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L COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA THEORY
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
MCO 456 - POLITICAL COMMUNICATION
WEEK 1
The outcome of this material is for the reader to be able to explain:
1. Definition of elite in terms of political cumunicators
2. The meaning of supreme power in an organization
3. The meaning of empirical studies in political communication as an applied
science
4. The main social role played by political communicators
5. Classification of political communicators
6. The meaning of political information in the media
7. Meaning and responsibilities of media relations
A. Meaning of Political Communicator
Political Communicators In theoretical studies (das sollen), political
communicators are in two statuses; namely political communicators who occupy power
structures or powerful elite communicators and communicators who are in the structure
of society or community elites who do not occupy power structures. In every structure
of society, elites always hold important positions and are policy makers. The first
theorist to systematically analyze the concept of elite was Gaetano Mosca. Mosca
divided society into two groups, namely the elite and the masses. The elite group
always holds the function of leader, while the masses are forever in the led group.
Meanwhile, Schrool argues that the elite refers to a group in society that occupies a
high position, or is at the top of the structure in the fields of economy, government,
military apparatus, politics and free occupations. This definition of elite can be
interpreted in general or in particular. In particular, it is a group of leading people in
certain fields. However, the type of elite is not the same, depending on the form of
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society and the system that takes place in the society concerned.
Classic theories that address the issue of elites include those of C. Wright Mills,
Raymond Aron, Harold Lasswell, Gaetano Mosca and many other scholars sociology
and political scientists who analyze this elite issue. Schrool divides elite types into five,
namely:
a. middle-class elite;
b. the dynastic elite;
c. colonial officials;
d. revolutionary intellectuals;
e. national leaders.
These five types can be classified into two classifications as proposed by Mosca,
namely:
1. The governing elite who are directly or indirectly involved in governance;
2. A non-governing elite that constitutes a large remnant of the entire elite.
Ideologically,
The five kinds of elites have different characteristics. This is due to the background
from which the elite emerged. For example, the middle elite comes from groups of
merchants and artisans, as well as religious or national minorities. Every opportunity is
used to improve their own position. Ideologically, the elite has a volatile and indecisive
ideology, and their attitudes and views are more individualistic. There is no clear view
of the ideal society, the most important thing is that social mobilization is carried out to
achieve personal interests.
Political Communication
The structure of society is open and free for private initiators and activists. In
contrast to the "aristocracy", the ideological outlook is focused on maintaining tradition
and the status quo. Tradition is also the basis for justifying authority and power.
Countries that qualify as dynastic elites include Japan, Germany, Iran, Latin America,
the Middle East and a small part of Asia. Similarly, the revolutionary elite or
revolutionary intelligentsia shows prominent characteristics.
This elite is of the view that all old values need to be overhauled and abolished, as
they do not match the tastes of the times. Its ideology is based on modern science and
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technology. The structure of society seeks to create a new socio-political system
without neglecting economic development. There was a strong emphasis on legitimacy
in the ideological field. The entire existing structure is devoted to the interests of the
revolution. Examples of these countries are communist countries such as the PRC,
Soviet Union (before its demise), Hungary, Cuba, Lybia, Czechoslovakia and others.
The last elite is the national elite, such as in Indonesia, Egypt and Mexico. These elites
emerged from socio-political movements against colonialism. The nationalistic elite is
a pluralistic group, making it easy for conflicts to occur between the elites. The system
of thought does not reflect the aspirations of the people, and almost all actions are
based on sentiment and national pride. At times, this elite often acted not on the basis
of reality, so it was not uncommon for utopianism to emerge. Development efforts are
entirely driven by a motivation of national glory and grandeur, without looking at the
realities of infrastructure life.
In a general overview, all elites have a significant influence on the functioning of
a system, and each elite wants changes for the betterment of their country. The size of
these changes is related to the motivation underlying the role of the elites in the country
concerned. However, in principle, all elites try to maintain the status quo, not wanting a
shift in their position.
Likewise, the political elite is the target in applying its ideology or political
doctrine, so top positions are the main target. Control over top organs and structures
means having power and authority. In history, power has a role that determines the fate
of millions of people. Therefore, power in the political arena has always been the
object of every political elite.
The personification of power is the leader, and with institutionalized leadership he has
the legitimacy to exercise his power and authority. Power has many variations and
different forms and sources.
So power exists everywhere, in social relations and in social organizations.
However, the ultimate power lies with the organization called the "State". The State has
sovereignty, and the State has power. This sovereignty is exercised by a group of elites
who call themselves 'the ruling class'. "The ruling class" in carrying out the role and
function of government always tries to convince the public, and also tries to get public
support, so that the public recognizes and accepts the power of "the ruling class".
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In the study of political communication, the elites are quantified as the main
communicators of politics both in the power structure and in the infrastructure. In an
effort to instill power, it must be based on norms or values and beliefs that grow in
society.
B. Political Communication in Empirical Studies
In empirical studies, political communication has been in the real world or is in the das
sein area, namely as an applied science. In the area of das sein or applied science,
political communication is very dependent on the political system where political
communication is applied. Universally, the political system shows the same character,
which consists of two sub-systems.
First, the superstructure sub-system (the governmental political sphere), as the
atmosphere of governmental political life, and second, the governmental political
sphere.
The second is the infrastructure subsystem, namely the socio political sphere.
The two atmospheres influence each other in Political Communication λ in a related
manner, so that the superstructure is a reflection of the infrastructure, even the
superstructure must accommodate the life of the infrastructure, and vice versa, the
infrastructure is a replica of the superstructure.
To provide clarity about the political system with its two sub-systems, you should first
understand what a political system is. According to Robert Dahl in a book entitled
"Modern Political Analysis", the political system is: "any persistent pattern of human
relationship that involves to a significant extent power, influence, control, rule or
authority". The political system, according to Dahl, is a persistent pattern of human
relationships related to various interests about power, influence, control, rules and
authority. From this expression, you need to understand about a fixed pattern, which is
a pattern that has been standardized and has become a standard or measure in the life of
the country. A fixed pattern contains It also means a pattern based on a certain value
system that applies to a certain system. Likewise, political communication if as a
system then the communication is in a particular system.
Empirically, communication systems are separated into four major systems, namely:
1.
Communication political that actualized in system totalitarianism system.
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2.
Actualized political communication in a liberal system (libertarian system).
3.
Actualized political communication in a country with a social responsibility
system.
4.
Actualized political communication in the communist system.
Empirically, all countries claim that the country concerned actualizes political
communication at the level of democracy. This refers to the opinion of Jucuis who
states that: "new communication will develop, if it is not bound by a number of
regulations that dominate the development of public opinion in society.
Communication from the bottom up using unofficial channels can only run if the
government structure is wide open to input from below (infrastructure) ". The circle of
communication as described by Jucuis, will only exist in democratic countries that
uphold human rights, respect the opinions and thoughts of others. This is the case in the
United States, France, Germany and other Western European countries. In
democracies, the tendency towards democratization of communication is more likely,
because input institutions really function and there is a reasonable development of
public opinion.
C. Variety of Political Communicators.
While anyone can communicate about politics, there are relatively few who do so
on a regular and sustained basis. Although few, these political communicators play a
major social role, especially in the public opinion process.
Dan Nimmo (1989) classifies the main communicators in politics as follows:
politicians; professionals; and activists. Politicians are people who aspire to and or
hold government office, regardless of whether they are elected, appointed, or career
officials, and regardless of whether the position is executive, legislative, or judicial.
Daniel Katz (in Nimmo, 1989) distinguishes politicians into two different things
regarding the source of the struggle of politicians' interests in the political process.
Namely: ideologue politicians (statesmen); and partisan politicians. Ideologue
politicians are people who in the political process fight more for the common / public
interest. They are not so focused on pressing the demands of a subscription or group.
They are more preoccupied with setting broader policy goals, promoting reform, and
even supporting revolutionary change - if this brings more good to the nation and state.
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Partisan politicians are people who in the political process champion the interests of a
subscriber or group. Thus, the main politicians who act as decisive political
communicators in the Indonesian government are: executive officials (president,
ministers, governors, etc.); executive officials (chairman of the MPR, chairman of the
DPR/DPD, chairman of factions, members of the DPR/DPD, etc.); judicial officials
(chairman/member of the Supreme Court, chairman/member of the Constitutional
Court, attorney general, prosecutors, etc.) Professionals are people who make their
living by communicating, because of their expertise in communicating. Professional
communicators are a relatively new social role, a by-product of the communications
revolution which had at least two main dimensions: the rise of mass media; and the
immediate development of specialized media (such as magazines for specialized
audiences, radio stations, etc.) which created a new public of information and
entertainment consumers.
Both mass and specialized media rely on the formation and management of
symbols and specialized audiences. Here enter professional communicators "who
control distinctive skills in the processing of symbols and who utilize these skills to
forge links that connect distinctly different people or differentiated groups".
James Carey (in Nimmo, 1989) says that professional communicators is a symbol broker,
a person who translates attitudes, knowledge and the interests of one language community into
the different but interesting and understandable terms of another language community.
Professional communicators operate under pressures or demands imposed, on the one hand, by
the final audience and, on the other, by the original source. Just as politicians can be
distinguished from ideologues and partisans, professionals include journalists on the one hand,
and promoters on the other. We speak of journalists as anyone associated with the news media in
the collection, preparation, presentation and submission of reports on events. This includes
reporters working for newspapers, magazines, radio, television, or other media; television news
coordinators; publishers; news directors; television and radio station or network executives; and
so on.
As professional communicators, journalists are typically employees of news
organizations who connect news sources with audiences. They can organize politicians
to talk to each other, connect politicians with the general public, connect the general
public with leaders, and help put issues and events on the agenda for public discussion.
A promoter is a person who is paid to advance the interests of a particular subscription.
Promoters include publicity agents of important public figures, public relations
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personnel in private or government organizations, public information officers in
government departments, presidential press secretaries, corporate advertising
personnel, campaign managers and publicity directors of political candidates, technical
specialists (cameramen, film producers and directors, speech coaches, etc.) working for
the benefit of political candidates and other public figures, and all similar types of
symbol brokers.
Activists are key political communicators who act as organizational and interpersonal
channels.
First, there is the spokesperson for organized interests. This person generally does not
hold or aspire to a government position; in this sense, the communicator is not like a
politician who makes politics his or her field of work. This spokesperson is also usually
not However, he is quite involved both in politics and semi-professional in political
communication.
Speaking for organized interests is a role similar to that of a partisan politician,
representing the demands of an organization's membership. In other ways,
spokespeople are similar to journalists, reporting government decisions and policies to
members of an organization.
Second, there are opinion leaders who operate in interpersonal networks. A large body
of research shows that many citizens faced with making decisions of a political nature
seek guidance from people they respect. Either to know what to do or to reinforce a
decision they have already made. The people who are asked for guidance and
information are opinion leaders. They appear in two areas: a. They strongly influence
the decisions of others; that is, like ideological politicians and professional promoters,
they convince others of their way of thinking.
D. Political Information from the Media
They pass on political information from the news media to the general public. In a
two-stage communication flow ideas often flow from the mass media to opinion
leaders and from them to less active sections of the population. Many studies have
confirmed the importance of opinion leadership through interpersonal communication
as a means of learning about important events.
Political Communicators and Political Leadership Nimmo (1989) states that
leadership is a relationship among people in a group in which one or more people
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(leaders) influence others (followers) in a particular setting. Furthermore, political
scientist Lewis Froman (in Nimmo, 1989) summarizes the tendencies that distinguish
leaders and non-leaders in groups.
Leaders (1) derive diverse satisfaction from belonging to the group; (2) are stronger in
holding their values; (3) have greater beliefs about the group and its relationship with
other groups, the government, political issues, and so on; (4) are less likely to change
their beliefs, values, and expectations because of the group's influence on them. (5) are
more likely to make decisions about the group based on prior beliefs, values and
expectations; and (6) are more problem-oriented, especially regarding issues
concerning material gain, rather than less tangible satisfactions or emotionally charged
questions. Moreover, leaders engage in task-oriented activities, i.e. setting and working
towards group achievement or goals, organizing to get the job done; as well as person-,
social-, or emotion-oriented activities such as attention to followers' wants and needs,
the creation of warm personal relationships, the development of mutual trust, the
promotion of cooperation, and the achievement of social solidarity.
For a political communicator, to be a political leader he or she must behave as
people expect leaders to behave; followers associate leadership with people who fit
their notion of what a leader is. Some communicators are leaders because of the
position they occupy within a clearly defined social structure or organized group.
Outside the organization they may not mean much to people. Such communicators we
call organizational leaders. However, communicators who do not occupy a clearly
defined position; or, if they do, they matter to people for reasons beyond their
organizational role. Political communicators who are leaders because of the meaning
people find in them as people, personalities, well-known figures, and so on, we call
symbolic leaders.
It is clear that most politicians, professional communicators and political activists
are organizational leaders. elected officials, or careerists have formal positions of
leadership within the organized communication networks that make up governments.
Professional communicators are often employees of organizations-journalists working
for mass media organizations, and promoters as members of organizations publicizing
the interests of companies, government departments, candidates or political parties. The
spokesperson as an activist communicator is the defender of the organization. Of the
major political communicators described earlier, only opinion leaders work through the
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familiarity that is provided by interpersonal communication networks reside primarily
outside formalized organizational structures.
Leadership and followership are complementary ways of looking at a single
transaction. For leaders there are several rewards, for example, the leader has a greater
chance of mastering circumstances and controlling his or her destiny. Moreover, there
is something attractive in the ability to influence others, assert power within the group,
and even provide advantages and disadvantages. Then there are economic rewards.
Organizational leaders usually occupy positions with attractive salaries; symbolic
leaders often receive financial assistance from wealthy supporters. What's more, there
are the increased benefits of having a higher status, both in the sense that group
members look up to their leader and in the sense that the leader commands an ample
source of livelihood through the support of his or her followers -a luxurious home, an
army of secretaries and assistants, comfortable transportation, servants - all of these can
be pleasant possessions and appropriate rewards for leaders. For the followers there are
several benefits.
Salisbury (in Nimmo, 1989) believes there are three main benefits that followers
gain from leadership-followership transactions.
First, there is material gain, which consists of rewards in the form of goods and
services;
Secondly, solidarity benefits that come in the form of social rewards or simply joining
with others in shared activities - socialization, friendship, status awareness, group
identification, friendliness and fun;
Third, expressive advantage which is the advantage when the action in question
expresses the interests or values of a person or group, rather than instrumentally
pursuing the interests or values. Some people, for example, find satisfaction in simply
supporting a political candidate as a way of telling others that they are against crime, or
war, or poverty, or corruption.
When summarized, there is a bond between leaders and followers that is forged
by the material, social, and emotional satisfactions that people derive from participating
in politics. These satisfactions, especially the less tangible, socioemotional kind, arise
in and through the process of communication. Communication creates, encourages, or
destroys a sense of solidarity among people and a sense of personal satisfaction in
expressing people's hopes and dreams, fears and anxieties. To a very large extent, then,
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the bond between leaders and followers is a communication bond. Hence, key political
communicators play a strategic role, acting as political leaders by broadcasting
messages that followers find meaningful and satisfying, in accordance with their
interests and values.
E. Meaning and accountability of media relations
Cooperating with the media in the context of media relations can be achieved in
various ways. One of them is to approach Public Relations to the media, especially
journalists. The approach here can be formal or informal.
As revealed by Iriantara (2005: 18), establishing good relations with the mass
media as an institution is as important as establishing good relations with journalists.
Therefore, in carrying out media relations activities, there are two different approaches
taken by public relations, namely the approach to journalists as people who work for
mass media institutions and the approach to journalists individually as individuals a
media. The following are various forms of functional relationships and personal
approaches that can be applied in media relations activities:
a) Personal contact
Basically, the success of implementing media and press relations depends on
"what and how" personal contact between the two parties is established through
informal relationships such as honesty, mutual understanding and mutual cooperation
respect and good cooperation in order to achieve positive goals or publications.
(Ruslan, 2006: 120)
Meanwhile, Partao (2006: 118) argues that one way to build relationships with
journalists is to take a systematic and thoughtful approach. In addition to fostering
functional relationships, public relations should strive to always develop interpersonal
relationships with journalists. This can be done by taking an informal approach by
establishing regular personal contact with journalists. So as to eliminate the prejudice
that Public Relations only contacts journalists when there is a company interest.
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b) Information or news services
The best service provided by Public Relations to the press / reporter in the form
of providing information, publications and news both written, printed (press releases,
news letters, photo press), and recorded (video releases, cassettes recorded, slide films)
(Ruslan, 2006: 120).
c) Anticipating possible emergencies (Contigency Plan)
To anticipate sudden requests from journalists/press for interviews. Confirmation
and so on, the PR / PRO officials must be ready to serve it, in order to maintain the
good relations that have been fostered, and the image and good name of the resource
person. (Ruslan, 2006) Partao (2006: 118) also suggests never closing information
channels to the press. That as Public Relations, must always provide open access to
journalists who want to confirm a news. This will be used as a benchmark for
journalists to assess a Public Relations in handling a news in the mass media.
Informal Approach:
It's important for a public relations person to be able to build and maintain
personal relationships with journalists. Basically, the media is an organization, but
personal relationships with journalists can also determine whether the company's
relationship with the mass media is good or bad. Relationship building skills The
interpersonal relationship is very supportive of the good running of media relations
activities. Iriantara (2005) explains that sometimes interpersonal relationships such as
close friendships with mass media crews or press people provide space to support
organizational PR goals.
Likewise, Wasesa (2006: 227) revealed that media relationships will be one of
the main factors that we must pay attention to. Approaching with a friendship model
will make it easier for us to provide information to the mass media, because at least
friendship has eliminated the initial prejudice when contacting the mass media.
Friendships that are only built for momentary interests will only make journalists feel
used. That way it is necessary to make informal contacts made by public relations to
journalists in order to create a good relationship between the two parties so that in
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carrying out their duties they can achieve their respective goals. Informal contact is
unofficial contact with the press. Through this contact will know more personally. So
that they will know each other and support each other's professions as work partners.
(Ruslan, 2006)
Partao (2006) states that an informal approach is a sustainable approach where
journalists are not only invited when they need to be present, after which they are
forgotten. Public relations must continue to build relationships with our partners.
Making journalists as partners is the essence of the two opinions above. Ruslan
emphasized that the need for informal contact with journalists personally will make the
relationship better and will help Public Relations in carrying out its duties related to the
mass media.
Partao also views that the informal approach taken by Public Relations can be in
the form of providing information continuously. With the intensity of frequent contact
between Public Relations and journalists, it will produce good and harmonious
relationships. Judging from the description above, the informal in question is the
creation of a relaxed atmosphere that is not only established at the time of media
relations activities but there is a further introduction to each individual. With the
comfort between the two then It is expected that there will be openness to each other
which can support media relations activities.
Building relationships with the media:
Media relations can be said to be like a wine that gets better over time. This is
because good relationships are built on experience and time. Therefore, it is very
important for entrepreneurs or communication divisions to conduct media relations
activities before they need exposure from the media.
For mature businesses, maintaining relationships with the media is also very
useful. Especially, if your brand is experiencing a crisis. Before the news of the crisis
spreads everywhere. Most likely, journalists are the first to get the information and can
clarify matters related to the crisis. Considering its role in business, it is quite important
for business people to know how to build good relationships with the media.
Many journalists also share their writing through social media. From these
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writings, there are several things that you can see, namely:
•
Topics favored by journalists
•
Journalist's writing style
•
References and connections around the journalist
Because journalists also often share the news they write through social media. You can
be proactive in sharing and commenting on the news they share. The point is that you
provide value to journalists so that they can differentiate you from other companies.
As much as possible, if a journalist contacts you to ask for help with their work
needs. Make sure you are always available to help as much as possible.
For example: If a journalist needs a source that they can quote for a story they are
working on. Make sure you make the time to help out as much as possible, whether it's
by offering to be a sources as well as introducing journalists to people who are experts
in the field.
Also, by consistently doing so, your relationship with journalists will improve and they
will see you as a trusted source in the field.
Building relationships with journalists:
In carrying out media relations activities, it cannot be separated from the
existence of journalists as scribes for a media. The role of journalists in covering news
in the field greatly influences the news that will be published in the media.
According to Ningrat (2005: 56), journalists are people who collect news in both
print and electronic media. Meanwhile, Abdullah (2004) argues that journalists are
those who are in charge of searching, collecting, processing and writing journalistic
works and are listed as editorial staff of a publication.
There is a difference in defining journalists, Ningrat in his definition, sees
journalists as only people who are tasked with collecting news, so it seems that the
news found in the field is immediately poured into writing without any selection and
processing of the news obtained. Meanwhile, according to Abdullah, journalists not
only collect news but are also tasked with categorizing and processing news so that
journalists determine which angle of the news will be highlighted.
The researcher concluded that a journalist is a person whose job is to collect and
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process news to be disseminated to the public. But the news that is disseminated is not
just "ordinary" news but news that has a high level of actuality so that it can meet the
information needs of a wide audience.
Journalist Duties:
In carrying out their duties as news seekers, there are tasks that every journalist
must carry out. Ishwara (2005: 7) states: Journalists or the press have several tasks,
including as reporters (informants), namely as the eyes and ears of the public, reporting
events beyond public knowledge neutrally and without prejudice. Apart from being a
reporter, the press has a role as an interpreter who gives an assessment or meaning to
an event. Meanwhile, Partao (2006: 48) explains that the journalist's job is to find and
collect information and then write it into news. Information that is written into news is
certainly not just information and data, but information and data that can be sold.
It can be seen from the description above that Ishwara emphasizes the journalist's
job as a person who conveys information to a wide audience based on the events he
gets in the field, but apart from being a reporter, the journalist also puts his own
thoughts on the news to be disseminated.
Partao sees that in doing their job, journalists are not only looking for information
and data, but the information and data collected is not just any news, but news obtained
from reliable sources so as to make the news worth "selling".
From the two opinions above, it can be concluded that the journalist's job is to
convey the latest information that occurs in the community. The information obtained
will later be used as news that certainly fulfills the curiosity of the audience so that this
will make the selling value of news.
In democratic countries, the management of communication resources is sorted
into three functions of power, namely: 1. Government function (Executive). 2.
Legislative function (Legislative). 3. The function of the court (Judicative). The
function with the highest frequency of managing communication sources is in the
government function. The three functions are dominant, meaning that one dominant
cannot be replaced or shifted by another dominant. However, these functions will not
be meaningful if they are not imbued with communication. Medium communication is
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the life of a society or country. For more details, take a look at the following
demonstration. State (State) State of Being State of Movement (State in Operation).
The state is in a state of motion with state administration as its lifeblood and
communication as its soul. In filling the power structure, communication functions very
effectively.
Communication functions to motivate and condition public opinion to support the
implementation of filling the power structure. The filling of the power structure is
organized through a democratic process called general elections. To fill the
representative structure or legislative body, the people elect their representatives
through political party elections, while to elect the executive leader, namely the
president, the people vote directly. This election applies in countries with a presidential
system of government. For more details, consider the following demonstration.
Formal System of Political Communication From the above demonstration you
can better understand that empirically the atmosphere of political communication life is
in two settings, namely the communication superstructure and communication
infrastructure. The communication superstructure consists of managers of
communication sources in accordance with the function of power. While in the
infrastructure or community communication atmosphere consisting of managers of
communication sources according to the needs of the elements in the infrastructure.
Public relations issues (crisis communication, social media and global progress)
Crisis communication is related to the use of all available public relations tools,
in order to maintain and strengthen the organization's reputation in the long term and at
times when the organization is in danger. Every day, organizations face problems.
Delayed deliveries, dissatisfied customers, unfulfilled job opportunities, rising prices,
and chaotic service are some of the frequent challenges in the business world, but these
problems do not always mean a crisis for the company.
Crises are different from everyday problems, in that they often attract public
interest and attention through media coverage. Such circumstances can disrupt the
normal operations of the company and can have an impact on the political, legal,
financial, and governmental influences on the company.
Nashville, Tennesee-based Institute for crisis management identified four fundamental
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causes of a corporate crisis.
1. Natural disasters. Hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and
the like fall into this category.
2. Mechanical problems. Examples are pipe rupture or sky word fall.
3. Human error. An employee opening the water valve incorrectly and causing
water to be scattered or a misunderstanding of how to perform a task in this
difficult time.
4. Management decisions. Senior level executives sometimes do not take the
problem seriously or they assume that no one is aware of the problem.
Crises can actually be anticipated, even prevented, if organizations can nurture
and maintain relationships with key stakeholders, such as employees, consumers,
government, and the general and trade media. Regular two-way communication with
these groups is the glue that can bring credibility and positive expectations when a
crisis hits. Thus, the more consistently an organization does what its stakeholders tell it
to do, the better its reputation will be.
Social media:
New communication technologies have always influenced PR practice, but
perhaps none more so than the internet, email and the new social media. Budgets have
been reallocated to maximize the use of these digital technologies as new practices take
advantage of the speed at which internet media is used, to keep their key constituencies
aware of the latest developments.
This includes crisis management programs, multimedia campaigns, never-ending
media relations programs, and alliance partnerships with emerging groups. The results
will be seen in increased sales to new consumers and repeat sales to existing groups as
technology helps create dialogue between organizations and activist groups.
Communication Meanings and Political Effects in Political
Communication
The achievement of this material is that readers are able to analyze the meaning of
communication and political effects in political communication as follows:
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1. political effects in the political communication process
2. political communication process and its consequences
3. definition of marketing in political communication
4. components of effectiveness in political communication
5. the meaning of political messages for political communication
A.
Political Effects in the Political Communication Process
K A. Definition of Communication Effects Lavidge and Steiner (in Saverin &
Tankard, 2001) believe that the communication process causes influences, or
commonly called communication effects. Communication effects are changes that
occur in the recipients of communication messages. They categorize communication
effects into three dimensions or categories as follows: 1. Cognitive (thoughts/ideas),
related to knowledge about something. Communication messages provide information
and facts that fill a person's field of thought/idea. 2. Affective (emotions), related to
attitudes towards something. Communication messages change our emotions/feelings
towards something. 3. Conative (motivation), related to behavior towards something.
Communication messages stimulate or direct the desire to do something.
Political communication effects Brian McNair (2003) looks at the effects of
political communication from three perspectives:
1)
The degree to which the meaningful communicative behavior of political
actors, such as conference speeches and political advertisements, can influence
the behavior and attitudes of the audience.
2)
How the political processes of democratic societies - their practices and
procedures - have been affected by the significant messages of mass
communication.
3)
The systemic level of impact involves the rise of political communication to the
forefront of capitalist societies such as Britain and America.
McNair further suggests as a general rule, that the effect of political
communication is determined not only by the content of the political communication
message itself, but by the historical context in which the communication process takes
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place, and especially the political environment, which prevails at all times. The quality
of the message, the perfection and skill of its construction, are meaningless if the
listener is not receptive. Dick Morris (in McNair, 2004), wrote a scientific report which
reads as follows: "If people won't buy your basic argument, it doesn't matter how much
you spend or how well your ads are produced, they won't work.
According to McNair, we can assess the effects of political communication on
behavior and
attitude in 3 (three) ways:
1)
The first is how the intended audience is affected by the political
communication messages, or in other words, how these people respond (usually
in the form of public opinion). And then compare their responses with the
responses of other significant groups.
2)
Secondly, how voter behavior relates to the communication strategies carried
out by contestants in a political campaign.
3)
Third, how to isolate the effects of certain communication elements
(communicator; message; media; communicant; and effect). Where data search
techniques for each of these communication elements have methodological
restrictions. To do the first way, usually using survey techniques, the second
with techniques poll (poll opinion), and the third using experimental technique.
Meanwhile,
And Nimmo (1993) believes that the political communication process has several
consequences (effects). Namely:
1.
Political socialization (learning about politics)
2.
Political participation
3.
Influencing voting
4.
Influence officials in policy-making.
B.
POLITICAL MARKETING:
Marketing a product requires more than just developing a good product, offering
it at an attractive price, and making it easily available to target customers. Companies
must also communicate (marketing communication) with existing and potential
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customers, retailers, suppliers, parties with an interest in the company, and the general
public.
Target marketing communication The most effective technique
a. Strengthening the credibility/trustworthiness of Public Relations
b. Creating lifestyle associations Advertising, special events
c. Introduce and build an image Advertising Encourage repeat purchases Sales
promotion
d. Encourage merchant participation Sales promotion (to merchants)
e. Reward customer loyalty Frequency collection program Invite audience
engagement
f. Special events Reach specific audiences
g. Specialized media Demonstrate social responsibility
h. Mission-based marketing Encourages chain referrals
i. Formation of clubs/groups Encourage early purchase/trying out
j. Sales promotion Appearing in public relations media reports, the marketing
communication mix consists of several communication methods, namely:
Packaging and brand (image and reputation) Advertising Sales promotion
Public relations and publicity Special marketing events Personal selling Direct
marketing Word-of-mouth marketing Customer service End-point promotions.
Political marketing Like marketing in general, political communicators must also
conduct marketing communications to their stakeholders (related audiences). Political
marketing is useful for establishing credibility, introducing and building an image,
inviting audience involvement, demonstrating social responsibility, maintaining and
increasing their costumers, etc.
An operational example of political marketing follows:
Special event marketing Exhibition/bazaar/demo Event/show sponsorship
Award/award Competition/contest Personal marketing Face-to-face communication
Direct presentation Product demo Constituent service (customer service) Handling
complaints, demands Cadre club Special event service (e.g. free homecoming). The fat
bull (PDIP); Banyan tree (Golkar); Ka'bah (PPP); Nine Star (PKB); Crescent moon &
rice (PKS) are examples of political party logos in Indonesia. United to move forward
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(Golkar); Together we can (Democratic Party); Clean and caring (PKS); Honest, Smart,
Brave (PAN) are some examples of political party slogans.
Philip Kotler (2003) defines marketing socially and managerially. Socially,
marketing is a social process by which individuals and groups get what they need
and want by creating, offering, and freely exchanging products and services of value
with others. Managerially, marketing is the process of planning and implementing
thinking, pricing, promoting, and distributing ideas, goods and services to create
exchanges that meet individual and organizational goals. Adman Nursal (2004), in his
book Political Marketing: Strategies for Winning Elections, believes that the essence of
political marketing is how to encourage voters to invest their trust in certain
contestants.
C.
Components of Political Communicator Effectiveness
In political communication, political communicators are one of the factors that
determine the effectiveness of communication. Several studies identify a number of
characteristics that influence a person's ability to influence others. Richard E. Petty and
John T. Cacioppo in their book Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary
Approaches, says that there are four components that must be present in political
communicators, namely communicator credibility, communicator attractiveness,
communicator similarity and communicator power (Petty, 1996).
1. Credibility
Source credibility refers to the extent to which the source is seen as having
expertise and is trusted. The more expert and trusted the source of information, the
more effective the message will be. Credibility includes source expertise and source
trustworthiness. Source expertise is the level of knowledge the source has on the
subject in which he or she is communicating. While source trustworthiness is the extent
to which the source can provide impartial and honest information. Researchers have
found that expertise and trustworthiness make independent contributions to source
effectiveness. Proven by Petty that, "expertise was therefore important in inducing
attitude change, especially when that advocated position was quite different from the
recipients' initial attitude." Because highly credible sources preclude the development
of counter-arguments, credible sources are more persuasive than less credible sources.
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As Lorge stated from the results of his research, that "a high credibility source was
more persuasive than a low credibility source if attitudes were measured immediately
after the message" (Petty, 1996). Meanwhile, the trust aspect itself has indicators
including impartiality, honesty, integrity, ability, wisdom, sincerity and sympathy.
2. Attractiveness:
A communicator's attractiveness can be due to his physical appearance, speaking
style, personal traits, familiarity, performance, communication skills and behavior. As
Petty (1996) states: "Two communicators may be trusted experts on some issue, but
one may be more liked or more physicallyattractive than the other...in part because of
his physical appearance, style of speaking and mannerisms, ...the attractiveness is due
to the performance, communication skills, self-evaluation...by verbal and by the
behavioral measures." Source physical attractiveness is the source's personality
requirements. The physical attractiveness of attractive communicators is generally
more successful than unattractive ones in changing beliefs. Some items that describe a
person's attractiveness are handsome or beautiful, sensitive, warm, humble, joyful, and
others.
3. Source Similarity:
Being liked by the audience could be because the source has similarities in terms
of needs, expectations and feelings. From the audience's perspective, the source is
source likability, which means the positive feelings that consumers (audience) have
towards the source of information. Defining likability is rather difficult as it varies
greatly from one person to another. But in general, source likability refers to the extent
to which the source is seen to behave in accordance with the desires of those observing.
So, sources can be agreeable because they act or espouse beliefs that are similar to
those of the communicant. An agreeable source (according to the needs, expectations,
feelings of the communicant) will contribute to the effectiveness of communication,
even more so to the impact on behavior change. When that happens, the source will be
meaningful to the recipient, meaning that the source is able to transfer meaning to the
product or service they are communicating.
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4. Power:
Power, according to Petty (1996) is "the extent to which the source can
administer rewards or punishments." Sources that have power, according to him, will
be more effective in delivering messages and receiving them than sources that lack or
do not have power. Basically, people will seek as many rewards as possible and avoid
punishment. As stated by Kelman (in Petty, 1996) that, "people simply report more
agreement with the powerful source to maximize their rewards and minimize their
punishment." So basically there must be three conditions to become a powerful
communicator, namely:
(1)
the recipients of the communication must believe that the source can indeed
administer rewards or punishments to them;
(2)
recipients must decide that the source will use these rewards or punishments to
bring about their compliance;
(3)
the recipients must believe that the source will find out whether or not they comply
(Petty, 1996).
With the generation and maintenance of compliance, it means that the
communicator can influence or persuade the communicant's behavior. In its efforts to
persuade communicants, there are usually two supporting factors that must also be
considered by communicators. The two factors are the involvement of the source and
the importance of the issue for the recipient. High involvement results in high message
effectiveness, and issues that are closer to the recipient's interests will usually further
encourage message effectiveness.
5. POLITICAL MESSAGE
Varieties of Political Talk Politicians, professionals, or active citizens, one thing
that distinguishes them as political communicators is that they talk politics. How is
political talk? David V.J Bell (in Nimmo, 1989) believes that there are three types of
talk that have political interests. Namely:
Power talk; influence talk, and minority talk. Power talk is talk that influences
others with threats or promises. A typical form is "if you do X, I will do Y." The key to
power talk is that 'I' have the ability to back up promises and threats (read coercive
power). Influence talk is talk that influences others with advice, encouragement,
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requests, and warnings. Its typical form is "if you do X, Y will happen." The key to
influence talk is how the speaker manages to manipulate the other person's perception
or expectation of possible gain or loss. Authoritative talk is the giving of orders. Its
typical form is "do X" or "Do not do X". The perceived legitimate authority is the voice
of the minority and has the right to be obeyed.
1. Nature of Political Talk
Symbolic activity: words in political talk. Symbolic activity consists of people
constructing shared meanings and responses to the embodiment of referential and
condensation symbols in the form of words, images and behaviors. By saying that
meanings and responses come from shared role-taking, we call attention to people
playing roles. This applies both to political symbols and to symbols of any kind. For
example, people who move into high political office (president, governor, member of
parliament) will use the titles and accoutrements of that position; these symbols help
shape the beliefs, values, and expectations of a large number of people about how they
should respond to that position.
By stimulating people to respond in certain ways, to play certain roles towards the
government (political communicators), and to change their thoughts, feelings and
expectations, significant symbols facilitate the formation of public opinion. As symbols
of political speech, the words, images, and actions of political communicators are clues
to people that they can expect their fellow citizens to respond to those symbols in
certain predictable ways.
Language: wordplay in political talk. Language is a system of communication that
(1)
composed of combinations of significant symbols (signs with shared meanings and
responses for people), in which
(2)
signification is more important than the immediate situation in which the language
is used, and
(3)
The symbols are combined according to certain rules. In the construction of reality,
language is the main element, it is the main instrument in telling reality. Berger, Peter
and Thomas Luckman (in Ibnu Hamad, 2004) believe that language is a
conceptualization tool and a narrative tool.
In political communication, the use of language determines a particular narrative
format (and meaning). Fiske (1990) in Cultural and Communication Studies, adds that
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the use of certain language thus implies on the form of reality construction and the
meaning it contains. The choice of words and the way a reality is presented determine
the structure of reality construction and the meaning that emerges from it. From this
perspective, language is not only able to reflect reality, but even create reality. On that
basis, language (political talk) can be utilized for political purposes. In political life,
political elites always compete to master political discourse in order to gain mass
support. Propagandists are usually most concerned with controlling public opinion.
Semiotics: the meaning and rules of political wordplay. Messages resulting from the
influence of communication participants take many forms and produce a variety of
meanings, structures and effects. The study of this diversity is one aspect of semiotics,
the general theory of signs and language.
Charles Morris (in Nimmo, 1989) states that semiotics addresses the diversity of
language from three perspectives: semantics (the study of meaning); syntactics
(dealing with the rules and structures that connect signs to each other; and pragmatics
(the analysis of the use and effects of wordplay). Pragmatics: the use of political
speech.
Convincing and arousing the masses: political talk for material gain. Social
authoritativeness: political talk for status enhancement. Personal expression: political
talk for identity. Public discussion: political talk for information.
Lavidge and Steiner (in Saverin & Tankard, 2001) believe that the
communication process causes influences, or commonly called communication effects.
Communication effects are changes that occur in the recipients of communication
messages. They categorize communication effects into three dimensions or categories
as follows:
1.
Cognitive (thoughts/ideas), relates to knowledge about something. Communication
messages provide information and facts that fill a person's field of thought/idea.
2.
Affective (emotion), related to attitude towards something. Communication
messages change our emotions/feelings towards something.
3.
Conative (motivation), related to behavior towards something. Communication
messages stimulate or direct the desire to do something.
Political communication effects Brian McNair (2003) looks at the effects of political
communication from three perspectives: a. The degree to which the meaningful
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communicative behavior of political actors, such as conference speeches and political
advertisements, can influence the behavior and attitudes of the audience. b. How the
political processes of democratic societies - their practices and procedures - have been
affected by the significant messages of mass communication. The systemic level of
impact concerns the rise of political communication to the forefront of capitalist
societies.
communication strategies carried out by contestants in a political campaign. Third, how
to isolate the effects of certain communication elements (communicator; message;
media; communicant; and effect). Where data search techniques for each of these
communication elements have methodological restrictions. To do the first method
usually uses survey techniques, the second with polling techniques, and the third using
experimental techniques.
Direct or Indirect Effects of Political Communication:
As we know, there are effects of political communication that are actually
influential in social and societal life. Political communication is something that may be
of "no interest" to some people. However, political communication will still have a
certain influence. Therefore, we can start to identify what are the things that can be
influenced either directly or indirectly from this political communication.
Political communication theory actually has two kinds of influence, which are
positive and negative. Both effects can be felt directly or indirectly. So that we can
understand this more easily, here are some effects of political communication that we
can know. These are general descriptions which of course there may be many more
examples that we can find out.
Effects of Direct Political Communication:
Direct political communication effects mean that political communication
strategies can affect individuals or communication quickly. This influence will bring a
quick reaction from the community to take action.
The following are some examples of its effects:
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1. Demonstration:
Demonstrations or rallies by the public can occur immediately when people find
out inappropriate information from a political communication process. Demonstrations
will be carried out as soon as possible and usually this will also have a direct effect on
government politics. Previously made political policies may be directly affected after a
demonstration.
2. Long March Action
Actually almost similar to demonstrations, long marches are a form of expressing
aspirations by the public about certain political policies. The effect will also be directly
felt on the political policy that is being highlighted. These are forms of political
communication that can indeed have a direct impact on society.
3. Petitioning
Petitions can also arise from political communication. Usually, petitions are
carried out when there is disagreement with a policy. Petitions are used to gather
support and then submitted as a form of "protest" against the policy. Generally,
petitions can be done to make political policies re-evaluated and become better.
Petitions can be part of political communication media.
Indirect Political Communication Effects:
The effect of political communication indirectly implies that the communication
that occurs will have certain influences that are not direct is actually a result of political
communication, but it is not realized. People's lives may look normal but there are
actually changes that are not realized due to changes in political policies. Here are
some examples:
1. Leadership Candidate Support:
A person choosing a leadership candidate may be due to influences in political
communication. He will tend to choose a leader because he has unconsciously been
exposed to various campaigns. This is the effect of political communication that we
sometimes experience.
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2. Political Policy Support
Political policies can be implemented easily when they are in accordance with
community values. People may not realize that the pattern of social life has changed
because there is an element of political communication that is carried out without
causing certain rejection.
3. Implementation of Bureaucracy
We may have had an experience where we followed certain bureaucratic rules.
Indirectly, this is the influence of the political communication we have received. We
can know the bureaucratic rules that exist in a government thanks to the role of political
communication media. The effect of political communication is not felt but it does
exist.
Cognitive Effects in Political Communication:
Political communication has a relationship with public opinion. Political
communication relates to positions, power, discipline, organizations, political parties,
campaigns, orations, activists, politicians, and other political terms. According to
Ramlan Surbakti, political communication is the process of delivering information
about politics from the government to the public and from the public to the
government. The conclusion of political communication is the delivery of messages or
actions about politics that include power, authority, policy, government, and the state
and involve political actors.
The purpose of political communication is to provide educational value and
information about the political world to the public through mass media. The delivery of
messages from political communicators to audiences certainly has political effects. An
effect is a reception or response from the audience to the information provided by the
communicator. The effect of political communication is the audience's response to
political information conveyed by political communicators. This effect is also known
as public opinion.
One of the effects in political communication that is also considered a Mass
Communication Effect is the cognitive effect, which is the effect of political
communication that takes place at the level of thought. This effect is informative for
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the audience. For example, a campaign during the election of candidates for governor
and deputy governor of Jakarta. A political communicator will provide information
about the candidate and deputy governor to the audience or communicant. The
existence of this political communication process creates effects such as knowledge
about candidates and deputy governors, understanding what their vision and mission
are and the audience can assess whether these candidates and deputy governors are able
to provide the welfare of the audience / community.
The cognitive effects of the political communication process are as follows:
1. Knowledge
Knowledge is an important aspect of political communication. Knowledge is the
first window for communicants or political audiences in dealing with political
information conveyed by communicators. political science is a science that examines
political concepts ranging from political understanding, political goals, political
systems, statehood, legitimacy, social change, political development, and so on.
2. Comprehension
Understanding is the process of observing a science or a way of studying in depth
which aims to achieve understanding, understanding, knowing. Audiences will
understand the information provided by communicators related to politics. This
information makes the audience a politically "literate" society or understand politics so
as to create effective political communication.
3. Application
Application is a way of practicing or applying a method, method, science,
knowledge to everyday life. Application in political communication by audiences
means that audiences are able to follow the political system that has been informed by
political communicators.
4. Analysis
Analysis is the study or activity of describing, distinguishing, classifying, and
categorizing an object and then making an interpretation. This analysis has a good
impact on political communication because political information will be processed and
scanned according to the content of the message and then public opinion or feedback
from the audience will occur.
5. Synthesis
29
Synthesis is bringing together different ideas, ideas, ideologies, concepts, traits
into one and then drawing conclusions to form a structured pattern or form a new
pattern. This merging will create a perfect and complete conceptualization.
6. Evaluation
Assessment is a measurement process to make decisions to achieve certain goals.
Valuation is very important for the political process because people can compare good
or bad, positive or negative, good or not good an environment or a person.
7. Planning
Planning is how to strategize to facilitate the realization of the goals to be
achieved. Planning is very important for political systems such as making state
regulations and other political needs. (Read also: Political Communication Strategy)
8. Creation (creating)
Creation is assembling, building, changing, formulating, establishing all the basic
elements to make something that has a new function or pattern. This creation is related
to political information, which means that political audiences will create new views
when they get good information from political communicators. Thus the audience can
build a new mindset.
This is an explanation of what cognitive effects in political communication are
often felt shortly after receiving political messages in political activities. This effect is
felt by the masses either directly or through communication media. This will
unconsciously produce perceptions between one person and another. Then by itself, pro
and con opinions will arise on the content of the political message. Therefore, this is
where the role of political communication media becomes very important to be a motor
that is neutral without taking sides.
