover occurs between the elite and the rest of the population.
This second model change can be in the form of income which consists of two things:
(a).
Individuals from different layers into existing elite groups, and or
(b).
Individuals from the lower strata who form new elite groups and enter the power
struggle with the existing elite. Elites are successful people, who are able to occupy
high positions in society. They consist of lawyers, mechanics, rogues, or mistresses.
Pareto also believed that elites who existed in different occupations and layers of
society generally came from the same class; namely people who were rich and clever,
had advantages in mathematics, music, moral character, and so on. According to Karl
Marx, there are three types of political elites, where the elite can change through
revolution. Among them:
First, the Positional Method, political elites are those who occupy strategic
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positions or positions in the political system. Strategic positions can make decisions
and policies and are declared on behalf of the State. These elites number in the
hundreds and include holders of high positions in government, politics, and interest
groups. These political elites make important decisions every day to serve millions of
people.
Second, the Reputation Method, political elites are determined based on their
reputation and ability to process various problems and then formulate them into
political decisions that have an impact on people's lives.
Third, the Influence Method, political elites are people who have influence at
various levels of power. This person has the ability to control society according to their
ability to influence, so that people spontaneously obey the political elite. Therefore,
people who are influential in society can be categorized as political elites.
According to Keller, elites were originally used to distinguish a minority of
personalities appointed to serve a collectivity in a socially valuable way who in turn
are responsible for the realization of major social goals and for the continuation of the
social order by including participation in an ongoing and temporary social process
which is not the same as survival so there is a possibility of being replaced. As chosen
or elected people, elites have certain positions that give them decisive power in a
decision-making process.
Pareto explained that the elite in society is in the upper layer which is divided
into governing elites and non-governing elites, while in society there is also a lower
layer (non-elite).
According to Aristotle, an elite is a small number of individuals who assume all
or almost all societal responsibilities. Aristotle's definition of elite is a further
affirmation of Plato's assertion of the core proposition of classical elitist democratic
theory that in every society, a minority makes the major decisions. The theoretical
concept that proposed by Plato and Aristotle and then expanded its study by two Italian
political sociologists, namely Vilpredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca.
Pareto stated that every society is ruled by a small group of people who have the
necessary qualities in social and political life. This small group is called the elite, who
are able to reach the center of power.
Elites are successful people who are able to occupy high positions in society. Pareto
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emphasized that in general the elite come from the same class, namely the rich and
clever people who have advantages in mathematics, mathematics, moral character and
so on.
Pareto further divided society into two classes, namely the governing elite and
the non-governing elite. Second, the study of political elites was further carried out by
Mosca who developed the theory of political elites.
According to Mosca, in all societies, from those most actively developing
themselves and reaching the dawn of civilization, to the most advanced and powerful
societies, there are always two classes: the ruling class and the ruled class. The ruling
class, usually smaller in number, holds all political functions, monopolizes power and
enjoys the benefits of power. The ruled class, usually larger in number, is organized
and controlled by the ruling class.
C. Classification of Political Elites:
According to Pareto, society consists of two classes, namely: (1). The upper
layer, namely the elite, which is divided into the governing elite, and the non-
governing elite. (2). The lower layer, the non-elite.
The concept of elite turnover was also developed by Pareto. He suggests various types
of elite turnover, namely turnover: (1). among the ruling elite groups themselves. (2).
among the elite and the rest of the population.
The latter can take the form of the inclusion of: (1). individuals from a different stratum
into an existing elite group. (2). individuals from the lower strata forming a new elite
group and enter into a power struggle with the existing elite.
Pareto and Mosca defined elites as a ruling class that effectively monopolizes key
posts in society. This definition was later supported by Robert Michel who believes
that the "iron law of oligarchy" is inevitable. In any organization, there is always a
small group that is strong, dominant and able to dictate its own interests. In contrast,
Lasswell argued that elites are actually pluralistic. Its figure is scattered (not a single
figure), the person himself changes at each functional stage in the decision-making
process, and his role can rise and fall depending on the situation.
For Lasswell, the situation is more important, in situations where the role of the
elite is not too prominent and elite status can be attached to anyone who happens to
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have an important role. Pareto and Mosca also mentioned that in society there is always
a class divided into a ruling class with a small number and holds all political functions,
monopolizes power and is able to achieve its beneficial goals with the power it has, and
a ruled class with a larger number and is regulated and controlled by the ruling class.
Mosca rejected all classifications of governmental forms that have ever existed
such as aristocracy, democracy, or so forth, in any society, whether in developed
societies or societies whose national life is developing. According to him, there is only
one form of government, which is oligarchy led by a group of elites.
Pareto and Mosca's explanation has a weak gap that is enough to obscure the
understanding of the elite because it does not pay attention to other areas of interaction
in society. This is because in their time these two thinkers saw the state's strong
dominance over the people. A more flexible view is expressed by Dwaine Marvick.
According to him, there are two academic traditions about elites. First, in the older
tradition, elites are needed as special figures who carry out historical missions, fulfill
urgent needs, produce superior talents, or display special qualities. Elites are seen as a
group that creates an order that is then embraced by the society all parties. Secondly, in
a more recent tradition, elites are seen as groups, either groups that gather government
officials or rulers in various sectors and places.
The notion of elite is paired with leaders, decision-makers, or influential parties
who are always the central figure. Field and Higley simplify by suggesting that elites
are people in key positions, who are seen by the general public as equitable as a group.
They are the ones who make general policies, who coordinate with each other to
emphasize their role. According to Marvick, although the elite is often seen as a unified
group, in fact among the members of the elite itself, let alone with other elites, they
often compete and have different interests. Competition and differences in interests
between elites often occur in the struggle for power or elite circulation. Another thinker
who also classifies and defines the elite is Robert Michels who argues about the "iron
law of oligarchy", namely the tendency of domination (control) by a small group of
people (minority).
This oligarchy appears in four political dimensions, namely,
1. oligarchy in terms of organization,
2. oligarchy in leadership,
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3. oligarchy in the context of the organization's relationship with the people, and
4. oligarchy in government power.
The view of social scientists above shows that elites have influence in the
decision-making process. Influence that has or comes from society's appreciation of the
advantages of elites is said to be a source of power.
According to Miriam Budiardjo, the sources of power can be in the form of position,
wealth status, trust, religion, kinship, intelligence and skills. A similar opinion is also
expressed by Charles F. Andrain who calls it the resources of power, namely: physical,
economic, normative, personal and expertise resources.
D. Conflict Theory:
Conflict comes from Latin, conflictus which means opposition. The definition of
conflict according to experts varies greatly because experts see conflict from different
points of view or perspectives. However, in general, conflict can be described as a
clash of interests between two or more parties, where one party feels unfairly needed,
then disappointed. And that disappointment can be realized through conflict in legal
and illegal ways. Conflict is also defined as a relationship between two or more parties
(individuals or groups) who have or feel incompatible goals. A proposition that
expresses a systematic view of things by describing the relationships among variables
to explain and predict these phenomena. This conflict occurs between groups with the
aim of fighting over the same things. One of the figures of conflict theory is Ralf
Dahrendrof.
According to him, society is essentially the child of history. The history of society
is the history of change. There is not a single society that does not change. This
continuous change reveals a fact that structural functionalism theory cannot see,
namely that every society is driven by the forces of conflict that allow it to develop and
change. It is even asserted that where there is life, there is conflict. Every element in
society contributes to disintegration and change.
If society is not balanced and organized in a harmonious order, then it actually
results from the actions of a few powerful people who impose their values on the rest
of the group. In the scheme of the division of society into two classes, the ruler
(superordinate) and the ruled (subordinate), the conflict is already embedded in the
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heart of society itself because each class has its own opposing interests.
The ruling group has authority over the people under its power. With this power
and authority, the ruling party controls the behavior of the subordinate group through
obligations and prohibitions. The ruling party has an interest in maintaining The status
quo that has privileged them, while the controlled group has an interest in making
changes and reforms. Any act of violation of this class interest will be responded to
with punishment to maintain the existing structure. If the social system remains
balanced, then it is actually punishment and pressure, not consensus. It should be
emphasized here that interests are objective class interests, not subjective interests of
individuals.
From this it is clear that integration and recognition of the leadership of a person
or group of people is not based on a fixed agreement. The ruling party ideologizes its
values. With its values in place, its leadership becomes solid.
Opposition means delegitimization of those sanctioned values, which in turn
means subverting the existing leadership of individuals or groups. Any oppositional
forces will be eliminated so that the status quo is not disturbed. On the other hand,
Lewis Coser defines conflict as "a struggle over values and claims to secure status,
power, and resources, a struggle in which the main aims of opponents are to neutralize,
injure, or eliminate rivals".
This definition explains that conflict is a dispute over values or demands
regarding status, power, and resources of insufficient supply, where the parties to the
dispute not only intend to obtain the desired goods, but also to corner, harm, or destroy
their opponents. Coser's definition clarifies the basis of social conflict to something
more real. Dahrendorf himself stated that conflict occurs because of the struggle for
control over limited resources and positions. Conflict occurs when different groups
fight for control of something. "Something" here can be material resources.
"Something" here can also be a source of leadership legitimacy or authority in a group,
as described by Dahrendorf above. This leadership legitimacy is related to values. If a
group's values become the ideology or values used as a source of reference by the
community, then the group (or its leaders) will automatically become the moral leader
of the community. The group's leadership over the community will be stronger.
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The reasons for the conflict can be partially or fully realized. Peter M. Blau's study
states that the scale of conflict depends on the number of conflicting factors among
conflict groups. Conflict will be very intense and acute if all the elements that
differentiate between groups are present at the same time.
According to Marx, conflicts basically arise in an effort to gain access to the
forces of production, if there is control from society, conflicts will be eliminated. That
is, if capitalism is replaced by socialism, classes will be erased and class conflicts will
cease. According to Max Weber, conflict is that human action is driven by interests, but
not only by material interests as Marx said, but also by ideal interests.
In general, there are two basic objectives of conflict, namely, obtaining and/or
maintaining resources. The purpose of conflict to obtain resources is a human
characteristic that is material-bodily to and spiritual-spiritual to be able to live properly
and honorably in society. What humans want to obtain includes things that are in
accordance with their free will and interests. The goal of conflict to maintain the
resources that have been owned is also a tendency of human life.
Humans want to obtain the resources that belong to them, and try to defend them
from the efforts of others to seize or reduce these resources. What is wanted to be
defended is not only self-esteem, the safety of life and family, but also the territory or
area of residence, wealth, and power that is owned. The goal of self-preservation is not
the monopoly of humans alone because even animals have the disposition to seek self-
preservation.
E. Purpose of Conflict:
Therefore, the purpose of political conflict is formulated as an attempt to gain
and/or maintain resources that are considered important.
Conflict is a part of human life that does not disappear from history. As long as
human beings are alive, conflicts will continue to exist and it is impossible to avoid
them. Human beings remove conflict from this world, both conflicts between
individuals and individuals, individuals and groups and groups within the scope of
society. Conflict always colors the life of society which includes political, social,
economic, cultural and various other aspects.
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Thus conflict is a description of a game, both for games that win both parties
(NonZero Sum Conflict) and those that also defeat the other party (Zero- Sum Conflict)
such as the class of conflicts that occur in industrial societies. According to Webster,
the term "Conflict" in the original language is a fight, warfare or struggle, which is a
physical confrontation between several parties. This word Fera Nugroho, M. A, (et al),
Conflict and Violence at the Local Level, then evolved with the inclusion of sharp
disagreements or opposition over various interests, ideas, and others.
In other words, the term now also touches on the psychological aspects behind the
physical confrontation, in addition to the confrontation itself. In short, the term
"conflict" has become so diluted that it risks losing its status as a concept. Conflict is
thus defined as a perceived difference of interest, or a belief that the aspirations of the
conflicting parties cannot be achieved simultaneously.
In general, there are several theories of conflict, among others:
First, conflict is a natural social element (K. Lorenz). Second, from the point of view of
social psychology, conflict comes from the conflict between human physical drives and
motivations on the one hand and the demands of norms on the other.
Third, it sees that society is formed and maintained not by agreement but by force. For
this reason, wherever humans form a social bond there will be conflict.
Fourth, in terms of Marxism, conflict is caused by property ownership. There are
many theories regarding the occurrence of conflict, among others:
First, the public relations theory assumes that conflict is caused by ongoing
polarization, distrust and hostility between different groups within a society.
Second, the Negotiation Principle Theory, which assumes that conflict is caused by
non-aligned positions and differences in views in Political Strategy, on a matter by.
Third, Human needs theory assumes that deep-rooted conflicts are caused by basic
human needs in the form of physical, mental, social needs, which are not met or
hindered.
Fourth, identity theory assumes that conflict is caused by a threatened identity, which
is often rooted in a loss or suffering in the past that is not resolved.
Fifth, the Misunderstanding between Cultures theory assumes that conflict is caused
by incompatibilities in ways of communication between different cultures.
Sixth, Conflict Transformation Theory assumes that conflicts are caused by problems
of disloyalty that emerge as social, cultural and economic problems.
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Meanwhile, according to Louis Coser, conflict is a dispute over values or
demands relating to status, power (power) and sources of wealth whose supply is
insufficient / fulfilling, where the parties to the conflict not only intend to obtain the
desired goods but also corner, harm or weaken their opponents.
Meanwhile, the cause of conflict according to Paul Conn is due to two things,
First, horizontal pluralism, namely cultural communities such as: ethnicity, race,
religion, intergroup, and language from a horizontally social plural society in the sense
of differences in occupations and professions. Second, vertical pluralism such as the
structure of society that is polarized according to the ownership of wealth, knowledge,
and power.
Causes of Conflict The emergence of conflicts of interest, according to
Dahrendorf, begins with people living together and laying the foundations for forms of
social organization, where there are positions in which residents have the power to
command in certain contexts and control certain positions, and there are other positions
where residents are subjected to such orders.
This difference is very well related to the imbalance in the distribution of power
that gave birth to the conflict of interest. Dahrendorf sees a close relationship between
conflict and change in this case in line with Lewis Coser's opinion that all activities,
innovations and developments in the life of his group and society are due to conflicts
between groups and groups, individuals and individuals and between emotions and
emotions within individuals. Dahrendorf also explained that social conflict has a
structural source, namely the power relations that apply in the structure of social
organization.
F. Causes of Conflict:
In other words, inter-group conflict can be seen in terms of conflict over the legitimacy
of existing power.
According to Maurice Duverger, the causes of conflict are:
(1)
Individual causes. Individual causes such as a tendency to compete or always
being dissatisfied with the work of others can cause people who have these
characteristics to always be involved in, "Social Conflict Theory" conflicts with others
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wherever they are.
(2)
Collective causes, are causes of conflict that are formed by the group as a result
of social interaction between group members. These causes of conflict are generated by
external challenges and problems that are perceived as threatening to the group.
2)
Forms - Forms of Conflict In conflict theory there are several forms of conflict and
focused on the problem of conflict, as stated by western scientists, the problem of
conflict does not know democratization or dictatorship and is universal.
According to Fisher's theory, conflict patterns are divided into three forms:
(1)
Latent conflict is conflict that is hidden and needs to be brought to the
surface so that it can be handled effectively.
(2)
Manifest or overt conflict is conflict that is deep-rooted and very real, and
requires various actions to address its root causes and effects.
(3)
Whereas surface conflicts have shallow or rootless roots and arise only
because of a misunderstanding about something that can be resolved using
communication.
According to Alison and Wallace, conflict theory has three main assumptions,
which are interconnected (Sutaryo, 1992). The first is that humans have basic interests
and they seek to realize these interests. The second is to show that "Power" is not just a
scarce and unequally distributed item, so it is a source of conflict, but also something
that is coercive. This second one occupies a central position for the conflict theory
perspective. "Power" is seen as the "Core" of social relationships.
Thirdly, idiology and values are seen as sentiments used by different groups to
achieve their own goals and interests23 .
According to Maurice Duverger, there are three forms of conflict related to power or
politics, among others
(1)
This form of conflict is directly related to practical issues rather than ideological
issues carried out either by individuals or groups.
(2)
Conflicts that focus more on differences in views, both individual and group,
concerning political party issues or those related to the interests of political parties,
people who are considered to represent the people.
(3)
Conflict that focuses on the problem of ideological differences, each fighting for
their party ideology, all of which feel right. According to Coser, there are two basic
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forms of conflict, namely realistic conflict and non-realistic conflict. Realistic conflict
is a conflict that has a concrete or material source, such as a struggle for territory or
power, and this conflict can be resolved if it is obtained by seizing without fighting and
fighting.
Non-realistic conflicts are conflicts that are driven by irrational desires and tend
to be ideological in nature, such as conflicts between religions and community
organizations, and non-realistic conflicts are one way to resolve conflicts emphasize or
reduce the tension of a group. In Indonesian history, both during the colonial period
and in the post-independence period, this conflict can be divided into two parts,
namely:
(1)
Vertical conflicts, which are conflicts that occur between countries or between
state apparatus and citizens both individually and in groups, such as armed rebellions
aimed at separating themselves from the Republic of Indonesia.
(2)
Horizontal conflict, which is a conflict that occurs between groups in various
locations, is usually based on a very deep subjective sentiment that is believed by its
citizens such as tribal sentiment or organizational sentiment.
3)
Impact of Conflict According to Fisher, a conflict does not always have a negative
impact, but there are times when conflict also has a positive impact.
The positive impacts of a conflict are as follows:
(1)
Conflict can clarify various aspects of life that are still unfinished.
(2)
The existence of conflict leads to readjustment of norms and values in society.
(3)
Conflict can increase solidarity among group members.
(4)
Conflict can reduce the sense of dependence on individuals or groups. (5) Conflict
can lead to new compromises.
The negative impacts of a conflict are as follows: (1) The breakdown of relationships
between individuals and group unity.
(2)
Damage to property and even in higher levels of conflict can result in the loss of
life.
(3)
Changes in the personalities of individuals or group members.
(2) The emergence of dominance of the winning group over the losing group.
Political elite conflict is formed because of the existence of political rulers. Because
there is no society that does not have political rulers, it means that there is no society
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that does not have political conflict. In this case, the main political conflict is the
conflict between political rulers in seeing the object of political power. Conflict can
occur because one party has high aspirations or because alternatives that are considered
difficult to obtain. Conflict can also be defined as a difference in perception of useful
interests to predict what people do. This is because perceptions that usually have an
immediate impact on behavior.
Duties:
Answer the following questions:
1)
Explain the definition of political elite
2)
Explain the sisculation of political elites
3)
Explain the classification of political elites
4)
Explaining the theory of conflict
5)
Explaining the purpose of conflict
6)
Explaining the causes of conflict
The Importance of Political Marketing Strategy as a Political Communication
Activity
Expected End Capability:
After studying this material, readers are expected to be able to analyze:
1. Political Marketing Strategy
2. Segmentation on voter behavior
3. Influence of personalities on voter behavior
4. The influence of emotional ties on voter behavior
5. Effect of Work Program on Choosing Behavior
Discussion
A. Political Marketing Strategy:
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As we enter the era of the Industrial Revolution 4.0, whether we admit it or not,
social media has tremendous power. Almost all interactions that we build or organize
with other parties cannot be separated from the involvement or presence of social
media. There is no gap in all human activities that do not intersect with social media.
Culture, social, economy, technology, sports, art, nature, space, education, spirituality
and politics all require the presence of social media in it.
The third consecutive wave of simultaneous regional elections (2018) after the
success of the previous two waves (2015, 2017) also implies that social media plays a
very important role. Not only the competing regional head candidates who empower its
efficacy, but also the supporting political parties. That is why, although mainstream
media (newspapers, television and radio) still exist, the function has been largely taken
over or precisely couped by social media. Communication carried out in political
parties as an organizational forum is also in various formats. The format of
communication from member to member is known as one level or horizontal pattern.
The format from members to party officials or party officials to members is known as
the vertical pattern.
Another communication format is from members to administrators and then to
members or from administrators-members-managers, referred to as cross-
communication patterns. They intensely discuss developments and issues of regional
head elections or chat intensively on actual topics of concern or trending topics using
whatApps, line, telegram, facebook applications. Of course, because the media used by
social media, the content of the conversation or content is very varied. Da very serious,
serious, to chats that discuss unimportant issues related to news that is hearsay. The
author deliberately chose the Kediri City Regional Election as an empirical study area,
meaning based on the consideration that PDI Perjuangan was the winner in the 2013
Regional Election in Kediri and in the third wave of simultaneous elections in 2018,
PDIP also carried a candidate in coalition with Hanura.
The seconds before the closing of candidate registration at the KPU became a
very tense moment because the coalition candidate had not yet submitted his proposal
file. This had sparked a demonstration to the Chairman of the Hanura DPC, as if
Hanura did not want a coalition with a candidate carried by PDIP who was also a
former Mayor. This book was written as a further development of the results of our
field research entitled Study of Social Media-Based Communication Patterns as a
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Determinant of Political Marketing Strategy in the Indonesian Democratic Party of
Struggle, under the Higher Education Excellence Basic Research scheme.
However, the author also deliberately complements it with another perspective,
namely PR (Public Relations) as a means of political marketing. This means that in
political contestation, whether it is at the level of legislative elections (DPR / DPRD
including the election of regional senators / DPD members) and the election of the
President, selling is as important as selling products in the concept of production of
goods / services in the economic field.
Pilkada is not just a political festival, but rather a political bazaar. Where
buyers/voters have full authority to determine the choice of what to buy or choose. At
the end of this book, the author presents the other side of political contestation This is
what happened in the US when Obama, Hillary and Trump rhetoric during the
presidential election and the acceptance of victory between them. Rhetoric is an early
study of political communication that provides a lot of inspiration on how public
opinion is also greatly influenced by the rhetorical ability of the candidate.
Communicating a message requires a relevant strategy, the choice of media that is right
on target as well as the shrewdness to read the situation at that time. It is not easy for
politicians to win a political battle in this era of modern democratic transparency. The
contestation in Kediri, the Governor's election in East Java and somewhat jumping far
to the US Presidential election seemed to provide a real picture of how the candidate
who was originally superior and the supporting party relatively had votes in the
legislature turned out to lose the election. What does that mean?
Based on empirical data collected by researchers through direct interviews with a
number of resource persons both at the local and national levels as well as literature
documents, it turns out that political parties are not the main preference for constituents
to make their political choices. Another aspect that needs to be taken into account is the
figure or figures chosen. Exactly the same as goods and services, consumers do not
really care where they are produced, but how the quality of the product and its
acceptability in society.
1. Definition of Strategy:
The term strategy from Greek "strategos" or with the plural word strategy which
means general or officer (state officer) with broad functions and tasks. The term is used
45
to represent 10 (ten) tribes in Greece known as the Board of Tai Strategy and in its
narrow meaning Maurice Matlaff (1967: 4) calls strategy The Art of General. Sondang
P. Siagian (1985: 21) defines strategy as ways taken that are fundamental and
fundamental in nature that will be used by an organization to achieve its goals and
objectives by always taking into account the environmental constraints that will
inevitably be faced.
Furthermore, Sondang P. Siagian (1985: 21) reveals that "strategy" is a very
careful plan regarding activities to achieve specific goals. The specific goal in this case
is to find out the strategy that The strategy was used by the winning team of the
candidate pair of 10 village heads in order to gain the most votes in the pilkades of
Gajah Timur City in 2012. The definition of strategy is also stated by Tregoe and
Zimmerman (1980: 17) who say that strategy is an art of using the skills and resources
of an organization to achieve goals through effective relationships with its environment
in mutually beneficial conditions. Based on the above understanding, it can be
interpreted that strategy is a fundamental way or step to use the skills and resources of
an organization through effective relationships with the environment and shows
constraints or choices directed at achieving organizational goals.
The preparation of a strategy must use certain methods and techniques so that the
resulting policy will be optimal, for which adequate knowledge and expertise are
needed in the context of organizational goals. Types of Strategies The types of
strategies according to Koteen in J. Salusu (1994: 104-105) include:
a)
Corporate Strategy (organizational strategy) This strategy is concerned with
formulating the mission, values, goals, values of new strategic initiatives these
discussions are necessary, i.e. what is done and for whom.
b)
Program Strategy This strategy pays attention to the strategic implications of a
particular program, what impact it will have if a particular program is launched,
what impact it will have on organizational goals.
c)
Resource Support Strategy This strategy focuses on maximizing the utilization
of essential resources available to improve the quality of organizational
performance. These resources can be in the form of manpower, finance and
technology.
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d)
Institutional Strategy The focus of institutional strategy is to develop
organizational capabilities to implement strategic initiatives.
2. Political Marketing Strategies:
Political marketing strategy is the analysis, planning, implementation and control
of political and electoral programs designed to create, build and maintain profitable
exchange relationships between parties and voters for the purpose of achieving political
marketers objectives. Butler and Collins (1996: 28) define political marketing as an
adaptation of commercial marketing concepts and techniques carried out by political
actors to organize, implement and manage political activities to realize political goals.
Based on the above description, what is meant by political marketing in this study
is the overall strategic and tactical goals and actions taken by political actors to offer
and sell political products to target groups.
For this reason, the theoretical framework that will be applied in marketing strategies
consists of:
1.
Segmentation
Rhenald Kasali (2001: 119) segmentation is a process of compartmentalizing the
market (which is heterogeneous) into groups of "potential customers" who have similar
needs and or similar characteristics that have the same response. Segmentation is the
selection of a group of people with similar or the same way of responding to a certain
set of marketing stimuli, by excluding the "white group" (golput) segmentation is
divided into three major segments, namely: a. Segment of supporters of the contestants
being marketed, which can be divided into two, namely:
1)
Core supporters or commonly referred to as the mass base (base partisan), are
fanatical supporters who are very difficult to change their minds.
2)
Second-tier supporters are commonly referred to as softpartisans, mass
supporters who can still change their choices by certain factors or offers.
A segment of supporters of competing contestants that also consists of (a) core support,
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and (b) support. Floating mass segment, which is a segment that has not decided which
party to vote for. In general, this segment can also be selected into two, namely:
1)
The non-participant segment where the election decision does not settle on one
particular political party or candidate but can change depending on situational
factors.
2)
A segment that was once a supporter of a particular party, but will change their
choice because they feel their aspirations are not fulfilled.
2.
Targeting,
Rhenald Kasali (2001: 371) defines targeting as an action to select one or more
market segments that will be the focus of market activities and that will be targeted to
achieve objective goals.
3.
Positioning,
Philip Kotler quoted in Rhenald Kasali (2001: 526) says positioning is an action
taken by marketers to create an image of the product and the things they want to offer
to the public in order to successfully obtain the position achieved. Positioning, namely,
the act of designing marketing and image of political parties in maintaining a
competitive position. Positioning can be done in several ways as follows:
i. Positioning based on political issues and policies, namely presenting
policies or programs that are championed and promised by political
candidates if they win the election.
ii. Positioning based on benefits, i.e. the party will provide certain benefits
to voters.
iii. Positioning based on the candidate's image, positioning that refers to
important personal traits that are perceived as the candidate's character.
Marketing has a very broad dimension. The marketing concept can be used as a
reference in various management decision-making activities including in the political
arena. Political marketing is one example. Political marketing is a way of a political
institution or political party when formulating political products, processing campaign
publication programs and political communication, segmentation strategies to meet the
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needs of layers of society to the calculation of the National Seminar Proceedings.
The essential elements of democracy can be translated into the institutions of
political life at the level of the smallest formal government. According to Robert Dahl
in (Sorensen, 2003) there are three main principles of implementing democracy,
namely;
a. competition,
b. participation, and
c. political and civil liberties.
The dynamics and political constellation in the village have their own
peculiarities. This distinctiveness is shown, among others, in the procession of village
head elections (Pilkades), which are far from the hustle and bustle of the party world.
In the dullness faced by the community with the unhealthy life of parties in Indonesia,
both due to the inability of the ideal functions of parties including political recruitment
and the inability of the elite in articulating the interests of the majority of the people,
the community should be able to find other alternatives in implementing procedural
democracy through the election of Village Heads.
Community political participation will run well if there is political behavior from
the village community and political socialization and good political communication
from prospective village head candidates regarding the vision and mission or work
program to be implemented. Implementation of political socialization that In general,
candidates for village heads have a very strong family network, solid and compact, and
in general, candidates for village heads have a very strong family network, solid and
compact. In general, village head candidates have a very strong, solid and compact
family network. The candidates are usually politically and economically powerful
people in the village.
In general, the community's interest in the election of the Village Head is high
enough to participate in the Pilkades process, because for some people there is no
longer political pressure and intimidation from any party.
B. Voter Behavior
To analyze voter behavior, two approaches are known: the sociological approach
and the psychological approach. The sociological approach states that voting references
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in an election city are a product of socio-economic characteristics such as profession,
social class, religion, and others. So to speak, the background of a person or group of
people such as gender, social class, race, ethnicity, religion, ideology, and regional
origin are independent variables that influence voting decisions. As for the
psychological approach, that the decision to vote for a candidate or candidates is based
on psychological responses, such as the personal qualities of the candidate, the issues
developed by the candidate, and the performance of the government that was in power
at the time.
Voting behavior in the concept of business marketing can basically also be
applied in political marketing. Kotler and Kotler (1981) as cited by Ali (2010) explain
the comparison of voting behavior between business marketing and political
marketing.In business marketing, sellers will provide products and services, as well as
communication systems marketed and transacted through money to buyers.
Likewise, in political marketing, the products and services traded are promises
and favors and information communicated to buyers, while the form of transactions
traded is not money, but voices.
The role of a figure in the electoral process is always needed, even has a very
significant role, especially to influence voters. In legislative elections, the prominence
of party leaders and legislative candidates has the potential to influence voter behavior
to decide whether to vote for the party or candidate of the party concerned. Likewise, in
regional head elections, the stature of candidates for governor or regent/mayor can be
used as capital to influence voters. At the village level election, namely the election of
the village head, the character of the candidate will be very supportive for him so that
the community will vote for him.
Given the relatively small scope of village head elections, the community can
easily assess whether the candidate is worthy of being elected or not. The credibility of
the candidate can be easily assessed by voters, given that there is already interaction
between the candidate and members of the voting community and most of them already
know each other.
Firmansyah expressed his opinion on the importance of candidate credibility
(2007), that the importance of the ability and capacity of people or candidates is a
decisive factor for the community in choosing a political party or candidate.
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Nursal as cited by Ali (2010) revealed that strong leadership will shape a voter's
attitude towards the figure so that it can determine his choice of political party, this is
because the leader as one of the party figures has a very close relationship with his
party. So that leadership or party figures are one of the factors that influence a person's
attitude in the decision to choose a political party influence people's attitudes to
determine their decision to choose a political party. Figures who are considered
credible, have the ability to make a good adequate and supported by a good personality
will lead to a positive attitude of voters towards political figures, such as in the form of
supporting and recommending others to vote for them.
Emotional ties in the context of this research are closeness in terms of religion,
organization, and ethnicity or tribe.In the history of elections in Indonesia, closeness in
terms of religion, organization and ethnicity influenced voter behavior. Even in some
regional head elections, religion was used as a campaign issue. Lijphart (1977) argues
that religion plays an important role in shaping party and candidate elections. The
results of Ali's research (2010) also found the same thing, that religious emotional ties
are a factor that influences voter behavior taken into account by voters in making their
choices. The similarity of the organization with the candidate is also an attraction for
the community to determine their choice. Voters with a Nahdatul Ulama background
will tend to vote for candidates with the same background. In addition, ethnic similarity
is also a consideration for voters to choose a candidate.
The existence of tendency voters to choose candidate who This is a rational thin
to do. Voter rationality in determining their choice based on similarity, has meaning
that the more voters and candidates have similar characteristics, the more attraction
they will have to each other. Downs (1957) argues that voters will be more attracted to
a political party or a contestant or what is better known as the proximity model or the
"spatial" model. In this model, voters will tend to voice his vote to party political party
or a contestant who is perceived to have similarities and closeness of value systems
and beliefs.
A work program is a written formulation prepared by a candidate for village head
based on fundamental issues according to the needs of the community. A candidate for
village head in this case knows the needs of the community, both in terms of services
and public facilities and infrastructure needs.
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What is needed by the community is then used as a work program which is then
raised as a campaign issue. The ability of village head candidates to raise the most
basic issues needed by the voting community. Through issues that are in line with the
needs of the community, voters will be closer to choosing the candidate concerned.
This is as stated by Down (1957), Franklin (1991), and Glazer (1990), that the ability
of contestants to raise political issues is one of the factors that influence people to
choose political parties.
Voters who assess village head candidates from the perspective of "policy-
problem solving", then the most important thing for them is the extent to which the
village head candidates are able to offer work programs for the solution of existing
problems, so that this is used as a reason by voters to elect them. For village head
candidates whose work programs are unclear and do not have sensitivity to existing
problems, there is a tendency not to be elected. From the basis of this concept,
candidates for village heads who are able to offer programs that provide solutions to
existing problems will not be elected solutions to the problems faced by the
community, will shape the attitude of a voter whether to decide to vote for the
candidate or not.
1. The Influence of Influence on Voting Behavior
Figures in the course of politics in Indonesia have a strong influence in
influencing voters. The leadership of political parties is one of the real examples of the
role of figures as magnets to gain votes, both presidential elections, legislative
elections, governor elections and regent / mayor elections.The figure is a symbol of a
political product.
The importance of character has been scientifically proven by various studies.
Previous research conducted by Azar (2007) placed the product which is a
representation of the character and personality of the Malang mayoral candidate as a
dominant factor influence the decision to choose a reader at Brawijaya University
Malang.
The same results were also shown by research conducted by Ali. In this study,
prominence has a significant influence in influencing voters to choose political parties
or legislative candidates. Even according to Ali (2010), the characterization factor is a
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"leader-driven factor".
The significance of the figurehead factor was shown in the East Java
gubernatorial election. It is known that 80.4% of voters voted because they were
attracted to the figure of the governor candidate and only 9.2% voted because they
were attracted to the figure of his deputy.Some observers also make character as an
important factor that influences voter attitudes and behavior.
Firmansyah (2011, 2012), expressed his opinion that the ability and capacity of
people or candidates is a determining factor for the community in choosing a political
party or candidate.
Niffenegger in Ali (2010) states that one of the political products that political
parties really want to offer and sell is related to individual characteristics, which is one
of the elements of character.
It is stated that personal characteristics, namely the characteristics of a leader
(party chairman or figure behind a political party) or candidate (legislative candidate)
that can provide an image, symbol and credibility of a political product. This statement
indicates how central the role of a key figure in a political party is, because it will
influence voters' attitudes and choices. However, this study found interesting results,
because it contradicts the results of existing research. The hypothesis that
characterization has an influence on people's behavior in choosing a political party
village head candidates are rejected. Or in other words, although voters state that
character is important, it is not used as the main consideration for deciding to make a
choice. From these results, of course, an in-depth analysis is needed, so that it can be
used as a primary consideration in deciding to make a choice.
Pilkades is one of the oldest and most democratic political practices. Although the
village head is a "political" position at the village level, the process of implementation
is not the same as that of the presidential election or regional head election. Citizens
who live in the local village can nominate themselves for the village head election. Be
it men or women, community leaders or ordinary people, the rich or the poor. As long
as they fulfill the administrative requirements and other provisions, then anyone can
run as a candidate for village head. The behavior of people in the village is unique; to
become a leader is not difficult. Anyone has the opportunity to become a figurehead,
as long as they have wealth, courage, knowledge, religious knowledge, and so on. The
53
ease with which a person can become a figure without going through the process of
challenges, tests, and trust from the community, has indirectly given a normal
impression of figures in the community.
The behavior of the community, which does not consider the presence of a figure
as a reason for choosing a candidate for village head, indicates a paradigm shift in the
presence of figures in the community :
1)
The "failure" of community leaders in the village who become village heads.
Not only do they fail to make development changes, but they may also fail to
improve the welfare of their citizens, create a sense of security, and have poor
interactions with citizens.
2)
Voters have had the experience of voting in the pilkades more than once, so that
they have a comparison. In this study, we found that 29 respondents (24%) had
only participated in one election, while 91 respondents (76%) had voted in
more than one election. This condition illustrates that respondents already have
references and considerations.
3)
specifically about the leadership of a person who is stigmatized if they become
a village head.
4)
There has been a shift in people's perception of leaders. Where a figure is
indeed needed by the community, However, to become a village head, you need
a figure who is able to answer the challenges of development in the village.
This change in thinking orientation opens up opportunities for village head
candidates to offer work programs as a brand image. This is reinforced by the
fact that 63 people or 53% knew the vision and mission of the village head
candidates, while 57 people or 47% did not know. Another fact is that voters in
one family may not be the same, namely 60 people or 50% have the same
choice, 58 people or 48% do not have the same choice and the remaining 2
people or 2% stated that they did not know. Information on the data in the study
also illustrates that voters as consumers are more concerned with the benefits of
the products purchased than appearance or brand. The candidate's ability to
offer a work program is considered more important than the character factor.
The recruitment process for village head candidates is different from that for
presidential, governor, regent or mayor candidates. In village head elections, the
recruitment of candidates does not go through a strict selection. Selection is only on
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administrative requirements, so any villager who has the desire to run for office can
register. A candidate for village head may be a farmer with no leadership skills or
village development design. However, he is considered capable of answering and
realizing the needs of the community with all his experience in agriculture. So that it
can be said, a good product is a product that provides benefits not on the quality of
appearance (packaging) and product quality.
2. The Influence of Emotional Bonds on Voting Behavior:
Emotional bonding is a psychological bond between individuals and other
individuals. The factors behind the emergence of emotional ties include ethnicity,
religion, ideology, gender, regional origin, and ideals. These factors have been used as
indicators of a person to provide support, and then decide to vote for a candidate leader.
The results of Ali's research (2010) also show a significant influence between
emotional connection and the decision to vote for political parties or candidates
nominated by political parties. Related to this, Downs (2057), shows a model of a
person's attraction to a political party or a contestant who is considered to have
similarities and closeness of value systems and beliefs. This study shows the opposite,
that emotional ties do not have a significant relationship with community behavior in
choosing village head candidates. This shows that for the choice of village head,
emotional ties are not an important factor to influence people's behavior in choosing
candidates for village head. Similarities in ethnicity, religion, and ideology still do not
affect people's behavior. And this is certainly very positive for plural social life, and
can be used as a strength to advance the village. Information in the field showed that
the candidates for village head had different political affiliations from most
respondents. This means that the choice of village head is completely free from the
interests of political parties. Therefore, if there are candidates for village heads who
market themselves by prioritizing their political affiliations, voters may be reluctant to
vote for them.
3. Effect of Work Program on Voting Behavior:
The work program is a variable that researchers make as an indicator to see the
extent of its influence on community behavior in choosing a village head. Rural
communities in Indonesia, which are still traditional in their thinking, have been
looking more in terms of character, ethnicity, religion, and ideology to determine the
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choice of prospective leaders at the national, provincial and district / city levels. Rural
communities that are synonymous with a poor life, the majority of the population's low
level of education, minimal knowledge, have been considered difficult to talk about
work programs. So they are classified as irrational voters. However, this does not mean
that work programs cannot be used as an important factor in influencing voters.
Because of the facts so far, campaigns carried out by political party leaders, legislative
candidates, governor candidates, and regent / mayor candidates, when conducting
political communication with constituents in rural areas always offer work programs
and absorb aspirations about the needs of the local community. This is done to attract
voters' sympathy so that they want to vote for parties or candidates promoted by
political parties. Bartels (1988) revealed that uncertainty over the work program of a
party or candidate leader will have a negative effect on voter perceptions. Voters have
no interest in work programs that are too promising and do not answer the problems
faced by the community. Likewise with the choice of village head, the work program
turns out to be an important factor in influencing people's behavior in choosing a
village head. Although the candidate for village head is not well known, if he/she is
able to offer a work program that is rational, realistic to be done, and able to answer the
needs of the community, then the possibility to influence the behavior of the
community in determining their choice will be wide open.
During the Pilkades, each candidate socialized their work programs in different
ways. Among other things, through billboards, pamphlets, brochures, face-to-face
through recitation activities, farmer group meetings, youth associations, arisan
meetings, and door to door.
Tasks:
Answer the following questions!
1. Explain Political Marketing Strategy?
2. Explain segmentation in terms of voter behavior?
3. Explain the influence of personalities on voter behavior?
4. Explain the influence of emotional ties on voter behavior?
5. Explain the influence of work programs on voting behavior
