THE RENAISSANCE
Beginning in Italy and spanning two centuries, the Renaissance emphasized
secularism, awareness of ties to the ancient Greek and Roman worlds, and the ability
of the individual. City-states became centers of political, economic, and social life.
Machiavelli influenced political thought, and Castiglione defined what made a perfect
Renaissance noble. The Renaissance affected everyone, from noble to peasant.
The Italian Renaissance
The word renaissance means “rebirth.” A number of people who lived in Italy
between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had witnessed a rebirth of the ancient
Greek and Roman worlds. To them, this rebirth marked a new age. Historians later
called this period the Renaissance, or Italian Renaissance—a period of European
history that began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. What are the most
important characteristics of the Renaissance? First, Renaissance Italy was largely an
urban society. As the Middle Ages progressed, powerful city-states became the
centers of Italian political, economic, and social life. Within this growing urban society,
a secular, or worldly, viewpoint emerged as increasing wealth created new enjoyment
of material things.
Second, the Renaissance was an age of recovery from the disasters of the
fourteenth century—the plague, political instability, and a decline of Church power.
Recovery went hand in hand with a rebirth of interest in ancient culture. Italian thinkers
became aware of their own Roman past—the remains of which were to be seen all
around them. They also became intensely interested in the culture that had dominated
the ancient Mediterranean world. This revival affected both politics and art. Third, a
new view of human beings emerged as people in the Italian Renaissance emphasized
individual ability. As Leon Battista Alberti, a fifteenth-century Italian, said, “Men can do
all things if they will.” A high regard for human worth and a realization of what
individuals could achieve created a new social ideal. The well-rounded, universal
person could achieve much in many areas. Leonardo da Vinci (VIHN•chee), for
example, was a painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, and mathematician.
Of course, not all parts of Italian society were directly affected by these three
general characteristics of the Italian Renaissance. The wealthy upper classes, who
made up a small percentage of the total population, more actively embraced the new
ideas and activities. Indirectly, however, the Italian Renaissance did have some impact
on ordinary people. Especially in the cities, many of the intellectual and artistic
achievements of the period were highly visible and difficult to ignore. The churches,
wealthy homes, and public buildings were decorated with art that celebrated religious
and secular themes, the human body, and an appreciation of classical antiquity.
The Italian States
During the Middle Ages, Italy had failed to develop a centralized monarchical
state. The lack of a single strong ruler made it possible for a number of city-states in
northern and central Italy to remain independent. Three of them—Milan, Venice, and
Florence—expanded and played crucial roles in Italian politics.
The Italian city-states prospered from a flourishing trade that had expanded in
the Middle Ages. Italian merchants had profited from the Crusades as well and were
able to set up new trading centers in eastern ports. There, the Italian merchants
obtained silks, sugar, and spices, which they carried back to Italy and the West. Milan
was one of the richest city-states in Italy. It was located in the north, at the crossroads
of the main trade routes from Italian coastal cities to the Alpine passes. In the
fourteenth century, members of the Visconti family established themselves as dukes
of Milan. They extended their power over all of Lombardy.
The last Visconti ruler of Milan died in 1447. Francesco Sforza then conquered
the city and became its new duke. Sforza led a band of mercenaries—soldiers who
sold their services to the highest bidder. Both the Visconti and Sforza rulers worked to
build a strong centralized state. By creating an efficient tax system, they generated
enormous revenues for the government. Venice was another major northern Italian
city-state. As a link between Asia and Western Europe, the city drew traders from all
over the world. Officially Venice was a republic with an elected leader called a doge.
In reality, a small group of wealthy merchant-aristocrats ran the government of Venice
for their benefit. Venice’s trade empire was tremendously profitable and made Venice
an international power. The republic of Florence dominated the region of Tuscany.
During the fourteenth century, a small but wealthy group of merchants established
control of the Florentine government. They waged a series of successful wars against
their neighbors and established Florence as a major city-state. In 1434, Cosimo de’
Medici (MEH•duh• chee) took control of the city. The wealthy Medici family ran the
government from behind the scenes. Using their wealth and personal influence,
Cosimo, and later Lorenzo de’ Medici, his grandson, dominated the city when Florence
was the cultural center of Italy. During the late 1400s, Florence experienced an
economic decline. Most of its economy was based on the manufacturing of cloth.
Increased competition from English and Flemish cloth makers drove down profits.
During this time a Dominican preacher named Girolamo Savonarola began
condemning the corruption and excesses of the Medici family. Citizens, tired of Medici
rule and frustrated by economic events, turned to Savonarola. So many people
followed him that the Medici family turned Florence over to his followers. Eventually
people tired of Savonarola’s strict regulations on gambling, horseracing, swearing,
painting, music, and books. Savonarola also attacked the corruption of the Church,
which angered the pope. In 1498, Savonarola was accused of heresy and sentenced
to death. The Medici family returned to power.
The Italian Wars
The growth of powerful monarchical states in the rest of Europe eventually led to
trouble for the Italian states. Attracted by the riches of Italy, the French king Charles
VIII led an army of 30,000 men into Italy in 1494. He occupied the kingdom of Naples
in southern Italy. Northern Italian states turned for help to the Spanish, who gladly
agreed to send soldiers to Italy. For the next 30 years, the French and the Spanish
battled in Italy as they fought to dominate the country. A decisive turning point in their
war came in 1527. On May 5, thousands of troops belonging to the Spanish king
Charles I, along with mercenaries from different countries, arrived at the city of Rome.
They had not been paid for months. When they yelled, “Money! Money!” their leader
responded, “If you have ever dreamed of pillaging a town and laying hold of its
treasures, here now is one, the richest of them all, queen of the world.” The next day
the invading forces smashed the gates and pushed into the city. The troops went
berserk in a frenzy of bloodshed and looting. The terrible sack of Rome in 1527 by the
armies of the Spanish king Charles I ended the Italian wars and left the Spanish a
dominant force in Italy.
Machiavelli on Power
No one gave better expression to the Italians’ love affair with political power than
Niccolò Machiavelli (ma•kee•uh• VEH•lee). His book The Prince is one of the most
influential works on political power in the Western world. Machiavelli’s central thesis in
The Prince concerns how to acquire—and keep— political power. In the Middle Ages,
many writers on political power had stressed the moral side of a prince’s activity—how
a ruler ought to behave based on Christian principles. Machiavelli rejected this popular
approach. He believed that morality had little to do with politics. From Machiavelli’s
point of view, a prince’s attitude toward power must be based on an understanding of
human nature, which he believed was basically self-centered. Political activity,
therefore, should not be restricted by moral principles. A prince acts on behalf of the
state. According to Machiavelli, then, for the state’s sake, a prince must be willing to
let his conscience sleep. Machiavelli was among the first to abandon morality as the
basis for analyzing political activity. His views have had a profound influence on
political leaders who followed.
Renaissance Society
In the Middle Ages, society was divided into three estates, or social classes.
Although this social order continued into the Renaissance, some changes became
evident.
The Nobility
Although many European nobles faced declining incomes prior to the
Renaissance, many had retained their lands and titles. By 1500, nobles, old and new,
again dominated society. Making up only 2 to 3 percent of the population in most
countries, nobles held important political posts and served as advisers to the king.
Nobles, or aristocrats, were expected to fulfill certain ideals. The characteristics of a
perfect Renaissance noble were expressed in The Book of the Courtier, written by
Baldassare Castiglione (kahs•teel•YOH• nay), an Italian, in 1528. First, a noble was
born, not made. He must have character, grace, and talent. Second, the noble had to
be a warrior, but also needed a classical education and interest in the arts. Third, the
noble had to follow a certain standard of conduct.
The aim of the perfect noble was to serve his prince in an effective and honest
way. Nobles would adhere to Castiglione’s principles for hundreds of years while they
continued to dominate European social and political life.
Peasants and Townspeople
In the Renaissance, peasants still constituted 85 to 90 percent of the total
European population. Serfdom continued to decrease with the decline of the manorial
system. By 1500, especially in western Europe, more and more peasants became
legally free. Townspeople made up the rest of the third estate. At the top of urban
society were the patricians. With their wealth from trade, industry, and banking, they
dominated their communities. Below them were the burghers—the shopkeepers,
artisans, guild masters, and guild members. Below the burghers were the workers,
who earned pitiful wages, and the unemployed. Both groups lived miserable lives.
These people made up perhaps 30 or 40 percent of the urban population. During the
late 1300s and the 1400s, urban poverty increased dramatically throughout Europe.
Family and Marriage
The family bond was a source of great security. Parents carefully arranged
marriages to strengthen business or family ties. Often they worked out the details
when their children were only two or three years old. The marriage contract included
a dowry, a sum of money that the wife’s family gave to the husband upon marriage.
The father-husband was the center of the Italian family. He managed all finances (his
wife had no share in his wealth) and made the decisions that determined his children’s
lives. The mother’s chief role was to supervise the household. A father had absolute
authority over his children until he died or formally freed them. In Renaissance Italy,
children did not become adults at a certain age. Instead, they became adults when
their fathers went before a judge to free them. Adulthood age varied from the early
teens to the late twenties.
