The New Nation, 1783 - 1815
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
At the successful conclusion of the Revolutionary War with Great Britain in 1783, an
American could look back and reflect on the truly revolutionary events that had occurred in the
preceding three decades. In that period American colonists had first helped the British win a
global struggle with France. Soon, however, troubles surfaced as Britain began to assert tighter
control of its North American colonies. Eventually, these troubles led to a struggle in which
American colonists severed their colonial ties with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Americans began
to experiment with new forms of self-government. This movement occurred in both the
Continental Congress during the Revolution and at the local and state levels.
After winning their independence, Americans continued to experiment with how to govern
themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Over time, some influential groups--and these
by no means reflected the sentiments of all Americans--found the Confederation government
inadequate. Representatives of these groups came together in Philadelphia to explore the creation
of yet another, newer form of government. The result was a new constitution. Not all Americans
embraced this new Constitution, however, and ratification of the document produced many
disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place,
Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the
new republic.
Although Washington proved to be personally popular and respected, conflict over the
proper functions and locus of governmental power dominated his two terms as president. These
disputes soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties that were deeply divided
over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very
future of the new nation. Events during the single term of John Adams, our second president,
made these divisions even worse and they continued into the presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(1801-1809).
Even so, President Jefferson nearly doubled the size of the new nation by purchasing the
Louisiana Territory from France. This purchase also led Jefferson to form the Lewis and Clark
expedition to discover just what was contained in the new land. Jefferson's successor as
President, James Madison (1809-1817)--one of authors of the constitution--led the new nation
through another war with Great Britain. This, of course, was the unpopular War of 1812. This
war ended in 1815 and if nothing else it convinced Britain that the United States was on the map
to stay. Meanwhile, Americans began to develop a culture and way of life that was truly their
own and no longer that of mere colonials.
Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government
In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central
government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose
alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed
until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the
western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western
lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to
give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the
Articles of Confederation were adopted.
The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of
delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the
domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless
of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to
pass.
Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs;
request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and
settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and
levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in
Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on
its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life.
Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.
