DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS
The second-largest contingent on Earth, Africa includes a dazzling array of
landforms, from rugged mountains to vast river basins and deep canyons. Its climate
varies from region to region, from mild climates suitable for farming to rain forests and
arid deserts. Both Africa’s landforms and climate zones influence the ways in which its
people live.
The Impact of Geography
The landforms and climates of Africa presented both challenges and
opportunities to its early civilizations.
Landforms
After Asia, Africa is the largest of the continents. It stretches nearly 5,000 miles
(around 8,000 km) from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Cape of Good Hope
in the south. The continent is almost completely surrounded by two oceans and two
seas. As diverse as it is vast, Africa includes several distinct geographical zones. The
northern fringe, on the coast washed by the Mediterranean Sea, is mountainous along
much of its length. South of the mountains lies the largest desert on Earth, the Sahara,
which stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean. To the east is the Nile
River, heart of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Beyond that lies the Red Sea,
separating Africa from Asia. Africa south of the Sahara is divided into a number of
major regions. In the west is the so-called hump of Africa, which juts like a massive
shoulder into the Atlantic Ocean. Here the Sahara gradually gives way to grasslands
in the interior and then to tropical jungles along the coast. Far to the east is a very
different terrain of snow-capped mountains, upland plateaus, and lakes. A distinctive
feature is the Great Rift Valley, where mountains loom over deep canyons. Much of
this region is grassland populated by wild animals. Farther to the south lies the Congo
basin, with its dense vegetation watered by the mighty Congo River. The tropical rain
forests of this area then fade gradually into the hills, plateaus (relatively high, flat land
areas), and deserts of the south.
Climate
Africa includes four distinct climate zones. A mild climate zone stretches across
the northern coast and southern tip of Africa. Moderate rainfall, warm temperatures,
and fertile land produce abundant crops that can support large populations. Deserts
form another climate zone, covering about 40 percent of Africa. The Sahara in the
north and the Kalahari in the south are the two largest deserts. A third climate zone is
the rain forest that stretches along the equator and makes up about 10 percent of the
continent. Heavy rains and warm temperatures produce dense forests where little
farming and little travel are possible. The rain forest is home to the tsetse (SET•see)
fly, which infects both animals and humans with sleeping sickness. Savannas, broad
grasslands dotted with small trees and shrubs, exist both north and south of the rain
forest. They cover perhaps 40 percent of Africa’s land area. The savannas get enough
rainfall for farming and herding, but the rain is unreliable.
Emerging Civilizations and Religions
About seven or eight thousand years ago, hunters and gatherers in Africa began
to tame animals and grow crops. The mastery of farming, called the Agricultural
Revolution, gave rise to Africa’s first civilizations, including Egypt (discussed in
Chapter 2), Kush, and Axum.
Kush
By 2000 b.c., a busy trade had arisen between Egypt and the area to the south
known as Nubia. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to obtain ivory, ebony,
frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and leopard skins. Although Nubia was subject to
Egyptian control for many centuries, it freed itself around 1000 b.c. and became the
independent state of Kush. In 750 b.c., Kush conquered Egypt. In 663 b.c., however,
the Kushites, who were still using bronze and stone weapons, were overwhelmed by
the Assyrians, who were armed with iron spears and swords. The Kushites, driven out
of Egypt, returned to their original lands in the upper Nile valley.
The economy of Kush was based on farming at first. Kush soon emerged,
however, as one of the major trading states in the region, with its center at the city of
Meroë (MEHR•oh•wee). Meroë was located where a newly opened land route across
the desert to the north crossed the Nile. Meroë had abundant iron ore resources.
Having learned iron ore smelting from the Assyrians, the Kushites made iron weapons
and tools. For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major trading empire. Kush
provided iron products, ivory, gold, ebony, and slaves from central and eastern Africa
to the Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. In return, the Kushites received luxury goods
from India and Arabia. It seems likely that Kushite society was mostly urban. At first,
state authorities probably controlled foreign trade. Extensive luxury goods found in
private tombs indicate that material prosperity was relatively widespread.
Axum
Kush flourished from about 250 b.c. to about a.d. 150 but declined because of
the rise of Axum. Located in what is now Ethiopia, Axum was founded by Arabs and
combined Arab and African cultures. Axum owed its prosperity to its location along the
Red Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterranean. Axum exported
ivory, frankincense, myrrh, and slaves. It imported textiles, metal goods, wine, and
olive oil. For a time, Axum competed with the neighboring state of Kush for control of
the ivory trade. Probably as a result of this competition for ivory, in the fourth century
a.d., King ‘Eza¯na¯, the Axumite ruler, invaded and conquered Kush. Perhaps the
most distinctive feature of Axumite civilization was its religion. About a.d. 330, King
‘Eza¯na¯ converted to Christianity, which was first brought to Axum by shipwrecked
Syrians. The king made Christianity Axum’s official religion. Within a few centuries, a
new religion—Islam— brought profound challenges to the kingdom.
Rise of Islam
Islam rose from the Arabian Peninsula, and then spread across the region. In
641, Arab forces captured Egypt. By the early 700s, Arabs ruled North Africa’s coast
west to the Strait of Gibraltar. Muslim states also occupied lands along the Red Sea.
Their relationship with Christian Axum was relatively peaceful. Beginning in the twelfth
century, Muslim states moved inland to gain control over the trade in slaves and ivory.
Axum fought back. By the early fifteenth century, Axum had become involved in a
growing conflict with the Muslim state of Adal, located at the point where the Indian
Ocean meets the Red Sea.
