Arizona State University
HST 334 African American history since 1865
Unit II Lecture Notes
Spring 2022
Jim Crow Laws and Segregation in the United States
The origins and history of Jim Crow laws in the United States, including their impact on Black
Americans and their legal justification.
The Origins and History of Jim Crow Laws in the United States
Examining the impact of Jim Crow laws on Black Americans and their legal justification
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States that enforced racial segregation and
discrimination against African Americans from the late 1800s until the mid-1960s. These laws
had a profound impact on Black Americans and their communities, shaping their experiences of
social, economic, and political exclusion and marginalization.
The Historical Context of Jim Crow Laws
Jim Crow laws emerged in the context of the post-Civil War Reconstruction period, as white
Southern politicians sought to reestablish a system of racial hierarchy and control in the wake of
emancipation and the end of slavery.
Many Southern states passed Black Codes, which were laws designed to restrict the
freedom and mobility of African Americans, including restrictions on their ability to own
property, to vote, and to move freely.
The Supreme Court's 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which upheld the
constitutionality of "separate but equal" segregation, provided a legal justification for Jim
Crow laws and allowed for their widespread implementation throughout the South.
The Impact of Jim Crow Laws on Black Americans
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Jim Crow laws had a devastating impact on Black Americans and their communities, creating a
system of racial segregation and discrimination that denied them access to education, jobs,
housing, and political power.
Schools were segregated, with Black students receiving inferior resources and education
compared to their white counterparts.
Housing discrimination was rampant, with Black Americans being excluded from many
neighborhoods and forced into overcrowded and substandard housing.
Voting rights were systematically suppressed through a range of tactics, including poll
taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation.
The Legal Challenge to Jim Crow Laws
Throughout the early 20th century, Black Americans and their allies challenged the legality and
morality of Jim Crow laws, through both legal and grassroots activism.
The NAACP, founded in 1909, brought a series of legal challenges to Jim Crow laws,
including the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, which struck down
segregation in public schools.
Civil rights activists like Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Ella Baker organized
protests, boycotts, and other forms of direct action to challenge the legitimacy of Jim
Crow laws and demand greater racial justice and equality.
The history of Jim Crow laws in the United States is a dark chapter in the country's history,
reflecting a system of racial oppression and discrimination that has had lasting impacts on
Black Americans and their communities. By examining this history, we gain a deeper
understanding of the ongoing struggle for racial justice and equality in America today.
The cultural and social norms that supported segregation in the United States, including
the role of the media, religion, and popular culture
The Cultural and Social Norms that Supported Segregation in the United States
Examining the role of media, religion, and popular culture
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The system of racial segregation and discrimination that emerged in the United States in the late
1800s and persisted until the mid-1960s was not only supported by law but also by deeply
ingrained cultural and social norms. These norms were perpetuated and reinforced through a
range of cultural institutions, including the media, religion, and popular culture.
The Role of Media in Supporting Segregation
Media played a critical role in promoting and sustaining the norms of segregation in the United
States, through both explicit and implicit messaging.
Newspapers and magazines regularly published articles and editorials that portrayed
Black Americans as inferior and in need of white paternalism and control.
Hollywood films often depicted Black Americans in stereotypical and subservient roles,
reinforcing negative racial attitudes and stereotypes.
Radio and television programs were similarly complicit in promoting segregationist
norms, with programs like Amos 'n' Andy perpetuating negative stereotypes of Black
Americans.
The Role of Religion in Supporting Segregation
Religion was also a powerful force in maintaining the cultural and social norms of segregation in
the United States, particularly in the South.
Many white Southern churches embraced a theology of racial hierarchy and segregation,
using the Bible to justify their beliefs and practices.
The Southern Baptist Convention, for example, was founded in part over disagreements
about the role of slavery in the church, and continued to defend segregation throughout
much of the 20th century.
Black churches, on the other hand, often served as important centers of resistance and
activism against segregation, providing a space for organizing and community-building
among Black Americans.
The Role of Popular Culture in Supporting Segregation
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Popular culture, including music, literature, and sports, also played a significant role in
perpetuating the cultural and social norms of segregation in the United States.
The popularity of minstrel shows, which featured white performers in blackface
caricaturing Black Americans, reflected and reinforced negative racial attitudes and
stereotypes.
The world of professional sports was also deeply segregated, with Black athletes often
excluded from major leagues and championships.
The literary world was similarly divided, with few opportunities for Black authors to
publish their work and gain recognition.
The Challenge to Segregationist Norms
Despite the powerful cultural and social norms that supported segregation in the United States,
there were also significant challenges to these norms, from within and outside of the African
American community.
Black writers and artists, such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston, challenged
the dominant cultural narrative of Black inferiority and white superiority through their
literary and artistic works.
Civil rights activists like Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks mobilized grassroots
movements to challenge the legitimacy of segregationist norms and demand greater racial
justice and equality.
Religious leaders, such as the Rev. Martin Luther King Sr. and the Rev. William Barber,
have also played important roles in challenging the theology of racial hierarchy that
supported segregation.
The cultural and social norms that supported segregation in the United States were deeply
entrenched and pervasive, but they were also subject to challenge and change. By examining the
ways in which these norms were perpetuated and resisted, we gain a deeper understanding of the
complex history of race and racism in the United States, and the ongoing struggle for racial
justice and equality today.
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The impact of segregation on education in the United States, including the disparities in
funding and resources between Black and white schools
The impact of segregation on education in the United States has been far-reaching, and its effects
can still be felt today. This subtopic will explore the disparities in funding and resources between
Black and white schools during the era of segregation and how it has affected the educational
opportunities of Black students. It will also examine the efforts to desegregate schools and the
challenges that were faced.
The Disparities in Funding and Resources between Black and White Schools
Prior to the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, Black schools were often
severely underfunded and lacked resources such as textbooks, libraries, and laboratory
equipment (Anderson, 2017).
In the Jim Crow South, Black schools were often little more than dilapidated shacks,
while white schools had modern facilities and a full range of educational resources
(Anderson, 2017).
Black teachers were also paid far less than their white counterparts, which made it
difficult for Black schools to attract and retain qualified teachers (Anderson, 2017).
The disparities in funding and resources between Black and white schools resulted in a
significant achievement gap between Black and white students (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
The Impact of Segregation on Educational Opportunities for Black Students
Segregation had a profound impact on the educational opportunities of Black students.
Black students were often denied access to higher education and were forced to attend
underfunded, segregated schools (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
Segregated schools were often overcrowded and lacked basic resources, which made it
difficult for Black students to receive a quality education (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
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Segregation also had a psychological impact on Black students, who were often made to
feel inferior to their white peers (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
The achievement gap between Black and white students persisted even after the Brown v.
Board of Education decision, as many school districts resisted desegregation (Orfield &
Lee, 2007).
Efforts to Desegregate Schools
The Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954 was a landmark moment in the fight
for desegregation. The decision declared that separate educational facilities were
inherently unequal and unconstitutional (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
Despite the decision, many school districts resisted desegregation and continued to
operate segregated schools. This led to a series of legal battles and protests (Orfield &
Lee, 2007).
In 1957, the Little Rock Nine became the first Black students to attend an all-white high
school in Little Rock, Arkansas. The students faced significant resistance and were met
with violence from white mobs (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
were both instrumental in the desegregation of schools. These laws provided funding for
schools and prohibited discrimination based on race (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
Challenges to Desegregation
Despite efforts to desegregate schools, many school districts remained segregated well
into the 1970s and beyond (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
White flight, or the phenomenon of white families moving out of neighborhoods when
they became integrated, led to further segregation in some areas (Orfield & Lee, 2007).
In recent years, there has been a push to resegregate schools through policies such as
school choice and the privatization of education (Welner, 2017).
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The impact of segregation on education in the United States has been significant and long-
lasting. The disparities in funding and resources between Black and white schools have led to a
persistent achievement gap between Black and white students.
The role of activism and resistance in the fight against segregation, including key figures
and events in the Civil Rights Movement.
The Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal moment in American history, where activists
and organizers fought against segregation and discrimination to bring about social justice
and equality.
The movement was characterized by a variety of tactics and strategies, ranging from
nonviolent civil disobedience to legal challenges and protests.
Key Figures in the Civil Rights Movement:
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement,
advocating for nonviolent resistance and peaceful protest.
Rosa Parks, who famously refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus,
became a symbol of resistance to segregation.
Malcolm X, while initially advocating for more aggressive tactics, later became an
important figure in the Civil Rights Movement, focusing on Black nationalism and self-
determination.
Nonviolent Civil Disobedience:
The tactic of nonviolent civil disobedience was a key strategy of the Civil Rights
Movement, which involved breaking unjust laws through peaceful protest.
The sit-in movement, where Black protesters would sit at segregated lunch counters and
refuse to leave, was one example of nonviolent civil disobedience.
Other forms of nonviolent protest included marches, boycotts, and freedom rides.
Legal Challenges:
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Legal challenges were also an important aspect of the fight against segregation, with
organizations like the NAACP and lawyers like Thurgood Marshall working to challenge
discriminatory laws in court.
The landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, which declared segregation in public
schools to be unconstitutional, was a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement.
Other legal challenges focused on voting rights, housing discrimination, and employment
discrimination.
Protests and Demonstrations:
Protests and demonstrations were another important strategy used in the Civil Rights
Movement, with events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington
drawing national attention to the cause.
The Birmingham campaign, which involved a series of protests and demonstrations
aimed at ending segregation in the city, was a turning point in the movement.
The Selma to Montgomery march, which culminated in the passage of the Voting Rights
Act, was another significant event in the fight against segregation.
The Civil Rights Movement was a powerful example of the impact of activism and
resistance in the fight against segregation and discrimination.
Through a combination of nonviolent civil disobedience, legal challenges, and protests,
activists and organizers were able to bring about significant change and pave the way for
a more just and equal society.
The economic impact of segregation, including the ways in which Black Americans were
excluded from jobs and housing opportunities.
Segregation had a significant impact on the economic opportunities available to Black
Americans in the United States.
This subtopic will examine the ways in which segregation affected employment, housing,
and wealth accumulation.
Employment:
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Segregation created significant disparities in employment opportunities between Black
and white Americans.
Black Americans were often relegated to low-paying jobs with limited opportunities for
advancement.
Discrimination in hiring practices and job training programs also limited economic
mobility for Black workers.
As a result, the unemployment rate for Black Americans remained consistently higher
than that of white Americans for much of the 20th century.
In a study by William Darity and Darrick Hamilton, they found that the persistently high
unemployment rates for Black Americans is not due to their education or lack of effort,
but due to the discriminatory practices in hiring and promotions.
Housing:
Segregation also had a significant impact on housing opportunities for Black Americans.
Housing discrimination, such as redlining, limited access to quality housing and
opportunities for home ownership.
Redlining was a discriminatory practice used by banks and government agencies to deny
loans and insurance to Black Americans who lived in specific areas designated as high
risk.
This led to a concentration of poverty and limited access to resources such as good
schools and health care, which further limited economic opportunities for Black
Americans.
A study by the National Community Reinvestment Coalition found that mortgage lending
discrimination was still a problem in the 21st century, with Black Americans being twice
as likely as white Americans to be denied a mortgage.
Wealth Accumulation:
Segregation also had a significant impact on wealth accumulation for Black Americans.
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Limited access to quality employment and housing opportunities meant that Black
Americans were often unable to accumulate wealth through homeownership or
investments.
As a result, the racial wealth gap between Black and white Americans widened over time.
In a study by the Institute for Policy Studies, they found that the median wealth of white
households is 20 times that of Black households and 18 times that of Latinx households.
Discriminatory policies such as redlining and discriminatory lending practices have
contributed to the wealth gap and continue to affect Black Americans today.
Segregation had a significant impact on the economic opportunities available to Black
Americans in the United States.
Discrimination in employment, housing, and lending practices limited economic mobility
and wealth accumulation for Black Americans.
The persistent racial wealth gap between Black and white Americans is a legacy of
segregation and discriminatory policies that continue to affect Black Americans today.
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References
Branch, T. (1989). Parting the waters: America in the King years, 1954-63. Simon and Schuster.
C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955)
Carson, C. (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Harvard
University Press.
Darity, W. A., Jr., & Hamilton, D. (2018). Segregation, discrimination and African American
unemployment. The Review of Black Political Economy, 45(1), 7-26.
Garrow, D. J. (1986). Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian
Leadership Conference. William Morrow.
J. Ronald Engel, Freedom to Express: Opposition to Racial Segregation in the Northern Press,
1945-1960 (1987)
Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,"
Journal of American History (2005)
Leffler, M. P. (2007). The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to
Wounded Knee. Oxford University Press.
National Community Reinvestment Coalition. (2018). Modern-day redlining: Racial
discrimination in mortgage lending. Retrieved from https://ncrc.org/modern-day-
redlining/.
Paul Harvey, "The Southernization of American Religion Revisited," Church History (2005)
Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in
America (200
Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, Understanding Words That Wound (2004)
Shapiro, T. M., Meschede, T., & Osoro, S. (2013). The roots of the widening racial wealth gap:
Explaining the black-white economic divide. Research and Policy Brief. Institute for
Policy Studies.
Sitkoff, H. (2008). The struggle for Black equality. Hill and Wang.
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Williams, R. C. (2016). Housing discrimination and residential segregation as drivers of the
black/white wealth gap. Race and Social Problems, 8(1), 69-79.
Zinn, H. (2003). A People's History of the United States. HarperCollins.
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