Effective Project Management Strategies For Identifying And Addressing Projects' Complexities and Improving Projects' Success Rates

Effective Project Management Strategies For

Identifying And Addressing Projects' Complexities and

Improving Projects' Success Rates

Section 1: Foundation of the Study

In the intricate landscape of industrial chemical plant projects, effective project

management strategies are pivotal for identifying and addressing project complexities,

thereby enhancing the success rates of these projects. In an industry characterized by high

stakes and substantial risks, project managers must navigate myriad threats to ensure

project objectives are met within the constraints of time, cost, and quality (AlNoaimi &

Mazzuchi, 2021). In this study, I explored the strategies employed by project managers in

the industrial chemical plant sector. In this single case study, I focused on exploring the

strategies that these professionals use during the early phases of execution to identify

project complexities and mitigate potential failures. This section includes the background

of the problem, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, research and interview

questions, the significance of the study, and a comprehensive review of academic

literature. The objective was to identify the best practices in project management within

the context of industrial chemical plant projects, thereby contributing to the body of

knowledge and improving project outcomes in this critical industry.

Background of the Problem

Various elements, including investment costs, environmental effects,

stakeholders, accessible technology, and community participation, can expose projects to

numerous hazards (Anggraeni et al., 2019; Bahamid et al., 2019; Khahro et al., 2021). In

contemporary project environments characterized by increasing levels of uncertainty and

complexity, effective risk management by project managers is critical to mitigate

deviations from established goals and handle uncertainties (Farahani et al., 2021).

Effective management of project complexity is imperative, and it is not without its

difficulties (Kermanshachi et al., 2020). Ensuring a comprehensive assessment process is

necessary for successful management. Chenger and Woiceshyn (2021) suggested that due

to the emphasis on officially reviewing and choosing projects and managing the current

portfolio, more is needed to know how new project possibilities are recognized at the

front end before formal selection. The findings from this study may give project

managers a unique knowledge of project complexity methods, which they might employ

to prevent failures in detailed project execution.

Problem and Purpose

Front-end engineering design (FEED) is a crucial phase of problem and solution

development of industrial projects that can lack a consistent agreed-upon definition

assessment of the FEED maturity (Yussef et al., 2019) and complexity (Fabic et al.,

2019). EY-US assessed 500 oil and gas capital projects with a total installed cost (TIC)

executed 5 years before 2019 and discovered that 60% experienced delays in schedule,

with 38% having cost overruns (Fane, 2020). The general business problem is that FEED

can lack the appropriate definition and planning to deliver successful projects. The

specific business problem is that some industrial chemical plant project managers lack

strategies to mitigate project failures in detailed project execution. The purpose of this

qualitative case study was to explore effective strategies used by industrial chemical plant

project managers to mitigate project failures in detailed project execution.

Population and Sampling

I focused on industrial chemical plant project managers within an industrial

chemical company that has led the execution of capital projects from FEED through

project completion. The study's geographic location was the southern United States,

where the industrial chemical company operates. The sampling method was purposive,

with the sample size determined by the number of eligible project managers within the

company. Participants must have experience leading capital project improvements from

initiation through completion to be considered for inclusion in the study. Participant

recruitment was facilitated through the company, who provided contact information for

eligible project managers. Data sources included interviews with project managers and

company project management documents.

Nature of the Study

Research methodologies can be categorized generally as qualitative, quantitative,

and mixed methods. Unlike quantitative methods, which prioritize numerical data and

statistical analysis, qualitative approaches lend themselves to exploring the subjective

experiences, social phenomena, and human behaviors at hand (Braun & Clarke, 2019).

Researchers can employ qualitative methods to understand complex social issues indepth,

build hypotheses, or investigate the lived experiences of individuals and communities

(Roblek et al., 2019). Observation, interviews, and textual or visual data analysis enable a

nuanced exploration of the live experiences of individuals and communities, which would

not be possible with a purely quantitative approach.

Qualitative methodology was used in this study.

I considered two research designs: (a) phenomenology and (b) case study. A

single case study design was used in this study rather than phenomenology because

phenomenology focuses on examining the essence of an experience and the lived

experiences of several participants (see Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Phenomenology,

while effective for examining the essence of an experience across multiple participants,

did not align with the objectives of this study. The focus was not on shared lived

experiences but instead on the specific risk analysis strategies employed during front-end

engineering design from the perspective of project managers.

A case study design using interview-based data collection was better suited for

investigating risk analysis strategies used during FEED from the perspective of project

managers. I chose the case study design to examine a phenomenon within the boundaries

of an industrial chemical business. The intention is to analyze a phenomenon within the

specific context of an industrial chemical business. The single-case study design offers a

detailed evaluation of the effectiveness of various project management strategies in

addressing the complexities and challenges faced by the organization under study.

Consequently, other research designs would provide a different level of contextual

understanding in this particular scenario.

Research Question

What effective strategies do industrial chemical plant project managers use to

mitigate project failures in detailed execution?

Interview Questions

1. As a project manager of industrial chemical plant projects, could you describe

your role and responsibilities?

2. How do you identify the potential complexities in the early stages of a project,

and can you provide specific examples of how you have done so in the past?

3. What strategies do you use during the Front-End Engineering Design (FEED)

phase to mitigate any identified complexities?

4. Can you provide an example of a project where early identification of

complexities significantly impacted the outcome of the project?

5. In your approach to managing project complexities, can you explain your

decision-making process?

6. How do you manage risks during the execution of a project, and can you

provide an example of a project where risk management significantly

influenced the project's success?

7. Have you ever encountered a situation where project scope creep occurred,

and if so, how did you manage it?

8. How do you foster collaboration among different stakeholders during a

project, and can you share an example of a project where collaboration

significantly influenced the project's success?

9. Given each project's unique context and complexities, how do you adapt your

project management strategies accordingly?

10. Can you provide an example of a project that did not go as planned, and what

lessons did you learn from that experience regarding identifying and

managing project complexities?

Conceptual Framework

I used contingency theory for improving project success rates in industrial

chemical plant projects to ground my study. The effectiveness of project management in

industrial chemical plant projects is crucial for ensuring their successful completion. One

way to enhance the success rate of these projects is by identifying and addressing

complexities during the FEED phase. Contingency theory emerged in the 1960s as a

response to the limitations of the suggested best way approach to management and

leadership (Fiedler, 1964; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967). Key figures who contributed to the

development of contingency theory include Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), Fiedler (1964),

Perrow (1967), and Burns and Stalker (1994).

The logical connections between the framework presented and the nature of my

study include the contingency theory that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to

organizational design and behavior but rather that structure and behavior are contingent

on situational factors (see Donaldson, 2001 p. 1). Comparably, the success of a project is

contingent on the project's elements, including the project's complexity, available

resources, and the project environment. Therefore, to mitigate project delays, cost

overruns, and failure, project managers must be willing and able to identify the

situational factors relevant to the project and develop strategies appropriate to the specific

context. According to contingency theory in project management, various situational

circumstances call for various project types and project management approaches

(Boonstra & Reezigt, 2023 p. 2).

Operational Definitions

The following key terms are operationally represented in the study:

Capital Expenditure (CAPEX): CAPEX refers to capital expenditure, which is the

money a company spends to acquire or upgrade physical assets such as property,

buildings, or equipment (Brunekreeft & Rammerstorfer, 2021).

Front-end engineering design: FEED is a phase of project execution where a

business idea is studied before the project's design process to assess a project's technical

and economic viability (Bhown et al., 2021; Yussef et al., 2020).

Project contingency theory: Project contingency theory is an approach that

emphasizes the importance of adapting project management practices to the specific

context and conditions of a project. It posits that there is no one-size-fits-all solution for

managing projects. The most effective strategies depend on the unique internal, external,

and environmental factors affecting the project (Leeman et al., 2022).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions

Assumptions are views, limits are flaws in the study design, and delimitations in

academic research are the bounds specified by the researcher (Ross & Zaidi, 2019). There

were three assumptions in this study. My first assumption was that the participants in this

study would comprehend and understand the interview questions. The second assumption

was that the interview questions were answered truthfully, accurately, and objectively by

the participants. My third assumption was that the organization's leadership would grant

full access to the documentation and data required for this study.

Limitations

The limitations of academic research refer to elements that may impact the study's

validity and potential flaws (Adu & Van Der Walt, 2022; Ding et al., 2020). There are

three limitations in this study. The first limitation was the sample size of participants,

which may limit the research breadth and the ability to acquire meaningful responses.

Second, participants’ varying degrees of project management experience could have

limited the study. The third limitation was that the projects executed by industrial

chemical plant managers are more technical than other industries; therefore, the findings

of this study may not be fully applicable to other industries.

Delimitations

Delimitations refer to the study's bounds, scope, or parameters (Jäckel et al., 2021;

Racionero-Plaza et al., 2021). There are three delimitations in this study. The first

delimitation of the study was that only project managers for the industrial chemical

business were eligible to participate. The second delimitation was that the research

population included only a specific number of participants from the large pool of project

managers. The third delimitation was that the study was focused on specific strategies,

limiting the scope to certain aspects of project management.

Significance of the Study

Contribution to Business Practice

The front-end development phase of a project is a crucial step of project

management that entails identifying essential success elements that influence project

results through conception, planning, and initiation (Williams et al., 2019). Effective

front-end planning and design may prove project outcomes, including better cost and

schedule performance. Capital investments for industrial chemical plants are executed in

project phases where risk reduction efforts include stakeholder design to execution to

desired levels of value, risk, and opportunity (Browning, 2018). Project leaders create

value for stakeholders in the FEED phase through risk analysis strategies to deliver a

project for optimal return on investment. The results of this study may contribute to

businesses through better use of resources, improved efficiency, and higher profitability.

Implications for Social Change

Implications for social change include improving the communities the industrial

chemical plant operates in, helping companies increase their profitability, and retaining

top talent. Identifying essential success factors in the early phases of industrial chemical

plant projects that influence benefits realization enhances results that promote the value

and growth of communities and institutions (Serugga et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2019).

By exploiting a community's economics through new projects, project leaders for

industrial chemical plant construction may affect beneficial social change. All local

industry enterprises may benefit from the projects' additional services and support

opportunities, which could enhance demand for workers and lead to the creation of

several new hires. The results of this study may implicate positive social change by

attracting people to the local businesses in the community.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature The purpose of

this qualitative single case study was to explore the existing scholarly work related to

industrial chemical plant project managers' strategies to mitigate project failures. The

goal is to identify gaps in the current knowledge, understand the various strategies project

managers employ in different contexts, and explore how these strategies can be applied or

adapted to the specific context of industrial chemical plant projects. The insights gleaned

from this review informed the subsequent stages of this study and may contribute to the

broader academic discourse on project management in the context of industrial chemical

plants. In synthesizing the existing literature, I sought to understand the underlying

causes of project failures and the factors contributing to project complexity.

To conduct the literature review, I retrieved articles from sources published in the

Walden University database and Google Scholar as my primary research sources. The

databases used included Business Source Complete, Emerald Insight, SAGE Journals,

Science Direct, EBSCOhost, and ProQuest. The academic literature review began with a

search of specific keywords such as project management, contingency theory, capital

project, industrial project, risk management, risk analysis, front-end design, front-end

engineering design, and complexity strategy. I reviewed and analyzed a total of 121

sources in the literature review, which included both peer-reviewed and non-

peerreviewed articles. Among these, 121 articles were peer-reviewed, and 121 had

publication dates within the last 5 years (i.e., between 2019 and 2023). Table 1 presents a

summary of the citations used in this literature review.

Table 1

Literature Review Matrix

Number Percentage (%)

References 121 –

Peer-reviewed 107 88

Published within the last 5 years 121 100

Common themes and disagreements among researchers are found and linked

through examining peer-reviewed literature, including qualitative and quantitative

studies. Studying and synthesizing literature is essential to comprehensively

understanding previous and current research on a topic (Snyder, 2019). This process

enables the identification of crucial themes integral to the subject matter. The objective is

to comprehend project managers' varied approaches in various situations, identify

knowledge gaps, and investigate how these strategies might be applied or modified to the

specific case of industrial chemical plant projects. The literature review is organized with

the following main topics: (a) contingency theory, (b) project contingency theory, (c)

front-end engineering design, (c) project complexity, (d) risk management, and (e)

project success.

Contingency Theory

The perspective of contingency theory is widely recognized and holds significant

influence in organizational management. Contingency theory is a management theory

that suggests there is no one best way to organize and manage an organization; rather, the

most effective approach depends on the specific circumstances or contingencies the

organization faces (Islam et al., 2020; Mahmud et al., 2021). Moreover, Islam et al. and

Mahmud et al. emphasized the importance of considering an organization's specific

context and contingencies when determining the most effective management and

leadership approaches.

One business area where contingency theory has been applied is the study of

supply chain sustainability trajectories. Silvestre et al. (2020) argued that implementing

sustainability initiatives in supply chains is comparable to implementing innovation, as

both require significant mindset changes. Silvestre et al. proposed a theoretical

framework combining evolutionary and contingency theories to examine how supply

chains learn and evolve in their sustainability trajectories. Adding to the supply chain and

contingency theory theme, Kros et al. (2019) highlighted the role of contingency theory

in recognizing the relationship between the external business environment, firm

performance, and internal structures. Additionally, Kros et al. suggested that quality

management approaches may effectively reduce the risk of counterfeits entering the

supply chain. The authors emphasized the importance of considering the context and

contingencies within supply chains when implementing sustainability initiatives.

Organizational change is a complex process that requires careful consideration of

various factors and theories. Contingency theory is often used to understand and guide

organizational change. The contingency theory suggests that the effectiveness of an

organization is contingent upon the fit between its structures and the external

environment (Chong & Duan, 2022). Chong and Duan (2022) were, furthermore,

signifying that organizations must adapt and change their structures in response to

changing contingencies. In the context of organizational change, Islam et al. (2020)

developed a paradigm for comprehending employee championing behavior in

Bangladeshi commercial companies. The authors argued that contingency theory is

highly relevant in this setting, suggesting there is no one optimal model for managing

change that applies to all organizations in the same industry. Islam et al. underlined the

importance of aligning organizational change strategies with the organization's specific

contingencies and challenges. These authors provided insights into applying contingency

theory in organizational change, highlighting the importance of considering contingencies

and aligning organizational structures with the external environment to ensure

organizational effectiveness and success.

Quality management plays a crucial role in improving strategic alignment within

organizations. Contingency theory provides a perspective for understanding this role and

its impact on organizational performance. McAdam et al. (2019) explored the role of

quality management theory and practice using a contingency theory perspective in

strategic alignment. The authors focused on small and medium-sized enterprises and

emphasized the importance of strategic alignment within the organizations. Based on

their findings, they suggested that when aligned with organizational strategies, quality

management practices can improve strategic alignment and enhance administrative

performance (McAdam et al., 2019). Building on McAdam et al. (2019), Parast et al.

(2022) compared quality management practices in manufacturing firms and services

using a repeated cross-sectional analysis. The study applied contingency theory to

examine the similarities and differences in quality management practices between the two

sectors. Parast et al. revealed significant differences in quality management practices,

particularly in human resource development, management, customer focus, and

satisfaction. This suggests that quality management practices vary based on the context

and industry sector. These authors provide valuable insights into the relationship between

quality management and contingency theory. They highlighted the importance of

alignment of quality management practices with organizational strategies and external

contingencies to improve performance and competitive advantage. Organizations can

effectively manage quality and enhance their strategic alignment for long-term success by

understanding and applying contingency theory.

Overall, contingency theory offers an indispensable blueprint for comprehending

and scrutinizing organizational phenomena across myriad sectors. The theory underscores

the criticality of context, contingencies, and the dynamism inherent to organizations

(McAdam et al., 2019; Parast et al., 2022), thereby equipping scholars and practitioners

with the ability to make astute, context-specific decisions that effectively navigate the

complexities and challenges unique to their situations. This perspective fosters an

environment of flexibility and adaptability, encouraging a more nuanced understanding

of organizational strategy and management. Hence, the contingency theory serves not

merely as an academic concept but as a practical tool that underscores the

interconnectedness of organizational structures, the external environment, and strategic

implementation, ultimately optimizing organizational effectiveness in various situational

contexts.

Project Contingency Theory

In project management, contingency theory guides practice and improves

organizational performance by considering the unique factors and uncertainties that may

impact a project. Nachbagauer and Schirl-Boeck (2019) acknowledged that projects are

subject to inherent uncertainty and risk, and project managers must be flexible and

adaptable. The authors used an approach grounded on constructionism and system theory

with selected methods from organization theory. Project managers can identify project

complexities by building resilience through risk management and contingency planning,

developing a culture of learning and adaptation, encouraging collaboration and

communication among project stakeholders, and flexible project management

approaches. Contingency management in project management involves identifying and

addressing potential risks and uncertainties through effective project planning, risk

assessment, and allocating management services (Tiwari & Suresha, 2021; Urbański et

al., 2019). By taking a contingency approach, project managers may respond better to

unexpected events, mitigate risks, and ensure project success.

Project contingency theory probes into how uncertainties and unforeseen

circumstances can affect the success and results of a project. It recognizes that projects

operate in dynamic and uncertain environments and that adapting and responding to these

uncertainties is crucial for project success (Jia et al., 2023). Furthering these dimensions

of project contingency, Boonstra and Reezigt (2023) suggested that the effectiveness of

project management practices and strategies depends on the fit between the project's

characteristics and the management approach employed. Additionally, this highlights the

importance of flexibility and adaptation in project management, as different projects may

require other methods based on their unique circumstances and contingencies (Jia et al.,

2023).

Shash et al. (2021) posited that the identification and management of risks and

uncertainties in projects are complex tasks underscored by contingency theory. Their

study was conducted using a case study analysis of a construction project in Malaysia.

Shash et al. compared the analytical hierarchy process and multicriteria decision making

for cost contingency prediction and evaluated their effectiveness. The theoretical basis for

the research was the need for accurate cost contingency prediction, which is crucial for

project success and profitability. Their study considered other factors affecting cost

contingency prediction, such as project complexity or uncertainty. Fernandes and

O’Sullivan (2023) highlighted the importance of considering a range of factors and

perspectives when determining the appropriate level of contingency for a project.

In comparison, Patil et al. (2023) determined that in contingency theory, the

effectiveness of project management practices and strategies can be influenced by

organizational context. Factors such as the sector of activity, organization size,

geographic area, and project types can impact the applicability and effectiveness of

project management improvement initiatives and embedding factors. Therefore, it is

essential to consider these contextual factors when implementing project management

practices and strategies.

The project contingency theory offers a theoretical point of view to comprehend

and handle project uncertainties and contingencies (Boonstra & Reezigt, 2019).

Additionally, project contingency theory considers internal, external, and environmental

factors when managing a project (Sing et al., 2022). It accentuates the need for flexibility,

adaptation, and proactive risk management to enhance project success. Incorporating the

unique characteristics of a project and its organizational context is essential for project

managers to make sound decisions and execute successful strategies that mitigate risks

and uncertainties.

Internal Factors

Internal factors are elements within an organization or project team that can

influence the success of a project (Mohajeri et al., 2023). Ajibike et al. (2022)

quantitatively analyzed survey data collected from oil and gas employees. The authors'

primary conclusion was that internal factors play a significant role in project management

and can affect the application of project contingency theory. Moreover, Ajibike et al.

found that these factors include elements within an organization or project team that can

influence the success of a project, such as the skills and competencies of project team

members, the organizational culture, communication and collaboration among team

members, and the availability of resources. A project team with strong technical skills

and a culture that promotes open communication will likely complete a project on time

and within budget (Oh & Choi, 2020; Swart et al., 2022).

External Factors

External factors are elements outside of an organization or project team that can

impact the success of a project (Oh & Choi, 2020). External factors play a significant role

in project contingency theory, as they can impact the success of a project and require

project managers to adapt their strategies accordingly (Leeman et al., 2022). Maqbool et

al. (2022) discussed the influence of internal and external stakeholders on the success of

renewable energy projects. Using stakeholder management theory to ground their study,

the authors surveyed renewable energy professionals in Pakistan to examine the impact of

stakeholder satisfaction and five critical success factors on the industry. Maqbool et al.

noted the role of effective practices, including communication, team, organizational, and

environmental factors, in improving project performance. A project's success and

efficiency rely on internal and external factors that can provide valuable insights for

project management and decision-making.

Kassem et al. (2020) discussed external risk factors contributing to project failure

in developing countries' oil and gas construction projects. These factors include political

instability, lack of skilled labor, and the hazardous nature of the industry. The authors

postulated that external risk factors significantly impact project success and are

influenced by project characteristics. Expanding upon external factors, Nevstad et al.

(2021) investigated how project managers could improve partnering strategies to achieve

better project success. The survey conducted by the author involved 124 engineering

consultancies that had a stake in ongoing multipartner projects. The survey aimed to

measure individual-level perceptions of collaborative behaviors. Nevstad et al. discussed

the significance of early planning, continuing monitoring, and assessment to ensure the

effectiveness of partnership methods. While Nevstad et al. did not account for external

factors such as market conditions or regulatory environments, they found that the level of

success in partnering is positively correlated with project performance, including cost,

schedule, and quality outcomes. The authors concluded that a range of factors, including

trust, communication, commitment, and compatibility, influence the success of partnering

in project management. Prioritizing trust and communication between partners is crucial

for productive partnership and project performance, making it a key responsibility for

project managers.

External factors to the organization or project, such as the political and economic

environment, may bear significant implications for the eventual outcomes of a project,

offering a refined viewpoint that insinuates that the interaction between these external

elements and the performance of the task might exhibit variation based on the particular

context (Kaufmann & Kock, 2022). Project management, therefore, necessitates an acute

sensitivity to these external factors and a readiness to adapt strategies in response to

evolving circumstances. As these factors intersect with project characteristics, they

amplify the complexity of the management task, underscoring the importance of robust

practices such as effective communication, trust building, and strategic planning (Lubis,

2021; Montenegro et al., 2021). Understanding this relationship between external factors

and project performance can equip project managers with critical insights for decision

making, facilitating more effective and context-responsive project management

strategies.

Environmental Factors

Environmental factors, such as political, economic, and social, refer to external

factors influencing project success (Hussain et al., 2021). These factors can impact the

project in various ways, such as affecting the availability of resources, changing

regulations, or altering stakeholder expectations. Qazi (2022) posited that project

complexity significantly impacts project performance, and the impact is

multidimensional. Through statistical analysis of survey data gathered from 102

construction projects in Pakistan, Qazi identified the factors that lead to project

complexity and their effects on project performance. They highlighted the number of

external stakeholders, the variety of external stakeholders’ perspectives, internal strategic

pressure, and project environment instability as some elements of environmental

complexity.

A notable observation by Qazi (2022) is the size of the CAPEX and the size of the

project team. Expanding upon cost and team, Mohd Roshdi et al. (2022) found that

managing money and maximizing all resources are the most crucial aspects of resource

allocation, building upon the previous considerations of cost and team. Their study

consisted of a literature review of cost issues, questionnaires, and semistructured

interviews with engineering, procurement, and construction professionals. There needs to

be more resource management and consistent allocation by construction management,

which were the main reasons for the increase in costs. The authors recommended that

management create a framework based on available resources to enhance project cost

control performance. Project managers should consider environmental factors and their

complexity when assessing and developing strategies to mitigate the negative impact on

project performance (Li et al., 2019).

Front-End Engineering Design

The FEED phase of projects, particularly in the context of industrial chemical

plants, plays a crucial role in planning and design. It involves various activities and

considerations where stakeholders define the project's objectives, scope, and feasibility

that are essential for the successful execution of the project. Several studies have focused

on different aspects of the FEED phase of the project in the industrial chemical plant

sector. Takahashi and Takahashi (2022) analyzed the dynamic of front-end development

in the co-creation process with multiple stakeholders. Williams et al. (2019) explored the

concept of front-end projects, determining it is a critical phase of project management.

Siriram (2022) focused on integrating and transitioning the project front-end and project

phases in South African electrical engineering industrial projects.

Gibson et al. (2023) posited that the maturity of FEED has proven to impact cost

growth, change orders, and other key project performance metrics. The authors' objective

was to measure the accuracy of FEED and its impact on various aspects of project

performance, including cost, schedule, change performance, financial performance, and

customer satisfaction. The authors identified 27 factors to objectively and scalable

measure FEED accuracy. Projects with high FEED accuracy outperformed those with

low accuracy by 20% in approved budgets. Those with low accuracy by 20% in terms of

their approved budgets.

A critical aspect of the project FEED is risk assessment. Marković et al. (2021)

developed a risk assessment model for wastewater treatment plants' planning and design

processes. This model is particularly relevant in the initial phases of the project when the

investor starts the project and during the design phases. By incorporating risk assessment

into the front end of engineering design projects, potential risks and uncertainties can be

identified and mitigated, leading to more successful project outcomes.

Effective planning and scheduling are other critical factors in the project FEED.

Seddeeq et al. (2019) studied time and cost overrun in the Saudi Arabian oil and gas

construction industry. The results highlighted the importance of adequate planning and

scheduling of the project by contractors to avoid delays and cost overruns. The study

identified poor site management and supervision, problems with subcontractors, and

inadequate planning and scheduling as significant causes of delays. To ensure project

success, stakeholders must prioritize proper planning and scheduling during the FEED

phase.

Another concept highlighted in the initial stages of engineering design projects is

constructability. Al Hamadani et al. (2022) discussed applying constructability practices

in the construction industry. Constructability involves integrating new construction

methodologies into project phases, including planning, design, and engineering. By

implementing constructability practices during the front-end phase, projects can achieve

cost savings of 10-20% and improve overall project efficiency.

In addition to risk assessment, planning and scheduling, and constructability, the

project FEED in the industrial chemical plant sector also involves safety and disaster

management considerations. Rebeeh et al. (2019) conducted a literature review on

disaster management in industrial areas. The study highlighted the importance of

incorporating disaster management practices into all project phases, including the

frontend phase. By considering potential hazards and implementing appropriate safety

measures during the front-end phase, the sustainability of operations and the safety of

facilities and the surrounding population can be ensured.

Managing information flow and design processes is another critical aspect of the

FEED phase, particularly in offsite construction projects. Sutrisna and Goulding (2019)

researched offsite construction projects and identified the information requirements and

associated risks in the design process. The study highlighted the importance of

information flow from various project stages, including design, offsite manufacturing,

handling and transporting, site works, and installation. By understanding and managing

these information flows, design risks can be reduced, improving project outcomes.

The project FEED is a critical phase that requires careful consideration of various

factors. These factors include risk assessment, effective planning and scheduling,

constructability, and safety and disaster management. By addressing these aspects during

the front-end phase, project stakeholders can enhance project outcomes, minimize delays,

and cost overruns, and ensure the safety and sustainability of the project.

Project Management: Project Complexity

Boonstra and Reezigt (2019) postulated that complexity theory can be used to

understand project complexity and predictability. They not only theorized the connection

but went further to develop a well-defined model. This model can be a reliable and valid

instrument for project managers, enabling them to accurately diagnose project complexity

and predictability. The utility of such a model lies in its ability to assist managers in

making well-informed decisions and strategically taking appropriate actions to mitigate

project failures, a common obstacle in complex projects.

Building on their insightful work, Boonstra and Reezigt (2023) introduced a

comprehensive complexity framework specifically designed for project management.

This innovative framework considers various integral elements, such as the project's

content, the internal context within which the project operates, and the influencing

external environment. Doing so affords crucial personnel the ability to devise a more

robust and improved project management strategy, complete with associated protocols,

thereby offering a tailored approach that addresses the unique demands of individual

projects. This work resonates with other researchers who have made noteworthy strides

in proposing different project complexity frameworks.

Kermanshachi et al. (2020) took a methodical approach in presenting the Project

Complexity Assessment and Management Framework (PCAMF). This framework

distinguishes itself by including 10 well-defined dimensions of project complexity, such

as technical aspects, organizational structures, and stakeholder relations. They provide

compelling arguments that if project managers effectively utilize the PCAMF, they will

gain an intricate and comprehensive understanding of the various facets of complexity.

This, in turn, equips them to craft specific strategies and solutions tailored to address

these multifaceted complexities.

According to Bathallath et al. (2022), project complexity encompasses other

dimensions, such as technical complexity, stakeholder complexity, and information

complexity, which is not explicitly addressed in the PCAMF. There is also a lack of

guidance on effectively managing project complexity. While the framework classified

project complexity, it may not offer specific strategies or approaches for dealing with the

identified complexities. Bathallath et al. hypothesized that projects are dynamic and

evolve, and the complexity they face may change throughout the project lifecycle. This

suggests that focusing on structural and dynamic complexity may not capture the

changing nature of complexity in projects, which can limit its applicability in dynamic

project environments.

Sing et al. (2022) introduced another contribution with their framework, focusing

on four dimensions to classify project complexity. They articulated that their more

concentrated framework has the potential to be applied in crafting tailored project

management strategies designed to address the complexity identified through

classification. The benefit of this approach is its ability to provide a targeted and specific

response to the complexity at hand. However, some researchers argue that these

dimensions may only partially capture the multifaceted nature of project complexity.

Dawande et al. (2019) suggested that other dimensions of complexity, such as

organizational and information complexity, may need to be explicitly addressed in the

framework.

Another area for improvement is the need for practical guidance on managing and

mitigating project complexity. While the framework classifies project complexity, it may

not provide specific strategies or methods for addressing the identified complexities.

Knickel et al. (2019) argued that the framework should be complemented with practical

tools and techniques to help project managers navigate and address the identified

complexities. Additionally, the framework may need to consider the temporal aspect of

project complexity adequately. Projects are dynamic and evolve, and the complexity they

face may change throughout the project lifecycle. Shi et al. (2020) suggested that the

framework should incorporate a temporal dimension to account for the changing nature

of complexity in projects. Addressing these weaknesses can enhance the framework's

applicability and effectiveness in managing project complexity.

Vaz-Serra et al. (2021) furthered the discourse by presenting an early-stage

project complexity assessment tool grounded in four key complexity dimensions:

technical, organizational, stakeholder, and external factors. They emphasized the

practicality of their tool, highlighting its efficacy in pinpointing potential risks and

challenges early in a project's life cycle, informing decision-making processes, and

allowing for proactive measures.

Along the same line of thought, A. Nachbagauer (2021) designed a nuanced

framework for managing complexity in a project, comprising contextual understanding,

shared understanding, and adaptive approaches. Their work adds layers to the ongoing

discussions on complexity by introducing a system emphasizing collaboration and

adaptability. However, one area for improvement of the framework is that it may not

fully capture the multifaceted nature of project complexity. Projects often involve various

other dimensions of complexity, such as technical, organizational, and stakeholder

complexity, which must be explicitly addressed in the framework (Adel & Cleveland,

2021). Furthermore, the nuanced framework may need a comprehensive assessment of

the interdependencies and interactions among different dimensions of complexity. This

limitation may hinder the comprehensive understanding and management of complexity

in projects. Nachbagauer's nuanced framework for managing complexity in a project

provides a valuable starting point for understanding project complexity, but it has specific

weaknesses. Addressing these weaknesses can enhance the framework's applicability and

effectiveness in managing project complexity.

Peñaloza et al. (2020) proposed a framework tool to monitor project complexity

and resilience continuously. Their framework uses the Cynefin framework in

categorizing projects as simple, complicated, and complex domains within repetitive and

nonrepetitive projects. The innovation of their approach lies in a proactive monitoring

capacity, enabling project managers to identify potential issues at early stages and take

corrective action promptly, which is vital in improving project outcomes. However, Di

Luozzo et al. (2023) suggested that the Cynefin framework may not fully capture the

nuances and interdependencies of real-work situations.

Another area for improvement of the Cynefin framework in this use case is its

limited focus on crisis management. The framework is primarily designed to guide

decision-making during crises but may not provide comprehensive guidance for longterm

resilience and sustainability planning (Sawyerr & Harrison, 2019). Additionally, the

Cynefin framework may not fully consider the unique characteristics and challenges of

specific industries or sectors. In the case of the construction sector, for example, the

framework may not account for the temporary nature of projects and the complex

working arrangements that can impact the implementation of crisis measures (Stiles et al.,

2021). The framework's generalizability across different industries and sectors may be

limited, and industry-specific considerations may need to be incorporated for more

effective decision-making.

These contributions shed light on the intricate nature of project complexity,

offering an array of methodologies and tools that have progressively shaped the field's

understanding. The emphasis on a comprehensive understanding and distinct approaches,

though varying in their specifics, aligns with a unified task of providing effective

strategies for project managers through the unpredictable terrains of project management.

Transitioning from these frameworks, it becomes paramount to delve deeper into the

domains and dimensions that constitute project complexity, providing a finer granularity

of the challenges and strategies at hand.

Domains of Project Complexity

In the context of project complexity, domains refer to areas of influence or

knowledge that contribute to the overall intricacy and difficulty of managing a project.

While structural and dynamic complexity are dimensions of project complexity, some

domains include technological, organizational, stakeholder, and environmental factors

(Luo et al., 2020; Ma & Fu, 2020; Peñaloza et al., 2020; Wickert et al., 2021).

Understanding the domains of project complexity is crucial for project managers and

stakeholders to plan, execute, and control projects effectively. To ensure successful

project outcomes, the team should analyze the factors within each domain and design

effective strategies to minimize risks and promote clear communication. Awareness of

technological complexity can help project teams allocate resources and expertise

appropriately. At the same time, an understanding of stakeholder factors can aid in

determining the effectiveness of project management processes and communication

within the organization. By thoroughly evaluating and addressing the domains of project

complexity, project managers may increase their ability to negotiate the challenges and

uncertainties inherent to complex projects.

Technological. Technological complexity is a critical factor that significantly

contributes to the overall complexity of a project. Luo et al. (2020) defined technical

complexity as the challenges and intricacies associated with the technology utilized in a

project, including the level of innovation, integration with existing systems, and the

specialized knowledge or skills required for implementation. The project’s scale further

influences this complexity, the number of stakeholders involved, and the degree of

interdependence between different technological components.

Additional research by Ma and Fu (2020) corroborates the impact of technological

complexity on project outcomes, revealing a strong correlation between high levels of

technical complexity and adverse effects on cost, schedule, and quality in mega-

construction projects. Sing et al. (2022) further elaborated on the interconnectedness of

technological complexity with other dimensions, such as organizational and

environmental complexity, emphasizing the need for tailored management strategies.

Consequently, technological complexity is not an isolated factor but is often

intertwined with other dimensions like organizational and environmental complexities,

requiring a multifaceted approach for effective management (Hafseld et al., 2021).

Therefore, adept understanding and strategic management of technological complexity

are not optional but imperative for project managers, as they not only influence the

selection of appropriate project management strategies but also have a demonstrable

impact on the project’s success in an increasingly complex and technologically advanced

environment.

Organizational. The organizational domain is a crucial facet that encompasses

elements such as the structure, culture, and governance of the organization undertaking

the project. Kaufmann and Kock (2022) conducted an extensive study involving 917

project status reports to explore the causal impact of project management efforts on

project profitability. Their research revealed that organizational factors, particularly size

and complexity, significantly influence project success. Micán et al. (2020) further

elaborated that large and more complex organizational structures often face heightened

challenges in project management, requiring increased allocation of both human and

financial resources.

Additional insight by Orlandi et al. (2020) emphasized the challenge of aligning

project management with organizational strategy in complex structures. They argued that

misalignment can lead to the wasteful allocation of essential resources. Blomfield and

Vakili (2023) also highlighted the complexity of resource allocation, especially in

organizations managing multiple projects, stating that effective resource allocation is

vital for the efficient use of resources and successful project implementation.

Therefore, the organizational domain of project complexity is not a standalone

element but is deeply interconnected with other facets like resource allocation and

strategic alignment, necessitating a comprehensive approach for effective management

(Fernandes & Araújo, 2022; Turner & Miterev, 2019). Consequently, a nuanced

understanding and strategic management of organizational factors are not merely

beneficial but essential, as they directly impact the allocation of resources, alignment

with organizational strategy, and, ultimately, the success or failure of projects in complex

organizational settings.

Stakeholder. The stakeholder domain is a pivotal area that includes the diverse

stakeholders involved in a project and their varying interests, expectations, and power

dynamics. Mwesigwa et al. (2019) asserted that stakeholder factors significantly

contribute to project complexity. They emphasized the need for effective communication,

negotiation, and stakeholder management skills to navigate the often-conflicting interests

and achieve project objectives. This domain encompasses the various stakeholders

involved in a project, including their interests, expectations, and power dynamics. Irfan et

al. (2019) posited stakeholder conflicts in the construction industry are positively

correlated with project constraints like cost, time, and resources, and they can be

triggered by various factors such as poor contractor management, delayed payments, and

lack of communication. To mitigate these conflicts and their detrimental effects on

project outcomes, effective communication, realistic time and cost estimates, and proper

resource allocation are essential for the project management team.

Rankinen et al. (2022) highlighted that complex projects, such as positive energy

district projects, are fraught with uncertainties due to emerging technologies and the

involvement of multiple stakeholders with diverse positions and requirements. This

complexity necessitates a heightened focus on stakeholder analysis and management. T.

S. Nguyen et al. (2021) added another layer to this discussion by emphasizing the

importance of stakeholder engagement in complex projects. They pointed out that

stakeholder interrelationships can be a specific source of complexity, and inadequate

mutual understanding among stakeholders can harm project success.

The stakeholder domain is not an isolated factor but is intricately linked with

other dimensions of project complexity, requiring a multifaceted approach for effective

collaboration with stakeholders (Malik et al., 2020). Consequently, mastering the

complexities of stakeholder engagement, communication, and management is not merely

an optimal skill for project managers but an essential competency, as it directly impacts

the project’s success, particularly in complex and multi-stakeholder environments.

Environmental. Environmental factors contribute significantly to project

complexity by introducing uncertainties and risks that must be managed and mitigated.

These environmental factors encompass various physical and social aspects of the project

location, including topography, climate, natural, political, economic, and regulatory

factors (Maqbool & Akubo, 2022; Onubi et al., 2019). The complexity of the project

environment, such as economic, social, and political factors, can directly impact the

overall complexity of the project. External environmental factors affect the project

externally and are beyond the direct control of the project management team and have

been found to have a noteworthy impact on project success (Hussain et al., 2021). These

factors include political, economic, and social factors at the macro level.

The influence of environmental factors on project complexity can be further

understood by examining the relationship between project complexity and other

dimensions. Environmental complexity is often considered one of the main factors of

project complexity. It is part of a broader spectrum of project complexities, including

organizational complexity, uncertainty, dynamic complexity, intra-organizational

complexity, marketing complexity, temporary complexity, development complexity, and

structural complexity (Andringa et al., 2022a; Zhao et al., 2021). These complexities

interact with each other and contribute to the overall complexity of the project.

The impact of environmental factors on project complexity can also be seen in the

context of risk management (Maqbool & Akubo, 2022). In complex and significant civil

engineering projects, the risk exposure environment constantly changes due to external

factors and objectives. Such projects' risk and uncertainty management must be

continuous, holistic, and real-time throughout the life cycle. This highlights the need for

managers to constantly assess and manage the environmental risks and uncertainties that

can arise during the project.

Furthermore, external environmental factors influence the relationship between

project complexity and the project (Hafseld et al., 2021). Project managers' personality

traits, such as extraversion and openness, are positive predictors of success, and external

factors, such as political, economic, and social factors, moderate the relationship between

personality traits and project success. This suggests that external environmental factors

can either enhance or hinder the impact of project managers' personality traits on project

success. Understanding and managing environmental factors are necessary for project

success, as they directly influence risk profiles and interact with other complexities, even

moderating the effectiveness of project management competencies.

Dimensions of Project Complexity

Project management is replete with complexities that manifest in various

dimensions, each with unique characteristics and implications for project outcomes.

Project complexity can be measured and analyzed in multiple dimensions. A dimension

represents a single aspect or characteristic of a domain that can be measured or analyzed.

This section aims to dissect the intricate layers of project complexity, focusing on key

dimensions such as structural, dynamic, uncertainty, emergent, and socio-political

complexities drawing upon seminal works in the field, including those by (Boonstra &

Reezigt, 2023; Gautam & Kiridena, 2019; Rezende & Blackwell, 2019).

Structural Complexity: The Bedrock of Project Outcomes. Structural

complexity serves as a cornerstone in the landscape of project management, profoundly

influencing the trajectory of project outcomes. As delineated by Boonstra and Reezigt

(2023), structural complexity is quantified by the size, variety, and interdependence of

the components within a project, making it a subset of project complexity and dynamic

complexity. The complexity escalates as the number of elements and their

interdependencies increase, encompassing various factors such as system hierarchies,

system integration, and team interactions. These factors necessitate specialized

management strategies to effectively navigate the intricate web of relationships and

dependencies, directly impacting the project's success or failure (Andreev et al., 2022).

There is a significant distinction between structural and dynamic complexity in

project management, each having unique implications for project execution. According to

Andreev et al. (2022), structural complexity pertains to the intricacy of project elements,

encompassing their degree, number, heterogeneity, and interrelatedness. This complexity

often manifests in a project's organizational and technological aspects, requiring a focus

on system hierarchies and integration. On the other hand, dynamic complexity is

characterized by the uncertainty surrounding project methods and goals, influenced by

the level of dependable and accessible knowledge about future outcomes. Understanding

these forms of complexity is essential for project managers, as it informs the selection of

appropriate management strategies and risk mitigation approaches, thereby impacting the

project's overall success (Boonstra & Reezigt, 2023).

Managing structural complexity in projects is crucial for successful project

delivery (Luo et al., 2020). Understanding and addressing structural complexity can help

project managers select appropriate project management strategies (Boonstra & Reezigt,

2023). Boonstra and Reezigt proposed a complexity framework for project management

strategies that aids in determining project management strategies based on the level of

structural complexity and dynamic complexity. This framework categorizes projects into

four generic types based on complexity and identifies corresponding project management

strategies. In project management, skillful comprehension and handling of structural

intricacies are imperative. These factors shape the choice of appropriate project

management tactics and significantly impact the project's overall success. Therefore, it is

crucial to cultivate the necessary abilities for effective management.

To effectively manage structural complexity, project managers must possess the

necessary competencies (Khattak & Mustafa, 2019). Competencies such as leadership,

management skills, communication skills, effectiveness, and result orientation are

required to manage the complexities of a project. Khattak and Mustafa's research on the

management competencies, complexities, and project performance of engineering

infrastructure projects has revealed a significant correlation between management

competencies and complexities and project performance. Developing the appropriate

management skills can assist project managers in dealing with complex structures and

enhancing project outcomes.

Dynamic Complexity: Navigating Uncertainty and Ambiguity. Dynamic

complexity is distinguished by its focus on the uncertainties and ambiguities surrounding

project objectives and methodologies. This complexity often manifests in the project's

organizational and technological aspects, requiring a focus on system hierarchies and

integration (Andreev et al., 2022; Boonstra & Reezigt, 2023). The dynamic nature of

projects introduces an element of unpredictability, thereby necessitating the adoption of

risk mitigation strategies and agile management approaches to ensure project success.

Dynamic complexity in projects is a multi-faceted concept that encapsulates the

unpredictable, nonlinear characteristics involving change, adaptation, and evolution.

(Rezende & Blackwell, 2019) examined the complexity of Information System

Development Projects (ISDP) from different perspectives. Task complexity considers the

details and variables involved in the project's tasks. Organizational complexity looked at

the frequency and pattern of changes in the project's organizational environment. These

changes can affect user information needs, business processes, and organizational

structures. Notably, traditional managerial processes, like risk management and change

control, often need help to effectively handle the fluid nature of dynamic complexity

because the scale and frequency of changes in various project elements can prove

challenging to manage. Therefore, understanding and addressing dynamic complexity is

crucial for achieving project success, warranting more agile and adaptive management

strategies (Butler et al., 2020; Hoerl et al., 2021; Onubi et al., 2019).

Emergence, or the spontaneous creation of new patterns or behaviors resulting

from the interactions of different components within a system, is another aspect of

dynamic complexity. Emergence can be observed in various biological systems and

complex networks (Wang et al., 2019). The complex interactions during the coevolving

dynamics of these systems lead to rich phase transition phenomena and novel physics.

The multiscale structure of networks also plays a significant role in determining the

behavior of emergent phenomena.

Chaos is another manifestation of dynamic complexity, characterized by

sensitivity to initial conditions and unpredictable behavior. Chaotic systems exhibit

complex and irregular dynamics, making long-term predictions challenging (Schmickl,

2022). The inability to predict emergent phenomena in a micro-to-macro way is often

attributed to the pattern formation process, which is usually classified as weak

emergence. Predictions of emergent phenomena can fail when made by microscopic

models, highlighting the need for macroscopic mean-field models to capture these

properties. In complex systems, understanding and adapting to elements like uncertainty,

emergence, and chaos are not just academic exercises but practical necessities for

organizations and researchers. This equips them to navigate better the inherent

unpredictability and ever-changing nature of complex systems.

Uncertainty: The X-Factor in Project Complexity. Uncertainty in project

complexity stems from many factors, such as fluctuating market conditions, stakeholder

expectations, and changing requirements (Morgan & Nyonje, 2022; Vaz-Serra et al.,

2021). Effectively managing uncertainty is not merely a recommendation but a

prerequisite for project success. This involves resilient scheduling, leveraging advanced

technologies like Building Information Modeling (BIM), and a comprehensive

understanding of the different dimensions of project complexity.

Project uncertainty is closely related to project uncertainty about project inputs,

such as requirements, and can affect project modeling, evaluation, and control (Fossum et

al., 2022). Uncertainty can also arise from unknown variables in the project output,

particularly in large-scale or research projects. A project's complexity can be affected by

organizational complexity, technical complexity, and unpredictability (Joseph &

Marnewick, 2021). The presence of uncertainty can make a project more complex.

Therefore, it is crucial to have effective communication and perceive uncertainty to

manage project complexity, according to (Vaz-Serra et al., 2021).

Managing uncertainty in projects is crucial for project success. Uncertainty can

introduce risks that may influence the outcome of a project (Milat et al., 2021). Resilient

scheduling is one approach to managing uncertainty in construction projects, aiming to

improve the probability of reaching project goals despite uncertainty. Leveraging stateof-

the-art technologies, such as building information modeling (BIM), can also help manage

complex construction projects.

Project managers play a crucial role in managing project uncertainty. Insufficient

project management standards can lead to project uncertainties, and the responsibility for

managing project uncertainty lies with the project manager. Identifying and assessing

project uncertainty factors is essential for project managers to effectively cope with

uncertainty (Rankinen et al., 2022). Project managers should also consider the different

dimensions of project complexity, such as technical and organizational complexity, in

their management strategies (Joseph & Marnewick, 2021).

Understanding the relationship between uncertainty and complexity is essential in

engineering management. Uncertainty can compound over time and hamper uncertainty

resolution, increasing uncertainty during later project states (Kreye et al., 2022).

Correctly identifying uncertainty types can reduce the adverse effects of uncertainty in

later project stages. Misidentifying or masking types of uncertainty can lead to an

increase in uncertainty in complicated engineering projects. In project management,

especially in engineering situations, it is crucial to identify and manage uncertainties to

reduce risks and tackle the challenges that may arise during a project. This is not just a

suggestion but a requirement for success.

Emergent Complexity: The Unpredictable Nature of Project Interactions.

Emergent complexity is characterized by the spontaneous and often unpredictable

outcomes that arise from the interactions among various project components (Artime &

De Domenico, 2022; Markolf et al., 2021). In infrastructure management and

megaprojects, the ability to manage emergent complexity is not merely an optional skill

but a critical necessity. Mastery of various leadership competencies, such as adaptive and

ambidextrous leadership skills, is imperative for navigating the complexities inherent in

these projects.

Complex systems and emergent complexity are relevant in the field of

infrastructure management. Infrastructure systems, which form networks and span across

cities, exhibit complex interactions with other aspects of society and the environment,

leading to unpredictable failures and cascading effects (Bondank & Chester, 2020). The

complexity of infrastructure interdependencies and the emergence of failures underscore

the need to understand and manage the interactions within these systems.

In megaprojects, (Damayanti et al., 2021) argued that emergent complexity is a

crucial aspect that needs to be managed by project managers. The authors proposed that

the leadership competency required to handle emergent complexity includes adaptive,

flexible, and ambidextrous leadership skills. These skills enable project managers to

accommodate changes and uncertainties during megaprojects. Additionally, the authors

suggested that the theories of adaptive leadership, complexity leadership (entrepreneurial

or innovation), emotional and social intelligence leadership, ambidextrous leadership, and

agile leadership are all identified as relevant to managing emergent complexity in

megaprojects. Therefore, in the context of megaprojects and infrastructure management,

the mastery of various leadership competencies aimed at addressing emergent complexity

is not an optional skill set but a critical necessity for project managers, as it equips them

to anticipate better, adapt to, and manage the unpredictable and nonlinear behaviors that

inherently arise in complex systems.

Social-Political Complexity: The Human Element in Project Management.

Sociopolitical complexity introduces another layer of intricacy, encapsulating stakeholder

interests, power dynamics, and organizational politics (Fossum et al., 2022). Effective

project management in this dimension involves a nuanced understanding of stakeholder

analysis, power dynamics, and organizational politics. The project manager must

skillfully navigate these complexities to ensure equitable stakeholder engagement and,

consequently, the successful completion of the project.

Stakeholder analysis is an essential tool for understanding social-political

complexity in projects. The process entails identifying and assessing the pertinent

stakeholders and considering their influence and interest in the project (Onasanya et al.,

2020). The power-interest matrix is commonly used to map stakeholders and determine

their level of impact and engagement in the project. Stakeholders can be categorized as

players, context setters, crowds, and subjects based on their power and interests.

Power dynamics play a significant role in social-political complexity. Dominant

stakeholders with legitimate power and privilege can shape projects' trajectory to serve

their interests (Eidt et al., 2020). This can lead to the marginalization of less powerful

stakeholders, reinforcing existing power hierarchies. When making decisions regarding a

project, it is vital to acknowledge power imbalances and ensure that all relevant

stakeholder groups can participate equitably in the decision-making process.

Organizational politics also contribute to social-political complexity in projects.

Stakeholders within the project context can have static and dynamic roles, interactions,

flows, and interdependencies (Onasanya et al., 2020). Understanding the political

landscape within an organization is essential for effective project management. Project

managers must navigate organizational politics and build relationships with key

stakeholders to ensure project success (Boutilier & Bahr, 2020). The success of projects

is influenced by external environmental factors, including political, economic, and social

factors (Hussain et al., 2021). These factors can moderate the relationship between

project managers' personality traits and project success. Project managers must develop

specific skills, including political and social skills, to navigate project complex social and

political landscape (Sawadogo et al., 2022). In project management, it is essential to

recognize and effectively handle the intricacies of social and political dynamics. This

involves analyzing stakeholders, understanding power dynamics, and having a keen sense

of organizational politics. By doing so, equitable stakeholder engagement can be ensured,

leading to successful project completion in an ever-changing and complex environment.

Risk Management

Early risk identification is not merely a procedural step but a critical juncture that

can determine the trajectory of a project. By identifying risks at the outset, project

managers can formulate strategies to mitigate potential threats, thereby increasing the

likelihood of project success. Zaman et al. (2019) underscored the importance of early

risk identification by examining two key strategies: project flexibility and visibility.

Flexibility allows project teams to adapt to changes and uncertainties, thereby enabling

the identification of emerging risks. Conversely, visibility ensures transparency and

accessibility of project information, facilitating effective communication and

collaboration among team members. These strategies are particularly crucial in

highstakes, complex environments like industrial chemical plants, where multiple

variables interact unpredictably. Jalali Sohi et al. (2019) and Son (2022) further supported

this by emphasizing the strategic integration of flexibility and visibility as indispensable

for successful risk management in such settings.

The relationship between project complexity and risk is often intricate, especially

in industrial contexts. Complex projects inherently possess numerous variables that can

interact unpredictably, elevating the project's risk profile. For example, technological

complexity could introduce equipment failure risks, while organizational complexity

could lead to team coordination and communication risks. Maqsoom et al. (2020)

explored this further by investigating the moderating role of complexity risk on project

performance. The research by Maqsoom et al. indicated that the level of complexity in a

project affects how outcome control and behavior control impact project performance.

Specifically, complexity risk strengthens the positive relationship between outcome

control and project performance but weakens the negative relationship between behavior

control and project performance. This emphasizes the importance of accounting for

complexity risk to improve project outcomes.

Andringa et al. (2022) and Tshering (2023) extend the discourse by emphasizing

risk management's dynamic and continuous nature in complex projects. Tshering focused

on major civil engineering projects where the risk environment is in constant flux due to

external factors and evolving objectives. Andringa et al. examined the complexities in

construction projects notably, technical, organizational, and external aspects, as

significant sources of risks. Both studies advocate for continuous risk and uncertainty

management throughout the project lifecycle. These findings suggest that understanding

and managing complexity risk is not optional but a critical requirement for achieving

successful project outcomes.

The identification and management of risks in the early stages of any project must

be considered (Sarvari et al., 2019). It is necessary to identify and allocate risks in the

early stages of the project to minimize their consequences on the outcome. Effective

control measures must be implemented, and a constant risk assessment must be done to

ensure the successful completion of complex projects. A thorough understanding of the

complexities involved is also necessary for the smooth execution of the project.

Therefore, it is imperative to prioritize risk management and take the steps needed to

mitigate any potential risks.

Complexities and risks are often inevitable in large industrial projects, particularly

those within the oil and gas sector. These challenges necessitate implementing effective

management strategies to mitigate risks and improve project outcomes (Barghi & Sikari,

2020). One such strategy that has gained prominence is the integration of lean

construction principles into the Front-End Loading (FEL) methodology. Lean

construction aims to streamline processes by eliminating waste and unnecessary

activities, improving overall project outcomes (Pandithawatta et al., 2019). Implementing

lean construction within the FEL framework is a proactive approach to complexity

management in large industrial projects, making them safer, easier to manage, and

quicker to complete. Therefore, adopting lean construction within the FEL framework is

a critical step in enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of large industrial projects.

The successful implementation of lean construction is more than merely a

theoretical concept. It requires the practical application of specialized tools and

techniques. Various tools such as Value Stream Mapping (VSM), Process Activity

Mapping (PAM), and techniques like Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) and Pareto

Analysis (PA) have been identified as instrumental in implementing lean construction

effectively (Badreddine et al., 2022). These tools and techniques identify bottlenecks,

prioritize areas for improvement, and facilitate the seamless integration of lean principles

into construction projects. Hence, the strategic use of these tools is vital for the successful

implementation and sustainability of Lean Construction practices.

While lean construction's theoretical and practical aspects are important, empirical

evidence further strengthens the case for its implementation. There is a broad scholarly

consensus that lean construction, often in conjunction with Integrated Project Delivery

(IPD), significantly improves project outcomes and reduces risks (Alizadehsalehi et al.,

2019; Aslam et al., 2020; Evans et al., 2023; Evans & Farrell, 2022; P. Nguyen &

Akhavian, 2019). Nguyen and Akhavian (2019) demonstrated that integrating lean

construction and project delivery leads to enhanced quality, reduced waste, lower costs,

and improved schedule performance. Given the empirical support, it is prudent for project

managers to consider the integration of lean construction and integrated project delivery

as a standard practice in large industrial projects.

Adopting and implementing lean construction and integrated project delivery is

challenging despite the proven benefits and empirical support. Barriers to adoption

include a lack of awareness, resistance to change, and lack of top management support

(Aslam et al., 2020; Evans et al., 2023). These challenges necessitate targeted strategies

for successful implementation. For instance, Aslam et al. (2020) recommended selecting

and implementing lean construction tools and techniques by focusing on meeting

immediate needs and adding practical elements. Evans and Farrell (2022) proposed a

framework for implementing lean construction, integrated project delivery, and global

integrated delivery on megaprojects, including key performance indicators and strategies

for global initiatives. Therefore, addressing these challenges through strategic planning

and execution is essential for reaping the full benefits of lean construction and integrated

project delivery.

Project Success

Stakeholder engagement is a critical factor in the success of a project. Effective

stakeholder engagement involves identifying key stakeholders, maintaining open

communication, and ensuring stakeholder satisfaction. Ebekozien et al. (2023)

highlighted the significance of efficient stakeholder engagement in construction projects,

as it enhances team collaboration and integrated project delivery. Similarly, Shaukat et al.

(2022) emphasized stakeholder engagement and suggested firms should scrutinize project

decisions from a sustainability perspective to enhance success. Stakeholder satisfaction is

a crucial success factor in projects, as it has a greater impact on strategic value than

information on project or corporate performance (Barbalho et al., 2019). Investing in the

emotional intelligence of project managers may be used as a strategic lever to increase

project success rates.

Project success depends heavily on emotional intelligence, especially when

managing teams and stakeholders effectively. Project managers with high emotional

intelligence levels are better equipped to handle the complexities and interpersonal

challenges that often arise in complex projects, leading to higher success rates (Doan et

al., 2020; Jamshed & Majeed, 2019; Montenegro et al., 2021). Emotional intelligence is

important for individual team members but also for the collective emotional intelligence

of the working team, which ultimately impacts performance (Jamshed & Majeed, 2019).

Emotional intelligence has been found to affect trust, collaboration, and project success

positively (Zheng et al., 2021). It is also considered crucial in effectively managing

complex projects and delivering construction projects (Montenegro et al., 2021; Zhang &

Hao, 2022). Emotional intelligence is a crucial factor in project management, impacting

multiple aspects of the process rather than being solely an individual trait.

According to Mindeguia et al. (2021), emotional intelligence can enhance team

effectiveness by mediating the relationship between management’s transformational

behaviors and employees’ responses. Moreover, it mediates the relationship between

project commitment and performance (Zhu et al., 2021). Emotional intelligence has also

been identified as a preventive strategy for mitigating the detrimental effects of conflict

in large-scale projects (Khosravi et al., 2020). Additionally, emotional intelligence has

been linked to positive team emotional climate, passion, and positive affective events for

team members (J. Yin et al., 2022).

Metrics and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are indispensable tools for

evaluating and enhancing project success, particularly in the specialized context of

industrial chemical plants. These quantitative measures offer an objective lens through

which project performance can be assessed, areas of improvement identified, and

datadriven decisions made to optimize outcomes (Kissi et al., 2019). Given the inherent

complexities and unique characteristics of projects within industrial chemical plants, the

judicious selection of metrics and KPIs becomes a critical success factor.

Project Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) constitutes another pivotal aspect of

project success evaluation, acting as a linchpin for effective project management. M&E

practices facilitate tracking project progress, identifying deviations from planned

objectives, and implementing corrective measures to ensure project success (Kissi et al.,

2019). Moreover, M&E provides granular insights into project components such as cost,

schedule, quality, and stakeholder satisfaction, enabling proactive risk mitigation

(Gadekar et al., 2022). Integrating M&E practices, underpinned by appropriate metrics

and KPIs, is essential for preempting potential pitfalls and ensuring project success.

In industrial chemical plants, real-time metrics and KPIs have revolutionized

project management. Real-time monitoring empowers project managers with current

data, enabling timely decision-making to address emerging challenges (Akpan et al.,

2020). Technologies such as 3D visualization and virtual reality further augment the

utility of real-time metrics by offering immersive and interactive experiences that

enhance stakeholder understanding and evaluation of project outcomes. Deploying

realtime metrics and KPIs is particularly salient in complex projects, where timely

interventions can differentiate success and failure.

The selection of metrics and KPIs should be multifaceted, encompassing various

dimensions of project performance, including technical, functional, financial, and

sustainability aspects (Kourtzanidis et al., 2021; Su & Cao, 2022). Each of these

dimensions requires a tailored set of metrics and KPIs that can effectively measure the

corresponding aspects of project performance. A comprehensive approach to metric

selection is imperative for capturing the full spectrum of project performance and

aligning it with broader organizational and sustainability goals.

Establishing a comprehensive framework or index system is advisable to

maximize the utility of metrics and KPIs. This framework should be tailored to the

specific characteristics and objectives of the project, as well as the needs and expectations

of stakeholders (Kourtzanidis et al., 2021). It should encompass a well-defined set of

metrics and KPIs aligned with project goals and subject to regular monitoring and

evaluation throughout the project lifecycle. A robust framework ensures that the metrics

and KPIs serve not merely as isolated data points but as integral components of a

cohesive strategy for project success evaluation.

Project success is a multi-dimensional endeavor that relies on effective

stakeholder engagement, the role of emotional intelligence, and the strategic use of

Metrics and KPIs. Stakeholder engagement is crucial for fostering collaboration and

ensuring project sustainability. Emotional intelligence is not just an individual trait but a

systemic factor that impacts team dynamics and overall project outcomes. It also

mediates organizational aspects like conflict resolution. Metrics and KPIs offer an

objective framework for evaluating project performance, and their effectiveness is

amplified by real-time monitoring and a comprehensive evaluation framework. These

elements collectively form a robust strategy, enabling project managers to tackle

complexities and achieve optimal results.

Transition

In Section 1, I discussed how industrial chemical plant project managers mitigate

project failure for project success. Throughout the literature review, complex strategies to

mitigate project failure is verified. Section 1 is the foundation and includes several

subsections. These subsections cover the background of the problem, the problem

statement, the nature of the study, the research question, and the interview questions.

Additionally, Section 1 contains the conceptual framework, operational definitions, the

significance of the study, and a review of professional and academic literature. In Section

2, the purpose statement, the role of the researcher, participants, research method and

design, population and sampling, data collection instruments and techniques,

organizational techniques, data analysis, and reliability and validity are presented. The

findings of the study and recommendation are included in Section 3.

Section 2: The Project

Section 2 contains the purpose of the case study, the project outline, the protocol

as well as the role of the researcher. I provide a description of the participants and the

selection process, as well as the population and sampling method used. I offer a

comprehensive explanation and justification for the research method, design, and

techniques used to gather and organize the data. Additionally, I address ethical

considerations and develop a plan to ensure the research's credibility, confirmability,

dependability, and data saturation. Following the guidelines in Section 2 is crucial for

ensuring the reliability and validity of the study and the resulting findings.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore effective strategies used

by industrial chemical plant project managers to mitigate project failures in detailed

project execution.

Role of the Researcher

In this qualitative case study, I acted as the primary instrument for data collection,

a role that is well-established in qualitative research (see Morse et al., 2002; R. K. Yin,

2018). The responsibilities of the researcher extend beyond mere data collection to

include the design of the research framework, the formulation of research questions, and

the assurance of the study's ethical integrity (Draper & Swift, 2011; Roberts, 2015). Data

was primarily collected through semistructured interviews, which were designed to

include 10 open-ended questions (see Flynn et al., 2018). This approach is consistent with

recommendations for achieving reliability and consistency in qualitative research. The

interviews strictly adhered to a protocol outlined in Appendix A to ensure methodological

rigor.

My specialization in business administration with a focus on project management

brought a unique lens to this study. It is important to acknowledge that my academic and

professional background may influence the research process with biases, whether overt or

covert. Participants were selected from a pool of project managers with a history of

successfully executing projects for over 4 years throughout each phase of execution for

the organization. This selection process was conducted within the researcher's

professional network. Ethical standards were maintained by adhering to guidelines set

forth by R. K. Yin (2018) and the ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report

(National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and

Behavioral Research, 1979). Compliance with all institutional review board (IRB)

protocols will also be ensured. Research ethics planning worksheets served as an

additional guide to identify and mitigate potential biases. During the data collection

phase, an interview protocol was employed to minimize personal biases and ensure the

reliability and validity of the data (see Flynn et al., 2018; Roberts, 2015).

Given the potential biases that may arise from my role, several strategies were

employed to mitigate their influence (see Noble & Smith, 2015). These strategies

included member checking, transcript validation and review, and striving for data

saturation. Additionally, I refrained from presenting any conclusions during the

interviews to allow participants to bracket their own experiences and preconceptions

throughout the research process. This was designed to ensure that the data collected

reflects the participants' perspectives rather than the researcher's interpretations.

I was the primary instrument for data collection in this qualitative study (see

Morse et al., 2002). My responsibilities extended beyond data gathering to include the

design of the research framework, formulation of research questions, and assurance of

ethical integrity (see Draper & Swift, 2011; Roberts, 2015). Data was collected through

semistructured interviews, following a protocol to ensure methodological rigor as

recommended by Flynn et al. (2018). To address potential biases, participant selection

was based on specific criteria (see Morse et al., 2002). Ethical standards were maintained

through adherence to guidelines and protocols. Strategies such as member checking and

epoché were employed to mitigate biases and ensure the validity and reliability of the

data (see Noble & Smith, 2015).

Participants

In order to be eligible for my study, participants needed to be project managers

who execute projects within an industrial chemical company. The project managers must

be actively employed in the organization and lead the execution of capital projects

through all phases of execution (i.e., study, FEED, detail execution, closeout). I

conducted the study in the southern United States, where the industrial chemical

company has operating facilities. Conducting semistructured interviews in an embedded

case study involves selecting participants relevant to the case (Ampofo et al., 2019). The

sampling method was purposive, with the sample size determined by the number of

eligible project managers within the company.

Participant recruitment was facilitated through an internal organization group for

project managers. The group organizers have a mailing list and host regular meetings to

present new information to subscribers. According to Gode et al. (2019), one way to

conduct employee interviews is by engaging them through internal social media. Each

potential participant was sent a letter outlining the research's purpose, participant

selection criteria, data collection procedures, and questions (see R. K. Yin, 2018). Study

participants were sent an electronic form to give informed consent before data-gathering

interviews. Data sources included interviews with project managers and company project

management documents. I followed the strategies R. K. Yin (2018) recommended that

accommodate the schedules and availability of prospective interview participants. During

in-depth interviews, I listened without interfering with participants' experiences or cases.

Research Method and Design

Research Method

Qualitative research methodologies are beneficial for exploring complex social

phenomena and human behavior as they allow for a nuanced understanding of subjective

experiences, social contexts, and intricate human interactions (Braun & Clarke, 2019;

Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). Qualitative approaches are often employed to build theories,

develop hypotheses, or delve into the lived experiences of individuals and communities

(Roblek et al., 2019; Smith & Osborn, 2004). These methodologies are especially

relevant for studies that aim to understand social issues in-depth, offering a rich,

contextualized understanding that often needs more quantitative approaches (Flick,

2018).

Quantitative methodologies, on the other hand, focus on numerical data and

statistical analysis. These approaches are often employed in studies that seek to test

hypotheses, measure variables, and generalize findings to larger populations (Creswell &

Creswell, 2018). While quantitative methods offer the advantage of scalability and

generalizability, however, they may fall short of capturing the full complexity of social

phenomena (Bryman, 2016). Mixed methods research combines qualitative and

quantitative approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research

problem (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). This methodology is beneficial when either

method needs to fully address the research questions or objectives (Tashakkori et al.,

2021).

In this study, I employed a qualitative methodology, explicitly utilizing a

singlecase study design. This decision is grounded in the work of R. K. Yin, 2018, who

argued that case studies are particularly effective for investigating contemporary

phenomena within real-world contexts. I considered two research designs:

phenomenology and case study. Phenomenology focuses on understanding the essence of

an experience from the perspective of those who have lived it (Creswell & Creswell,

2018; Moustakas, 1994). While phenomenology offers deep insights into human

experiences, it may not be the most suitable for investigating specific strategies or

practices within an organizational context. On the other hand, a case study design was

more aligned with my objective of examining risk analysis strategies employed during

FEED from the perspective of project managers. Case studies allow for an in-depth

exploration of a phenomenon within its real-world context, mainly when the boundaries

between the phenomenon and context are unclear (Stake, 1995; R. K. Yin, 2018).

My choice to focus on an industrial chemical business as the single case in this

study was strategic. It allowed me to explore project management strategies within a

specific yet complex organizational setting. This focus enabled me to provide deep and

contextually relevant insights, thereby contributing to the field of project management in

industrial environments (see Turner, 2014). The qualitative methodology, specifically a

single-case study design, was most appropriate for this study. It facilitated an in-depth

understanding of risk analysis strategies in FEED within the specific context of an

industrial chemical business. This approach aligned with my aim to explore the

effectiveness of various project management strategies in addressing the complexities and

challenges that project organizations face.

Research Design

Utilizing open-ended semistructured interviews in embedded case studies offers a

robust methodological approach for the in-depth exploration of complex research topics

(Darlow et al., 2022; Fusch & Ness, 2015). The open-ended nature of the questions

allows participants to offer detailed, nuanced responses, thereby enabling researchers to

delve into the intricacies of the subject matter ( Smith, 2015). Semistructured questions

serve as a guiding framework, ensuring that the conversation remains aligned with the

research objectives while still allowing for emergent themes (Burleigh, 2020; Dworkin,

2012).

In an embedded case study, the focus is often on a specific unit or aspect within a

broader context, making semi-structured interviews particularly advantageous (Yazan,

2015). This approach facilitates the collection of rich, contextual data that illuminates the

relationships, facts, and dynamics integral to the research framework (Ampofo et al.,

2019; Baxter & Jack, 2015). The flexibility in conducting these in—person or remote

interviews also accommodates various logistical constraints and participant preferences

(Janghorban et al., 2014; MacKinnon et al., 2022).

Data saturation is a pivotal concept in qualitative research, referring to the point at

which no new information or themes are observed in the data (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Data

saturation ensures the comprehensiveness and validity of the study's findings (Guest et

al., 2006). Researchers should be vigilant about reaching this point by conducting

multiple rounds of interviews or incorporating additional participants until saturation is

achieved (Saunders et al., 2018).

The design of the interview questions should elicit comprehensive and insightful

responses. Researchers must avoid leading or biased questions that could skew the data

(King, 2004). Follow-up questions can probe deeper into specific topics or clarify

ambiguous responses (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Once collected, the data can be

subjected to qualitative analysis techniques such as thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke,

2006; Salameh & Bass, 2022). This involves identifying patterns and themes within the

data, which can provide valuable insights into the complexities of the case under

investigation (Nowell et al., 2017).

When conducting an analysis, it is essential to maintain a rigorous approach. To

achieve this, multiple sources of information, such as documents and observational data,

in addition to interview data, must be utilized. Employing this methodological

triangulation approach is crucial as it enhances the study's credibility, as Denzin and

Lincoln (2018) and Carter et al. (2014) noted. Therefore, it is vital to ensure that all

sources of information are thoroughly examined to provide an accurate and

comprehensive analysis.

Population and Sampling

The study investigated the project management strategies employed in industrial

chemical plants, explicitly focusing on project managers overseeing the execution of

capital projects from initiation or FEED through project completion. The geographic

scope of this study is confined to the southern United States, where the industrial

chemical company under investigation operates (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Palinkas et

al., 2015). The sampling method employed in this study is purposive sampling, a

nonprobability sampling technique where participants are selected based on specific

characteristics that serve the research objectives (Etikan, 2016; Patton, 2015). In this

case, the sample size was determined by the number of project managers within the

company who meet the eligibility criteria. Purposive sampling is beneficial for

specialized populations where specific expertise or experience is required (Robinson,

2014).

To be considered for inclusion in the study, participants had demonstrable

experience in leading capital projects from initiation to completion. This criterion ensures

that the participants have the requisite knowledge and expertise to provide insights that

are both deep and contextually relevant (Coyne, 1997; Morse, 2015). The recruitment of

participants was facilitated through the industrial chemical company, which provided

access to project managers who met the study's criteria. This approach ensures a more

streamlined and efficient recruitment process (Lavrakas, 2008).

Data saturation was closely monitored to ensure the validity and reliability of the

study's findings. Data saturation in qualitative research is reached when no new

information or themes emerge from the data (Fusch & Ness, 2015; Saunders et al., 2018).

The study recruited participants until the data saturation was reached, ensuring the

comprehensiveness of the data collected (Guest et al., 2006). The primary data sources

for this study included semi-structured interviews with the selected project managers and

a review of relevant company project management documents. Using multiple data

sources enhances the study's credibility through methodological triangulation (Carter et

al., 2014; Denzin, 2017). The interviews were held in person and one remotely due to

logistical considerations. The setting chosen ensured confidentiality and comfort for the

participants, thereby encouraging open and honest responses (Opdenakker, 2006).

Ethical Research

Informed consent serves as the cornerstone of ethical research involving human

participants. It is incumbent upon the researcher to secure informed consent from all

participants before their involvement in the study (Emanuel et al., 2000; Manti & Licari,

2018; World Medical Association, 2013). In this study, participants received a

comprehensive consent form detailing the study's objectives, procedures, potential risks,

and benefits. This form also included a clause allowing participants to withdraw from the

study without penalty.

Participants were informed that they reserve the right to withdraw from the study

at any stage without facing any repercussions. Should they have opted to withdraw, all

their data would be immediately expunged from the study records (Fisher, 2023; Patton,

2015). While the primary incentive for participation is contributing to a body of

knowledge that could benefit society, participants were also offered a summary report of

the study findings as a token of appreciation for their time and insights (Grady, 2005;

Resnik, 2020). To safeguard the ethical protection of participants, this study adhered to

the principles of confidentiality and anonymity (Saunders et al., 2019; R. K. Yin, 2018).

Each participant was assigned a unique identifier without personal or easily traceable

information. This measure was implemented to prevent the traceability of participants by

external parties (Saunders et al., 2019).

All collected electronic and hard copy data was securely stored. Electronic data

was password-protected, and hard copy data was placed into a combination safe, as

Stewart and Shamdasani (2015) recommended. This data will be retained for 5 years

post-study, after which it will be securely destroyed. To further ensure confidentiality,

neither the identities of the participants nor the organization involved in the study will be

disclosed. Approval number 12-12-23-1175957 was issued after Walden University's IRB

reviewed and approved the research objectives and design. For this study, the

organization will be referred to as Company X (Saunders et al., 2019).

Data Collection Instruments

In qualitative research, the researcher often serves as the primary instrument for

data collection, acting as a conduit through which data is gathered, interpreted, and

analyzed (see Creswell & Creswell, 2018; R. K. Yin, 2018). In this single-case qualitative

study, I assumed the role of the primary data collection instrument, responsible for

conducting semi-structured interviews and ensuring the reliability and validity of the

collected data.

The primary method of data collection in this study was semi-structured

interviews. This technique allows for collecting rich, context-specific data by enabling

participants to express their views, experiences, and perceptions in a flexible yet focused

manner (Feuerstein et al., 2010; Kallio et al., 2016). The interviews were conducted

following a pre-established interview protocol, which is available in Appendix A. The

protocol began with an opening question exploring the participant’s role and

responsibilities. It was followed by a series of questions related to the central research

question designed to explore the topic in depth (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006).

The semi-structured interview protocol facilitates a comprehensive exploration of

the research topic. This approach ensures the discussion remains focused while enabling

participants to share their unique perspectives (Galletta, 2013).

Several strategies were employed to enhance the reliability and validity of the data

collection process. One such strategy was member checking, which involved sharing the

transcribed interviews with the participants for verification (Birt et al., 2016; B. Smith &

McGannon, 2018). This process allows the participants to confirm the accuracy of the

data, thereby enhancing its credibility and trustworthiness. Additionally, a well-defined

interview protocol contributes to the study's reliability by ensuring consistency across

interviews (R. K. Yin, 2018). The interview protocol can be found in Appendix A.

Data Collection Technique

This study's primary data collection method is semi-structured interviews

supplemented by audio recordings and a review of organizational documents.

Semistructured interviews are characterized by a blend of predetermined questions and

the flexibility to explore topics in greater depth through follow-up questions

(DeJonckheere & Vaughn, 2019; Jamshed, 2014). This approach allows for a nuanced

understanding of the subject matter, allowing participants to elaborate on their

experiences and perspectives (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). The interviews were conducted

using a detailed interview protocol, which is available in Appendix A. This protocol

outlines the step-bystep process during the interview, including the questions to be asked

and the provision for audio recording (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006).

Some advantages of the chosen data collection technique are that it allows for

indepth exploration of the topic (Jamshed, 2014), provides flexibility to adapt to the flow

of the conversation (DeJonckheere & Vaughn, 2019), and enables triangulation when

supplemented with organizational documents, enhancing the study’s validity (Flick,

2018). Disadvantages are the data collection and analysis can be time-consuming (Guest

et al., 2013), and there is potential for interviewer bias (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015).

To ensure the reliability and validity of the collected data, member checking was

employed as a post-interview validation technique. After each interview, the audio was

transcribed and cross-referenced with the notes taken during the interview. These

transcriptions were then sent to the respective participants for review. Participants had the

opportunity to confirm, augment, add to, or correct the transcriptions, thereby verifying

the accuracy, completeness, and consistency of the gathered (Birt et al., 2016; Marshall et

al., 2022).

Data Organization Technique

Effective data organization is crucial for the integrity and reliability of any

research study. This study employed a multi-faceted approach to ensure meticulous data

organization and management. This approach included using research logs, reflective

journals, and coding software. Research logs were maintained to keep track of each

participant's interview and the date it was conducted (Saldaña, 2021). This served as a

chronological record of the data collection process. Reflexivity is an essential aspect of

qualitative research, enabling the researcher to critically examine their biases,

assumptions, and interests in the study (Finlay, 2002; Gabriel, 2015). A reflective journal

was maintained to document these self-examinations throughout the research process.

After transcribing each interview, the data was coded using the specialized qualitative

data analysis software NVivo. This software allows for categorizing data into themes and

sub-themes, facilitating a more structured analysis (R.Gibbs, 2007; Sutton & Austin,

2015).

Research logs ensure that each step of the data collection process is documented,

enhancing the study's transparency and traceability (Miles et al., 2020). The reflective

journal allows for ongoing self-assessment, strengthening the study's credibility (Gabriel,

2015). Coding software streamlines the data analysis process, making it easier to identify

patterns and themes (Sutton & Austin, 2015). All research-related documents, including

transcriptions, research logs, and reflective journals, will be securely stored in cloud

storage with multiple layers of encryption. Consistent with ethical guidelines, these

documents will be permanently deleted after a retention period of 5 years (Corti et al.,

2000).

Data Analysis

I employed methodological triangulation as the primary data analysis process in

line with the case study research design. This approach involves using multiple data

sources and methods, such as interviews and document analysis, to comprehensively

understand the research topic (Abdalla et al., 2018; P. Fusch et al., 2018). Methodological

triangulation enhances the validity and reliability of the study by cross-verifying

information and providing multiple perspectives on the subject matter (see Flick, 2022).

A sequence process for data analysis:

•Gather raw data from semi-structured interviews and organizational

documents.

•Transcribe the audio recordings of the interviews.

•Employ open coding to identify preliminary themes and patterns (Corbin &

Strauss, 2015).

•Conduct multiple iterations to refine themes and identify any missing

information (Saldaña, 2021).

•Cross-verify the themes identified from interviews with the information

gathered from organizational documents (Abdalla et al., 2018).

•Correlate the key themes with the existing literature and the study’s

conceptual framework.

I used NVivo, a qualitative data analysis software, for coding. NVivo allows for

efficient categorization and tagging of data, facilitating the identification of themes and

patterns (Kuckartz, 2014; Paulus et al., 2014). The software's capabilities extend to

handling large datasets, making it suitable for complex analyses. Once the key themes

were identified, I correlated these with the existing literature and the study's conceptual

framework. This step is crucial for situating the research findings within the broader

academic discourse and validating the study's contributions to project management

(Tracy, 2020). After performing coding using NVivo, I exported the data into Microsoft

Excel for further analysis.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Dependability in qualitative research refers to the stability and consistency of the

research findings over time (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This study

employed member checking of data interpretation and transcript review to address

dependability. After transcribing the interviews, participants were allowed to review and

validate the transcriptions and preliminary interpretations to ensure their viewpoints were

accurately represented (Birt et al., 2016). This iterative process enhances the

dependability of the research by ensuring that the data and interpretations are consistent

and stable over time (Morse, 2015).

Credibility

Credibility is a cornerstone of trustworthiness in qualitative research, emphasizing

the congruence between the participants’ experiences and the researcher’s representation

of them (Shenton, 2004). Several strategies were employed to ensure credibility in this

study. First, member checking was utilized, where participants could review the

transcribed data and the researcher’s interpretation to confirm the accuracy (Harper &

Cole, 2015). This iterative process allows for the validation of the data and enhances the

study’s credibility. Second, methodological triangulation was applied, incorporating

interview and organizational document data sources to cross-verify the findings (Carter et

al., 2014; Denzin, 2017). This multi-faceted approach strengthened the credibility by

providing a more comprehensive view of the phenomena under study.

Transferability

Transferability refers to the applicability of research findings to other contexts or

settings (Polit & Beck, 2010). To enhance the transferability of this study, a thorough and

detailed description of the research context, methodology, and participant demographics

is provided. This “thick description” allows future researchers and readers to make

informed judgments about the extent to which the findings are transferable to other

settings (see Amankwaa, 2016). Additionally, the use of purposive sampling is explicitly

justified to aid in the assessment of transferability (Palinkas et al., 2015).

Confirmability

Confirmability in qualitative research refers to the degree to which others could

corroborate the findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To ensure confirmability, an audit trail

documenting each stage of the research process was maintained (Belotto, 2018). This

includes the rationale for methodological choices, data collection procedures, and

decisions made during the data analysis (Busetto et al., 2020). The audit trail allowed for

external verification of the research process, thereby enhancing its confirmability (Moser

& Korstjens, 2018).

Data Saturation

Data saturation is a pivotal concept in qualitative research, indicating that no new

information or themes are observed in the data (Fusch & Ness, 2015). To ensure data

saturation, this study continued data collection until no new themes or insights emerged.

If new themes had arisen, additional interviews would have been conducted until

saturation was reached (Guest et al., 2006). The attainment of data saturation enhances

the depth and breadth of the study, contributing to its overall rigor and quality (Saunders

et al., 2018).

Transition and Summary

In the preceding Section 2, the focus was on delineating the research framework

for the case study under investigation. This included a reiteration of the study's objectives

and a comprehensive description of my role as the principal investigator. The section also

elaborated on the participant selection criteria, the population under study, and the

sampling methodology employed. Furthermore, I provided a rigorous justification for the

research method and design selected, outlined the sample size, and detailed the

procedures for data organization and collection. Ethical considerations were integrated

into the data collection framework, and I elaborated on the methodologies planned for

data analysis. Additionally, strategies to ensure the credibility, confirmability,

dependability, and saturation of the data were discussed.

Moving forward to Section 3, the emphasis will shift to the presentation and

interpretation of the research findings. This section will offer multiple applications

relevant to professional practices and will explore the broader implications these findings

have for societal change. Moreover, Section 3 will feature actionable recommendations

derived from the study's outcomes, suggestions for future research endeavors, reflections

on the research process, and a conclusive statement to encapsulate the overall study.

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore what effective

strategies industrial chemical plant project managers use to mitigate project failures. I

focused on the various project management strategies in addressing the complexities and

challenges in the early stages of project execution. I conducted four in-person interviews

and one video conference interview with five project managers from the partner

organization located in the southern region of the United States to collect data. The data

collection included transcribed recorded audio from interviews, company documents, and

guidelines, and was analyzed, and coded for emerging themes using NVivo 14 and

Microsoft Excel. The thematic analysis revealed patterns and insights into the strategies

used by project managers to prevent failures and support organizational viability.

The findings of this study suggest that proactive risk management, team

involvement in decision making, careful scope management, and clear communication

with stakeholders can enhance project success. These strategies promote a culture of

preparedness, learning, and collaboration. The study's findings on project managers

overseeing chemical plant projects could foster positive social change by influencing the

economy of a community.

Presentation of Findings

The research question was the following: What strategies do industrial chemical

plant project managers use to mitigate project failures in detailed execution? The

analysis, grounded in the overarching research question, identified four salient themes

from the interview responses. These themes were (a) proactive complexity and risk

management, (b) knowledge and expertise utilization, (c) project planning and scope

management, and (d) stakeholder engagement and communication. Each theme emerged

as a significant factor in addressing the research question, providing a comprehensive

understanding of the subject matter under investigation. This thematic identification

marks a pivotal step in the progression of the research, laying the foundation for further

exploration and discussion within the academic paper.

Table 2 classifies themes from the study within the context of project contingency

theory and domains and dimensions of project complexity. The table elements of project

complexity are organized into themes, factors, domains, and dimensions, providing a

structured overview that can assist in understanding and addressing the intricacies

involved in managing complex projects. During the interviews and document review, a

word cloud was generated to display the most frequently used words. Figure 1 displays

this word cloud.

Table 2

Themes Classifications

Factors of project Domains of project Dimensions of

Themes contingency theory complexity project complexity

Proactive

External, Technological, Dynamic, complexity and

environmental organizational uncertainty risk

management

Knowledge and

expertise

utilization

Internal, external Technological,

organizational

Structural,

emergent

Project planning

and scope

management

Stakeholder

Internal Technological,

organizational

Structural,

emergent

engagement and

communication

External Stakeholder Social-political

Figure 1

Word Cloud of Common Terms

Theme 1: Proactive Complexity and Risk Management

The first theme that emerged was proactive complexity and risk management.

Each project manager identified the early stages of a project as crucial for spotting

potential complexities and emphasized the importance of in-depth research and

understanding of the project's scope. P1, P2, and P4 discussed the importance of

collaboration and involving various stakeholders or experts to help identify potential

complexities early on. P5 also recognized the importance of early identification but

focused more on defining the project's objectives and developing the scope to mitigate

complexities. P5 shared an example of a schedule-driven project,

We were tasked to implement a new feedstock to run trials in a limited timeframe.

We organized field walks with a cross-functional team to identify the most

suitable location for a skid, considering various factors such as the flammable

nature of the material, maintenance footprints, existing firefighting infrastructure,

and existing electrical hazard classifications. Ultimately, the chosen location did

not require additional fire project scope, demonstrating the significant impact of

early identification of complexities on the project's outcome.

P5's early involvement in the studies identified and their proactive approach to

identifying potential complexities were crucial in successfully executing the project. P3

provided a detailed example of how early identification of material and structural

complexities can significantly influence the project's outcome. P3 shared a past project

experience,

In the initial stages of the cooling tower project, the initial construction was

performed with wood, which prompted a thorough inspection of the material's

condition. Due to durability concerns, this early evaluation helped us decide

against using wood for the replacement. We requested bids for both timber and

fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP). The comparison led to the selection of FRP,

which was more robust and long-lasting. Another complexity identified early on

was whether to replace the structure from the first splice above the water up to the

deck. We determined that the contractor might face potential issues due to the

weight of the new structure on the weaker wooden pieces at the bottom. We first

decided to replace all the tower's exterior columns to mitigate this. This

strengthened the tower, allowing the contractor to proceed with the interior

replacement. The early identification of these complexities significantly

influenced the project's outcome, underlining the importance of thorough initial

assessment in project management.

Two other factors of the theme are risk management during execution and

adapting project management strategies. Participants P1, P3, and P4 emphasized the

importance of a proactive approach to risk management. P1 achieves this through

maintaining strong relationships and effective communication with the team, while P3

leverages “previous experiences” and the company's risk management process to

anticipate and mitigate risks. P2 monitors costs weekly and compares the percentage of

the budget spent to the percentage of the project completed, while P5 develops a risk

contingency fund.” P5 shared an example of adaptability to management risk during the

execution phase of a past project,

The project required significant pre-turnaround work to be completed within a

tight schedule. When it became apparent that the pre-turnaround work was falling

behind schedule due to supply chain issues and late material deliveries, we

negotiated with the turnaround director for an additional two months of

preturnaround construction time. To ensure this extension would not interfere

with the turnaround group’s preparation work, we provided a plot plan showing

the remaining work fronts overlaid with the turnaround group’s plot plan. The

project was completed within the scheduled duration and budget, demonstrating

effective risk management.

P1, P3, and P4 described adjusting their strategies based on technical aspects and

the project's size. P3 described a “fit-for-purpose strategy that scales management

processes” based on the project's needs. P4 adjusts strategies based on the project's

complexity, explaining that "with more complex projects, a larger team requires more

extensive communication." P1 leaves the technical decisions to the experts, focusing on

how these decisions impact cost and schedule. P1 asserted, "I do not get emotionally

attached to the technical aspects of how the project is executed, leaving those decisions to

the technical experts.”

I noted that Theme 1, centered on the importance of proactive complexity and risk

management, aligned with the findings of Andringa et al. (2022), which delineated the

intricate relationship between risk and complexity within construction projects,

advocating for an integrated approach to managing these elements. All project managers

interviewed in the industrial chemical plant domain agree that early risk detection,

strategic mitigation efforts, and customized strategies tailored to specific project nuances

are essential for success. This aligns with the findings of Maqsoom et al. (2020), who

suggested that structured control mechanisms are strongly correlated with improved

project performance. Additionally, the emphasis by Tshering (2023) on the dynamic

essence of risk management further corroborates the necessity of a forward-looking

approach to complexity and risk management, underscoring its indispensable role in

achieving project success.

The insights derived from Theme 1, focusing on proactive management of project

complexities and risks, resonate strongly with the adaptive and responsive strategies

advocated by contingency theory. Sawyerr and Harrison (2019) underscored the necessity

of adaptability and forward-looking risk management, a perspective that is echoed by the

participants who highlighted the critical role of engaging effectively with stakeholders,

aligning with the theory's principles of situational adaptability. Moreover, the emphasis

on the need for flexibility in managing projects and customizing approaches to meet

evolving circumstances and stakeholder expectations, as discussed by Jalali Sohi et al.

(2019), underscores the applicability of contingency theory's core tenets to real-world

project management scenarios. This synthesis demonstrates the theory's relevance and

practical utility in navigating the complexities and uncertainties inherent in project

environments, validating the experiences and strategies of the participants.

Theme 2: Knowledge and Expertise Utilization

The second theme that emerged from the interviews was knowledge and expertise

utilization for the project's accomplishment. This theme pertains to acquiring

projectspecific knowledge, learning from experienced colleagues, leveraging subject

matter experts (SMEs), and using expertise for complex problem solving. The skills and

knowledge required can be acquired from various sources and from the lessons learned

from unexpected project outcomes.

The project managers stressed the significance of comprehending the project's

range, goals, and potential complications in managing them. P1's approach involves

understanding “stakeholders' objectives and risk appetite,” providing a framework to

manage complexities. Similarly, P5 starts by “defining the project's objectives and

identifying potential complexities.” P2, on the other hand, prioritizes early alignment

with stakeholders and “breaking down the project into manageable chunks.” They rely on

subject matter experts, akin to P3 and P4, who “build competent teams” and gather input

from the project team and stakeholders. P4 also “documents the decision-making process

for future reference”. All participants affirmed the importance of clearly defining the

project's scope and objectives, engaging with stakeholders, and seeking expert advice

when managing project complexities.

Without using expertise in project management, it's difficult to achieve successful

outcomes. All the participants unanimously agreed on the significance of project

management expertise and its crucial role in achieving project objectives. P1, P3, and P4

indicated the significance of “technical specialists” in identifying potential complexities

early on a project and making informed decisions. P3 explained, “pulling the right people

together at the beginning of the project… look at the scope and technology to determine

special needs.” Collaboration with internal and external experts regarding project scoping

and planning is also emphasized in P3 and P4. P4 shared a project experience about

including stakeholders not typically considered.

We sought to add a structure to a compressor deck. The project faced unexpected

interruption due to budget cuts and design reevaluation. The initial design had to

be scrapped because, after a discussion that included stakeholders from the

turnaround group, we learned disassembly during future turnarounds or outages

would be difficult. The project would require a complete redesign with a more

complex structure, but it offers a better solution than the initial design. The

primary lesson learned from this experience is ensuring that all the right

stakeholders are in place in the initial phases to provide their input and

perspective. Even those not typically considered.

Conversely, P2 and P5 underscored the significance of conducting comprehensive

preliminary evaluations and modifying project management approaches to suit the

distinct conditions of each undertaking. Additionally, they emphasized the importance of

engaging team members during suitable project phases. However, gaining knowledge is a

complex process as sometimes the knowledge is too complex to acquire. Sometimes,

there is a wide gap between the problems and perceived solutions. To deal with such

complexity, the knowledge should be comprehensive. In this regard, P4 described their

approach as “beginning with gathering input from the project team, various stakeholders,

and discipline experts to determine the best course of action.” P2 stated, "At the end of

the day, you get a holistic look at the project when you put all those smaller pieces back

together… Many disciplines are involved in that project."

The insights from Theme 2, juxtaposed with the scholarly landscape, underscore a

unanimous recognition of the pivotal role of knowledge and expertise in navigating the

intricacies of project management. The emphasis by study participants on the importance

of thorough due diligence, robust preparedness, meticulous organization, and early,

proactive engagement within project teams mirrors the scholarly assertions posited by

Silvestre et al. (2020), regarding the instrumental role of knowledge and expertise in

overcoming project challenges and optimizing outcomes. This concurrence is further

supported by Fernandes and O’Sullivan (2023), who highlighted the indispensable

contribution of knowledge and expertise to effective project management and complexity

reduction. Moreover, the literature, as evidenced by Tiwari and Suresha (2021),

suggested that the innovative application of knowledge can significantly mitigate project

risks and enhance flexibility, thereby improving project performance. Expertise and early

engagement are critical for successful project management.

The exploration of Theme 2, which focuses on the utilization of knowledge and

expertise, distinctly echoes the principles outlined in the conceptual framework of

contingency theory. Participants prioritize adaptability, proactive responses, early risk

identification, quality control, safety measures, and stakeholder communication. These

align with contingency theory's situational-responsive ethos, as noted by Boonstra and

Reezigt (2023). This alignment is further affirmed by research from Jalali Sohi et al.

(2019), which underscored the value of flexibility in project management and its positive

impact on project outcomes, mirroring the participants' advocacy for adaptable and

situation-specific strategy formulation. Hence, the congruence between the project

managers’ insights and the foundational tenet of contingency theory underscores a robust

validation of knowledge and expertise as critical levers in enhancing project management

effectiveness. Therefore, the interviewees' responses strongly support the principles of

contingency theory and the theme of knowledge and expertise utilization in project

management.

Theme 3: Project Planning and Scope Management

The third theme from the interviews was project planning and scope management.

All project managers accentuated the importance of fostering stakeholder collaboration

for successful project management. Though their methods varied, they all agreed on the

necessity of regular, clear communication. P2 summarized scope development as

“building or defining the scope to bridge that gap between the problem and the solution.”

P1 focused on the project manager's role as a communicator, “emphasizing the project's

importance to various stakeholders”. Additionally, P1 explained how all his projects start

with a “team field walk of process and instrumentation diagrams.” P2, P3, and P5

highlighted the effectiveness of regular meetings and the early involvement of all

stakeholders. P4 and P5 discussed the necessity of coordinating with various team

members and keeping track of action items to ensure successful project execution.

Participants P1, P2, and P5 each stressed the importance of thoroughness in the

early stages of a project to prevent scope creep; agreeing early communication of project

objectives to all stakeholders is crucial. Furthermore, P2 and P5 underscored the

importance of detailed documentation in managing scope creep. P4 shared experience

from a past project,

I had a project to replace PLCs [programmable logic controllers] throughout the

plant. Due to unforeseen circumstances, such as postponements and unexpected

outages, the project was extended beyond its original timeline. One notable

occurrence was when the hardware meant for the project was used for another

project due to delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This led to more work

as parts had to be removed and reinstalled, and factory acceptance tests had to be

run again. To manage this scope creep, we maintained constant communication

with the vendor to ensure we were aware of potential delays and could address

them promptly. We closely monitored charged and documented arising costs from

the extended scope.

P3, on the other hand, focused more on the role of experience and risk

management in anticipating and mitigating potential risks. They emphasized that each

project is unique, and thus, it is important to focus on the specific details of each project.

P3 shared experience from a past project,

This project initially seemed simple; it involved installing some platforms.

However, the project’s complexity escalated due to challenging spaces where the

platforms needed to be installed, leading to the tripling of the engineering estimates.

The difficulties could have been encountered earlier and managed if an in-depth

examination had been conducted in the FEED phase. We decided not to proceed with

certain parts of the project scope due to the concerns and mounting costs.

The participants' insights suggest that a comprehensive approach to managing scope

creep should include careful planning and scoping at the outset, clear communication

with stakeholders, detailed documentation, and past experiences and risk management

processes.

Theme 3, project planning and scope management, was consistent with the

findings of Andringa et al. (2022) and Ma and Fu (2020), which underlined the criticality

of early planning and meticulous scope management as pillars for project success. This

thematic alignment extends to the broader discourse within the literature, highlighting the

pivotal role of project planning and management in mitigating prevalent challenges such

as scope creep, stakeholder conflicts, and unforeseen project contingencies. Furthermore.

Kissi et al. (2019) underscored the significance of rigorous project monitoring and

evaluation practices as key determinants of success in construction projects. Collectively,

these scholarly insights bolster the argument for the indispensable nature of proactive

planning, dynamic leadership, engaged stakeholder participation, and flexible

management approaches in steering projects toward their successful completion.

Theme 3 corroborates and underscores a profound correlation with the conceptual

framework grounded in contingency theory, particularly within the factors of project

planning and scope management. The emphasis on adaptability and the capacity to

respond effectively to evolving project dynamics, as highlighted by the participants, is in

direct alignment with the core tenets of contingency theory, as illustrated by Wickert et

al. (2021). This alignment is further evidenced through the prioritization of effective

communication and active stakeholder engagement, reinforcing the theory’s advocacy for

situational awareness and adaptability, a viewpoint supported by the research findings of

Ebekozien et al. (2023) and Mwesigwa et al. (2019).

The significance attributed to early planning phases and a comprehensive

understanding of the project scope as strategies to mitigate risks effectively dovetails with

the principles of contingency theory. This perspective is supported by Boonstra and

Reezigt (2023) and Zhao et al. (2021), who highlighted the critical nature of early and

informed planning in ensuring project success, reinforcing the theoretical assertion that

adaptability and thorough preparation are indispensable in managing project

complexities. These findings collectively not only validate the relevance of contingency

theory in the context of project management but also enrich the discourse on the strategic

implementation of project planning and scope management techniques to enhance project

outcomes.

Theme 4: Stakeholder Engagement and Communication

The fourth theme that unfolded from the interviews is a culmination of

stakeholder engagement and communication presented within the previous themes. All

the project managers emphasized the importance of fostering collaboration among

stakeholders for successful project management. Though their methods varied, all

participants agreed on the necessity of regular, clear communication. P1 focused on the

project manager's role as a communicator, emphasizing the project's importance to

various stakeholders, comparing the role as a “salesman, sharing ideas with

stakeholders.” P2, P3, and P5 highlighted the effectiveness of regular meetings and the

early involvement of all stakeholders. P2 found using PowerPoint presentations useful in

meetings for alignment, stating, “PowerPoint slides are great for collaboration”, given

that participants may interpret spoken information differently. P4 and P5 discussed the

necessity of coordinating with various team members and keeping track of action items to

ensure successful project execution. P5 highlighted a project that used a model review in

FEED and progress reviews throughout detail execution,

The project involved 30, 60, and 90 percent model reviews with representatives

from all disciplines, operations, and construction present. Our engineering partner

catered lunch to get 100% participation. These reviews were used to identify all

scope items, in detail, where all the interferences for the demo of existing and

installation of new exchangers. Through these early model reviews and field

walks, we identified a significant scope of structural changes needed to create the

lift window to support the heavier exchanger. The engineering partner kept a log

of the items discovered during the reviews and ensured they would be addressed

in their packages for demo and installation. The process was successful because it

prevented much discovery in the field. We did not have any scope changes to the

project.

Theme 4 correlates to the literature on stakeholder engagement and

communication, particularly concerning the dynamics of stakeholder engagement and its

pivotal role in facilitating successful project outcomes. The research conducted by

Ebekozien et al. (2023) underscored the value of efficient stakeholder engagement in not

only enhancing team collaboration but also in promoting the integration of project

delivery mechanisms. This finding resonates with the broader consensus in the literature,

as illustrated by Zaman et al. (2019), who asserted the critical importance of stakeholder

engagement and effective communication as foundational elements of project success.

Moreover, the dimension of leadership, specifically transformational leadership,

emerges as a significant factor in this discourse, with Shaukat et al. (2022) identifying its

contribution to project success through the lenses of enhanced communication and

collaboration. This form of leadership, characterized by its ability to inspire and motivate,

is a crucial role in navigating the complexities of project management by fostering an

environment conducive to success from multiple perspectives.

The findings from the interviews reveal a significant alignment with the

conceptual underpinnings of contingency theory, as McAdam et al. (2019) highlighted,

which posits situational adaptability and responsiveness as key factors in effective project

management. The emphasis placed by interviewees on adaptability, consistent

communication, and proactive stakeholder engagement not only echoes the principles of

contingency theory but also underscores the necessity of tailoring communication

strategies to meet the unique demands of each project and the preferences of its

stakeholders. This correlation suggests that the principles of contingency theory are not

merely theoretical constructs but are actively reflected in the practices and perspectives of

project management professionals, underscoring the theory's relevance in guiding project

management strategies toward addressing complexities effectively.

Furthermore, the integration of learning for sustainability initiatives, as discussed

by Silvestre et al. (2020), and the focus on stakeholder satisfaction mechanisms identified

by Maqbool et al. (2022) resonate with the themes of adaptability and stakeholder

involvement emphasized by the interviewees. These scholarly insights, together with the

observations on the importance of creativity and innovation in organizational success

from Chong and Duan (2022) and the conceptual framework for employee championing

behavior in organizational change by Islam et al. (2020), reinforce the practical

applications of contingency theory in project management. These findings collectively

highlight the importance of adaptability, effective communication, and stakeholder

engagement as fundamental to managing project complexities, providing a robust

foundation for future research directions and practical applications in project

management.

Application to Professional Practice

The study findings may provide business leaders and project managers with

strategies to address projects’ complexities and improve projects’ success rates. This

qualitative analysis revealed four themes central to the research question: a) proactive

complexity and risk management, b) knowledge and expertise utilization, c) project

planning and scope management, and d) stakeholder engagement and communication.

Business leaders and project managers may apply these strategies to create effective

processes and practices to improve project execution.

Leaders can implement early risk identification and mitigation protocols for

proactive complexity and risk management. This may be established by creating a culture

of preparedness that encourages looking ahead and anticipating potential issues through

open collaboration with supporting groups' internal and external core executing teams.

Regarding knowledge and expertise utilization, leaders can involve the team in

decisionmaking processes from the onset. Fostering an environment that values learning

from past project challenges and encourages early and thorough analysis during planning

phases. Sawyer and Harrison's (2019) findings underscore the importance of strong

managerial commitment, which can be translated into involving the team in

decisionmaking processes. In project planning and scope management, careful

management, and documentation of changes to the project’s scope, cost, or schedule can

prevent misunderstandings and set clear expectations. The influences of the power-

interest matrix and the critical success factors are pertinent to effective planning and

scope management (Maqbool et al., 2022). In stakeholder engagement and

communication, leaders can establish clear and regular communication with all

stakeholders to foster collaboration, emphasizing the importance of the project’s goals

and objectives. The moderating role of stakeholder engagement and team building

emphasizes the importance of stakeholder engagement in project success (Shaukat et al.,

2022).

Implications for Social Change

The results of this study have implications for positive social change by providing

the inclusion of project strategies among project managers and internal business units

(Montenegro et al., 2021). The identified strategies, such as preparedness, adaptability,

learning from failures, and effective communication, that can contribute to improved

project management practices. This, in turn, can lead to more successful projects,

positively impacting organizations and the individuals they serve. Moreover, the

emphasis on collaboration and peer reviews fosters a culture of knowledge sharing and

mutual learning (Siriram, 2022). This not only enhances individual competencies but also

strengthens the collective intelligence of the organization.

Furthermore, improved project outcomes can have far-reaching effects, including

increased customer satisfaction, job creation, and even societal advancements if the

projects are geared towards social good. Essentially, the study's findings can catalyze

beneficial change at individual, organizational, and societal levels. Additionally, the

inclusion of project strategies among project managers and internal business units

promotes a more inclusive and collaborative work environment, which is a key driver for

positive social change. The research and interview findings have significant implications

for social change, chiefly through improved project management practices, enhanced

collaboration, and the potential for far-reaching positive impacts from successful project

outcomes.

Recommendation for Action

The study findings support strategies used by project managers to proactively

identify complexities, utilize subject matter experts, and engage with stakeholders

throughout early planning. The study identified seven strategies for improving project

success rates. These strategies include: a) being prepared and organized, b) adapting

strategies based on complexity, c) learning from failures, d) engaging early and managing

risks, e) fostering effective communication and collaboration, f) mitigating scope creep,

and g) communicating with vendors to aid in integration. Business leaders and project

managers are recommended to apply these strategies to create effective processes and

practices to improve project execution.

A second recommendation is that organizations consider implementing a peer

review system among project managers. This will foster a culture of knowledge sharing,

enhance decision-making processes, and mitigate potential risks. This is particularly

relevant for business leaders, project management office (PMO) leaders, and project

managers. For example, before scheduling a meeting with business stakeholders for

phase 1 review, a peer review with another peer project manager. The review would be

an informal review of documents and a discussion of steps taken, objectives, apparent

complexity, and uncertainties. The informal discussion aims to facilitate conversation on

strategy, share past examples, and identify communication and collaboration

opportunities. The first initial benefit is to enhance decision-making by discussing

strategies, uncertainties, and complexities, potentially providing a fresh perspective and

ideas. The second benefit is knowledge sharing from the peer review, providing a

platform for sharing past experiences and learning for each other, leading to the adoption

of best practices across the organization. The long-term benefits are improved

communication and collaboration to foster better relationships among project managers

and increased quality.

The results of this study support the recommendations that project managers and

project management office leaders may find beneficial for their organizations. These

findings will be published in the literature so that employers, project managers, and

business leaders can benefit from them. Additionally, the findings may be available as a

resource at professional conferences or company training where project management

strategies are discussed. Finally, the study will be published in the ProQuest dissertation

database.

Recommendations for Further Research

Future research may reveal different results and findings if a different method or

design is used. Future researchers may use a larger sample size of participants. This could

provide a broader perspective and allow for more generalizable findings. Further studies

could try to include project managers with a diverse range of experiences, to gain insights

into how project management strategies differ based on experience levels. Given that the

projects executed by industrial chemical plant managers are more technical than other

industries, future research could explore the applicability of the findings in other less

technical industries. Research could be broadened to include other roles within the

industry that contribute to the project implementation process. For example,

representatives from supporting roles in the operations and reliability groups are involved

from the outset in developing project objectives by providing initial input. These

representatives are integral stakeholders throughout the project’s scope development and

execution phases. Exploring their roles in more detail could lead to significant

improvements in project success rates.

Reflections

This doctoral study in the field of business administration has significantly

enhanced my understanding of research methods, program and portfolio project

management, and the application of contingency theory to business issues. By completing

this DBA doctoral study, I gained a deeper understanding of my personal preconceptions

and reactions to participants. Additionally, I obtained new knowledge during the research

process. Before I began the DBA journey, I understood there was a gap in my current

knowledge of project management, but I was unsure how I could fill the void to be a

better project manager. After enrolling in the DBA program at Walden University and

engaging with the course work, in the second course, I began to see paths to closing my

knowledge gaps. I also began to understand the business environment and strategic

decision-making, justification for change, and the need for transparency throughout the

organization.

Fifteen years ago, a long-term goal was discussed with the intention of fulfilling a

personal aspiration and to acquire knowledge that would enable me to better support

others. On a personal level, I am hopeful that my story, with all its challenges and

triumphs, will serve as an inspiration to my children, family, friends, and colleagues. As a

professional, I take pride in my academic accomplishments and unwavering

determination to achieve my objectives.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight important strategies that project

managers can use to prevent project failures in detailed project execution, particularly in

the industrial chemical plant context. The findings emphasize the significance of

proactive complexity and risk management, utilization of knowledge and expertise,

comprehensive project planning and scope management, and effective stakeholder

engagement and communication. These strategies not only have a significant impact on

enhancing project success rates and individual and organizational competencies but also

help drive positive social change. The research reinforces the principles of contingency

theory, emphasizing the importance of being proactive, adaptable, and responsive to the

unique demands and intricacies of each project. Ultimately, the study gives project

managers a roadmap to navigate project complexities and improve project execution

effectively, contributing to the broader goal of organizational success and positive

societal impact.

Effective Project Management Strategies For Identifying And Addressing Projects' Complexities and Improving Projects' Success Rates

Students also viewed