Revolutionary War: Northern Front, 1775-1777
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
In the first eighteen months of armed conflict with the British (the conflict would not
become a "war for independence" until July 4, 1776), Washington had begun to create an army
and forced the British army in Boston to evacuate that city in March 1776. The major question
after their evacuation was what they would do next. Washington was almost certain that the
British would attack New York, since that position was of critical importance for their operations
both North and South. Besides, that is what he would have done had he been in Sir William
Howe's shoes.
Even though his premonition eventually proved true, British intentions did not become
clear until their fleet descended upon New York in August 1776. For a variety of reasons,
Washington and his generals made a number of mistakes during the engagements in the New
York area. These mistakes and Britain's far superior naval power led to decided British victories
on Long Island and on Manhattan. Had the British commanders been a bit more aggressive, their
naval power might have put the Continental Army at great risk of total defeat.
After Washington was driven from Manhattan, his army fought Howe's forces to a
standstill at White Plains. Even so, the British were now in control of New York City. Again, the
question became, what would the British do next? Washington thought the logical next step for
them to do was to move on Philadelphia, so he moved most of his army south into New Jersey.
Indeed, British forces under General Charles Lord Cornwallis chased and harrassed the
Continentals all the way through New Jersey. When Washington's army reached Trenton Falls,
their fortunes seemed at low ebb. Surprisingly, at that point Howe ordered his army into winter
quarters rather than attacking the Americans. Seizing the opportunity Howe presented him,
Washington counterattacked at Trenton in late December 1776 and then at Princeton in early
1777.
What Washington had done in nine days was truly staggering. Just when many Americans
thought all was lost, Washington had produced two major victories over one of the world's most
powerful armies. Trenton and Princeton tended to put to rest the second-guessing about
Washington's leadership, a belief that had grown as the Continental Army suffered defeats in
New York and then retreated through New Jersey. These victories had also been watched closely
by many European leaders; they now came to view Washington as an adroit and able
commander.
On the other hand, the British were not impressed with Washington's accomplishments. All
in all, Lord North thought 1776 had been a very good year for the British. They had retained
Canada and captured New York City, their losses of soldiers had not been great, and nearly
40,000 loyalists had received pardons from Howe. British leaders would also have been
heartened had they fully known what Washington knew about the chronic problems experienced
by the Continental Army. Washington was continually concerned with problems of the militia,
recruits, and deserters and he constantly reminded Congress of the need for a standing
professional army and a better system of supply.
Revolutionary War: The Turning Point, 1776-1777
In 1777, the British were still in excellent position to quell the rebellion. Had it not been for
a variety of mistakes, they probably could have won the war.
During early 1777, British officials considered a number of plans for their upcoming
campaign. One they apparently decided upon was to campaign through the Hudson River Valley
and thereby cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. General William Howe was to
drive north from New York City while General John Burgoyne was to drive south from Canada.
Meanwhile, British General Barry St. Leger would drive down the Mohawk Valley in upstate
New York. The major problem was not with the plan but with its execution. Historians continue
to debate whether Howe was ill-informed or simply acted on his own. Whatever the reasons,
Howe decided to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, rather than to work
in concert with Burgoyne and St. Leger.
Howe hoped that by seizing Philadelphia, he would rally the Loyalists in Pennsylvania,
discourage the rebels by capturing their capital, and bring the war to a speedy conclusion.
Washington tried to thwart Howe's plan, but Howe out-maneuvered him at Brandywine Creek
and then at Germantown. While Howe's forces settled into winter quarters in Philadelphia, the
Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, the army faced deprivation
in the extreme.
Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne and St. Leger suffered significant defeats at Oriskany,
New York; Bennington, Vermont; and finally at Saratoga, New York. These American victories
were critical for they helped convince France to recognize American independence and brought
the French directly into the war as military allies. The French Treaty was also a result of a new
British peace proposal, announced by Lord North in late 1777. The French were concerned that
the Americans would agree to North's proposal since it offered them virtual autonomy within the
British Empire. The French Alliance changed the face of the war for the British; the American
war for independence was now in essence a world war. Even so, as many of the documents listed
to the right suggest, winning the war even after the French Treaty was still not a certainty.
