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THE ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN DISSEMINATING EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC
KNOWLEDGE IN QING CHINA
Introduction
Historical context of European scientific knowledge entering Qing China
The adoption of European scientific knowledge to China began most of the times during
the Qing dynasty in the period of 17th up to the 19th century. This was the era in which China
was under the rule of Manchu people and the Qing dynasty was formed following the conquest
of China by the Manchu in the year 1644 as noted by Waley-Cohen (1993). The Qing emperors
needed knowledge in some fields of western science and technique; astronomy, mathematics,
military science which in their opinion would strengthen them to be rightful rulers of China
(Elman, 2005: 2). However, they intended to control the inflow of knowledge with the purpose
of minimizing the impact of the west on China. Thus the European scientific thoughts and books
including those of the early seventeenth century entered China particularly through the Catholic
missionaries (Liu, 1995). The first among them was Matteo Ricci an Italian Jesuit who managed
to learn Chinese language and who attempted to have the Chinese etiquette and was able to
introduce simple scientific concepts to the Chinese scholar officials (Spence, 1990). This is
exactly what Ricci did; he aimed at the upper classes, at the Chinese’s head and hearts, at their
minds and their reason; and what he did to get to them was to propose a Christianity that looks
like science — much like what was done by Galileo back in Italy. Other missionaries brought
western mathematical and astronomical books to China, this way Chinese people had something
to be interested in the fields of (Waley-Cohen, 1993).
In the early 18th century during the rule of Qianlong Emperor European science was
spread at a faster rate since Qianlong had a fascination with new inventions, mechanical objects
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as well as detailed works (Chang, 1964). From the records of the Qianlong reign, it is evident
that the court utilized missionaries for their superiority in such disciplines as painting especially
rural scenery, water resources management, casting bronze guns and erecting palaces and garden
with European architecture (Guy, 1987). They resulted into such desired items like fascination of
Manchu aristocrats by European paintings, clocks, musical instruments and glasses (Rawski,
1998).
During the early period of the 19th century Europeans especially British diplomats and
traders after the Opium Wars continued to disseminate European knowledge to support
colonialism in China (Hevia, 1995). They began the institution for translating the European
work, for educating western science and language and for converting Chinese (Wong, 1998).
Chinese reformers and early modernizers in the 19th century, Wei Yuan in particular, required
useful information about Europe in terms of ships, weapons and trade for the Chinese to repel
colonization. During the ‘Self-Strengthening Movement’ towards the end of the nineteenth
century, China embraced the western science and technology as a way of preserving the nation
(Wright, 1957). It means that the reception of European science in the Qing dynasty were
through the catholic missionaries, the appointment of the Jesuits by the Qianlong Emperor,
British colonial establishments and the Chinese modernization movement (Elman, 2005). The
knowledge and understanding the Europeans had about the world was especially adopted the
knowledge in a manner that would make them stronger and culture the Chinese imperialist
culture was greatly upheld which was reflected by the quimng court (Waley-Cohen, 1993).
Elman (2005), concludes that it influenced subsequent efforts of Chinese modernization that
were based on the selective adoption of the Western utilitarian knowledge.
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Significance of translation in facilitating cross-cultural scientific exchange
According to Smith (2022), it is importance for there to be some form of cross-lingual
transfer of content to encourage exchange of science concepts and ideas between nations. The
last social factor to consider is that most scientific research covers several countries and
continents since globalization has embraced cross-national research (Smith, 2022), and for the
study to be understood correctly, its results need to be translated from one language to another.
Thus, the translation does not only mean the exchange of languages but also approach to cultures
in terms of terminology, representations of concepts, discourse, and scientific paradigms (Wang,
2021).
Translation then make knowledge in the sciences readily understandable and accessible
all over the world. Synthesized research methodologies, data, and conclusions can be presented
by researches themselves no matter what their native language is. This in turn fosters innovation
since researchers use ideas and practices from different context to create new knowledge (Lee &
Park, 2020). Hear how countries are trying to outdo each other in coming up with a vaccine for
coronavirus. International cooperation and quickly translated work were critical to study the
novel coronavirus and develop the vaccines that would be needed to live in a post-pandemic
world within a brief period (Taylor, 2021).
This misinterpretation just hinders scientific progress in a very deep-seated manner. This
is especially important since small mistakes are possible in repetition of experiments or in
interpretation of the results (Taylor, 2021). For example, Wang (2021) gives an account of a case
whereby English-translated copies of procedures of chemical reactions did not contain some
specifications as presented in the source text in Chinese, a factor that caused the failure of the
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ensuing syntheses of the reactions. If such nuances are not explained through human translation
checking on a daily basis, conclusions can’t go through the language barrier successfully.
On cultural level, there are also variations to this extent regarding the manner of
communicating about the science and this consequently requires a proactive translation to ensure
that the intended message as incorporated in reference is not misinterpreted due to cultural
differences. It is important to state that rhetoric, presentation of process and conclusions and
stressing ideas depends on cultural backgrounds (Lee & Park, 2020). For example, writing in
academic English does not have to be as obscure as it is in Korean and has specific perspectives
to support one’s assumption In contrast, Korean writing much context and relies heavily on
implications – switching between these two means understanding these two (Smith, 2022). Thus,
competence is a quality which is required into translation as it requires both, language and
culture. With the boost on the use of machine translation, it results in the rate of raw conversions
and fails to convey most specifics which is very vital in the correct and efficient dissemination of
scientific information (Wang, 2021). Hence, there is still the need for human input in the
dissection of the degree of accuracy. More complex approaches that is proposed, is the use of
combined teams, where source language translators and target language translators, who offer
technically correct with natural and normal, stylistically way of translating the technical
information (Taylor, 2021).
Through the analysis of these parts a definition and a title for world science is provided:
World science needs a language. Despite the challenges that are involved in the process of
translation, these are some of the things that should be regarded as a challenge to work harder
towards achieving the set goal. This means that scientists who can teach and explain these
phenomenon, terms and processes for understanding across different cultures and languages can
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bring about change that is location free and hence foster the advancement of scientific
knowledge.
Establishment of Translation Institutions in Qing China
Formation and operations of the Jiangnan Arsenal's Translation Division
The Jiangnan Arsenal was established in Shanghai in 1856 as one of China’s first and
largest modern armaments factories of the late Qing period. During the mid-to-late 1800s as the
Chinese threat from foreign powers increased, the Qing government realized the need to acquire
western military information and technology (Wright, 1957). This led to the establishment of a
foreign language division in 1867 in the Jiangnan Arsenal to purchase and translate western
works on manufacturing modern weapons and equipments (Chen, 2013).
The Jiangnan Translation Division can be viewed as one of the first conscious efforts of
the Chinese government in its efforts to absorb western military science and technology. Wright
(1957) observed that “the translation office offered the Jiangnan Arsenal a continuous stream of
knowledge on Western technology, without which the development of ordnance manufacturing
in Shanghai could not have been realised” (p.215). The division was manned by Chinese
interpreters under the control of European directors familiar with languages such as English,
German and French. In this process, the translators tried to translate foreign military manuals,
weapon diagrams, machinery illustrations and other scientific books into Chinese (Chen, 2013).
The materials translated included such areas as: Many industries, such as “Gunnery,
rifled muskets, gunpowder manufacture, percussion caps, bullets, fuses, metal alloys, etc. ” and
others where industries cut down their workforce (Wright, 1957, p. 216). It is interesting to note
that in some cases word-for-word translation was impossible for Wright and sometimes there
were phrases or terms or concepts which where not existent in Chinese and so the translators had
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to explain this as well. It also translated some of the works of the Chinese language to English
and other languages so that they could know more and the knowledge spread further as per Chen
(2013). A great amount of attention was paid toward such specimens as machining, equipment
operation and manufacturing. Chen (2013) opened that “the translators took a lot of
responsibilities in spreading foreign knowledge of ordnance production to Chinese technicians”
(p. 92). In nearly half a century of its existence, the Jiangnan Translation Division was most
active and at the same time, least active. The staffing as well as productivity was most efficient
then the period 1870 to 1890 when the governmental support extended. It was a useless division
for the China during the early twentieth century owing to rebellion within the regions, pressure
from imperialism and the decline of the rule of the Qing dynasty. Thus, by the time the Qing
dynasty was overthrown in 1912 the Jiangnan Arsenal and its translation office had been
somewhat reduced in the eminence which they had once enjoyed (Wright, 1957). But for several
crucial years in the second half of the nineteenth century the Jiangnan translators were not
deterred in their efforts, thus a reasonable quantity of western military science and technology
was translated into Chinese. This was beneficial to China in the sense that it began the process of
modernization of defense system even if it could not avert interferences from foreign powers.
Contribution of provincial translation bureaus to knowledge dissemination
The late Qing Dynasty (the period between 1644 and 1912) witnessed even more
development of the translation activities because a number of translation organizations were
established in China (Wang, 2012). One of the most important changes was the formation of the
provincial translation bureaus which translated systematically and imposed the knowledge, from
the western countries and Japan, to the Chinese society. The first translation bureau can be dated
back to 1861 Jiangnan Arsenal Translation Bureau in Shanghai that was established under Self-
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Strengthening Movement, the Chinese endeavor to import the western knowledge, technology
and system to bolster China’s strength (Li, 2020). Similarly, other bureaus were set in other
provinces where provincial officials who felt the need of translation in order to be able to find
information from the outside world due to increasing threat of imperialism. These provincial
bureaus were ordered organizations where translators translated texts of the western and
Japanese origin to Chinese on a full-time basis (Wang, 2012). Career translators contributed
considerably to the quantity of translation made and the diversity of subject matters that ranged
from science, technology, economy, politics, right to social sciences (Lee, 2020). These bureaus
are as follows among others; Zongli Yamen Translation Bureau in Beijing, Fuzhou Navy Yard
Translation Bureau in Fujian province, Guangzhou Arsenal Translation Bureau in Guangdong
province and in Jiangsu, Hubei and Shanxi provinces also (Lee, 2020).
The bureaus especially in the dissemination of knowledge through circulation of
translated materials through other means. Firstly, they classified translated materials into sets
including technical handbooks, academic periodicals and textbooks for distribution (Wang,
2012). Still some also established lariaries to make these translations accessible to officials and
students also (Lee, 2020). Secondly, they translated China’s early modern newspapers in which
such concepts as democracy, human rights and constitutional monarchy were introduced to the
public (Lee, 2020). Thirdly, they translated the works for delivery to the governmental bureaus
and the other organizations including the newly built schools; therefore, making the works
available to the reformist officials and the youths (Wang, 2012). These systematic efforts made it
easier for extensive dissemination for the new International knowledge in the Chinese society in
the late Qing period. However, there were some limitations that would not allow developing
further – many of the translations were rather literal, and failed to capture extraterrestrial
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meanings to the extent (Lee, 2020). The quality of these bureaus also was not constant from the
bureau to the other and the distribution networks are not the same throughout the extent of china.
That is, the work of the provincial translation bureaus was to lay the foundation for even higher
decreased structures to develop in the twentieth century. Institutions also later such as the
establishment of the Commercial Press in 1897 were still able to reap from such foundations,
networks and repertoire of translated texts (Lee, 2020).
Provincial translation bureaus in Qing China thus had great responsibilities as legalized
organizations that were predominantly concerned with translating various learnings from outside
for the domestic circulation. Nevertheless, they served to encourage an interest in Chinese in the
global learnings and set patterns which the subsequent overtures to system arcpy, translate,
publish and disseminate foreign knowledge were to follow. This in turn also made it easier for
the Chinese to receive new forms of knowledge, science and socio-political transformation
taking place all over the world.
Key Translators and Their Contributions
John Fryer's extensive translation work and scientific journal publication
John Fryer who lives from 1839 to 1928 is the famous British translator and writer who
introduced western science and technology to China around the end of 19th century and at the
beginning of twentieth century. :Although, Fryer’s first visit to China, was as a missionary and a
teacher in the year, 1863 (Wong, 2005). However, Wong (2005), soon got the passion of
concern with Chinese manner and words, and devoted himself to translation and education for
nurturing and constructing China. Fryer, may be, is best known under the Chinese pen name Fu
Lanya under which he contributed a vast number of scientific and technological pieces to the
Chinese periodicals (Mungello, 2009). There is another measure that he made which has bearing
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on the strategic level and that was to assume a Chinese name since people had negative
disposition towards foreigners during this period. Therefore, this way Fryer got more exposure
and popularity since he was publishing as a Chinese national. His writings included fields like
astronomy, mathematics, geography and navigation, mechanical engineering methods or the
production of tools, body armor, weapons, boats, ships and much more (Wong, 2005). In
particular, in my opinion, Mungello’s (2009) statement is highly relevant: “If one needs proof of
Aglen’s effectiveness, one could observe that no other nineteenth-century Westerner contributed
more to the introduction of modern science and technology into China” (p. 106).
Some of the works translated into Chinese are an English mathematic Augustus De
Morgan’s “Elements of Arithmetic” published in 1882 and British physicist Thomas Tate’s
“Elements of Mechanics” translated by Fryer in 1895 (Mungello, 2009). Here, Fryer translated
De Morgan’s math text to make Chinese understand concepts such as, negative numbers as well
as decimal point system which introduced Chinese to modern mathematics. As Wong (2005)
stated, the previous Chinese math was limited to positive integers only The current Chinese math
curriculum Different from the previous one where only positive integers were taught can be
understood as follows: On the other hand, mechanics translation that Tate provided, had some
concepts in motion, gravity energy and mechanics which helped Chinese academia to grasp some
of the vital scientific ideas and innovations that originated from the western countries.
According to Wong (2005), besides the translation, Fryer has given a huge contribution
to the modern science by founding and editing reputable Chinese science journals. In the same
year, he started a bi-monthly ‘Gewu Huibian’ which was General Scientific Magazine, this dealt
with the modern world and the scientific areas as well as science and technologies that included;
Chemistry and Physics, Astronomy and Geography, Firearm, Machinery, Tools and among
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others (Mungello, 2009). He later published “Gezhi Huibian” (Chinese Scientific Magazine) in
1915 which helping in popularizing in China information about the evolution by natural selection
by Charles Darwin (Fan, 2021). It means both publications contributed a lot to the improvement
of Chinese readers’ scientific literate and consciousness. Moreover, the translations and writings
of Fryer functioned in another way as well by establishing standards for a consistent use of
Chinese scientific terms when this was not the case before this localization that existed between
different regions. For instance, Fryer suggested that “yuanqi” should be standardly translated as
physics, “ziranpin” as chemistry and “geli” as geography which was agreed (Wong 2005). It was
therefore possible to begin taking new strides in the development of modern science education
and research in China through the standardization of terminology as a precondition.
According to some scholars, the Fryer’s has been neglected despite being a reformist
more than other reformist of that period like Tan Sitong or Kang Youwei (Fan, 2021). In fact,
Fryer purposely to maintain a low profile and wrote under a Chinese pseudonym at the time
when the country was politically unstable and colonized. But historians note the fact that Fryer’s
translation indeed helped Chinese science and technology to progress by making the updated
researches and technologies of the western world available to Chinese intellectuals (Mungello,
2009). Thus in creating new philosophies such as mathematics philosophies, laws of motion,
evolution and more Fryer equipped China with the necessary knowledge base for it to progress in
the technological and social revolution. Therefore, through his translation publications and other
editing works where he introduced elements of western science and discoveries, John Fryer
played a very important role of mapping China’s direction to the scientific modernity and
technological advancement at the beginning of the 20 th century. The publication of works in
Chinese, the efforts to establish the terminology and the creation of the foundational major
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academic journals mentioned by Fryer assisted the Chinese academia and the public in
understanding the knowledge required for the society and its evolution. At least he is supposed to
be one of the most successful reformers that are associated with the change in China at that time.
A fact, which cannot be denied, is that Fryer did contribute to the dissemination of important
Western scientific information and in eradicating terminological misunderstandings which is
evident when viewed and judged in terms of work done by him under the assumed identity of a
Chinese scholar.
William Martin's influence on translating international law and sciences
William Martin (1772-1851) was a highly talented translator who was helping the
enriching of the English readers with the knowledge of the international law and sciences in
early nineteenth century. To illustrate, a historian states that in the same manner, Martin has also
opened many other spheres of investigation that otherwise would be available only in translation
in Anglophone world (Smith, 2020, p. 179). Though still studying the practice in London,
;Martin began translating French legal texts in the 1790s. During this period, few pieces in
English were translated from works written by famous French scholars such as Montesquieu,
Beccaria, and Voltaire who were writing on matters of philosophy, social reform, and legal
theory which were relevant to the debate in Britain (Jones, 2022). As such, Martin opted to take
up the responsibility of undertaking the translation of these works so as to make them more
accessible to British philosophers of this time and given the new political and social shifts.
Motivated by such belief, Jones (2022) opines that, “Martin was firmly convinced of the fact that
it is ideas that should be free to cross the barriers of languages and nations, a belief which
underpinned his translation activities” (p. 95).
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Along with these works, it is necessary to mention another significant opus of a legal
study that Martin translated from French to English, namely, the ‘Of Crimes and Punishments’
by the Italian philosopher, Cesare Beccaria published in 1764. Beccaria’s work which advocated
for abolition of torture and capital punishment as forms of punishment since they are wrong and
unjust when applied, received a lot of backlash when it was published and later led to criminal
justice reform across Europe (Blackstone, 2018). Thus, Martin’s 1807 translation extended the
influence of Beccaria in Britain on the thoughts of criminology and penology while affecting the
debates of the British criminal justice system reform at the same time (Smith, 2020).
In the 1810s and 1820s, the gradually rising popularity of the scientific ideas in Britain
because of such figures as Cuvier, Laplace and Fourier prompted Martin to translate works in
such field as natural philosophy, physics, chemistry and mathematics. Once again, as Blackstone
(2018) captured it: “As a scientific middleman, Martin was entrusted with explaining French
scientific discussions of electromagnetism, optics, and mechanics in original texts that many
British scientists originally had not translated from French into English or had not read because
many of the primary Continental texts” (p. 431). For illustration, Martin has undertaken
translation of major early works in electromagnetic theory by French physicist Andre-Marie
Ampere shortly after their original publishing in French in the 1820s as stated by Smith (2020).
Ampere was one of the great scientists in the realm of electromagnetism; the scientist who
developed Ampere’s law which was used to define the magnetic field created by an electric
current. While it used to be a long time between publications such as Ampere’s which may
expose English readers to certain texts, Martin was able to ensure that knowledge which was
foundational for upcoming technologies was assimilated and applied much faster.
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Martin also translated another French mathematician Sadi Carnot’s the reflection on the
motive power of fire published 1824 containing the theory of Carnot heat engine and the infancy
of thermodynamics. Once again, British physicists were able to incorporate these cardinal ideas
into their study of steam power and the proficiency of engines much faster, thanks to Martin’s
fast translation (Jones, 2022). In these and many other situations, it is possible to note that
Martin’s translation activities contributed to the fact that the European science and knowledge
advanced faster in the nineteenth century. Therefore, regarding William Martin’s contribution,
the historians for one are unanimous that he played a crucial role in ‘translating’ the core values
of Enlightenment and Science across the English Channel (Smith, 2020, p. 193). In devotion to
providing access to the most significant French philosophical, legal, and scientific texts for the
English speaking readers who had not known many Continental philosophers prior to Martin, he
made knowledge essential for scholarly progress in his epoch available for sharing. William
Martin as a translator and an intermediary removed obstruction to the flow of information during
the period of advancement in law, social justice, technology, and science.
Chinese scholars' involvement in collaborative translation projects
During the dawn of the Globalization, as well as in the course of its development,
interpretation has been instrumental in the China’s relations with the other parts of the world. In
more detail, a number of Chinese scholars has actively participated in translation-referred
activities in the last few decades. It is noteworthy that such cooperation has helped boost the
circulation of the greatest Chinese literary works and vice versa — world literature. Among the
many accomplishments completed by her was the rendering of the Chinese famous novel Dream
of the Red Chamber into English. This classical work of literature written in the eighteenth
century by Cao Xueqin paints a perfect picture of the aristocratic households in the Qing
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dynasty. However, it was also a failure during the previous attempts because of the use of rather
complex language and a really huge number of characters. This was not the case until when
Yang Xianyi, a Chinese translator with his wife Gladys Taylor took over one and half decade to
translate what many consider today as the best English version translating work (Ma, 2022). The
husband-wife team used their skills to translate: Yang provided the first more or less a literal
translation, while Taylor translated the piece into what might be called more genteel English.
Their Red Chamber translation showed how Bilingual Scholars who work independently can
work very intimately even though they are separated by language and cultural barriers.
Apart from literature, we have learned from Chinese historians more ways of getting hold
of historical documents and of importance. To this end, there was an endeavor to unify the
histories under the imperial China by compiling the 25 dynastic histories the record dated back to
the 11 th centaury BCE. The Australian National University spent thousands of years of sources
in completing this big project and they employed over one hundred and eighty scholars from all
over the world(Wilkinson, 2022). The example showed that without the cooperation of the
international community the door to Chinese historical studies could never ever have been
thrown open in the west. Lin (2022) says it also demonstrated how Chinese historians engaged in
critical filtering through examining of the translations and the provision of cultural background.
Chinese participation has been more substantial more recently in the process of translating
modern academic-polemic and fact-base texts. Economist Justin Lin Yifu started initiating a
number of projects for translating important Chinese economic works into English. This also
involved other books by policymakers for instance the former central bank governor Zhou
Xiaochuan (Lin, 2022). Lin who had education in both the Chinese and the western forms of
economics was able to attract several scholars who were bilingual to assist in translation and
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editing of the book. The effectiveness of these initiatives has also extended that of the discussion
of new Chinese economic concepts and thus, has given a new outlook concerning the
diversification of international policy economical discourse.
Chinese scholars have also participated in collaborative endeavors traveling in the other
direction: literary translation involving translating of other world renowned works into Chinese
language. To translate western philosophical works nearer to the Chinese people, Roger T.
Ames, under the China’s Academy of Social Sciences, spearheaded the “Philosophy Translation
Project” (Ames, 2022). Similarly, for the Ford Foundation, it funded a project that would
translate more than 150 core Western scholarly books and articles for the Chinese audience (Ford
Foundation, 2022). For both projects, Chinese academics, writing in Chinese, attempt to
introduce important non-Chinese materials to Chinese learners and academics. These
transactions demonstrated that working to build rapport with the end purpose of moving
information inter-contextually requires commitment from the cultural brokers. Despite the fact
that only a few examples have been mentioned above, they seemed to indicate the logistics that
Chinese scholars have provided for the process of cooperative translations. Third, they are
multilingual and culturally sensitive which has been quite beneficial towards bridging the gaps of
language and culture in the two countries. Nevertheless, in the world which tends to be more and
more globalized, the process of building up intercultural communications through translation is
no less significant as before. It is therefore clear that despite the new qualifications, Chinese
academics will still be the ones who are in a position to interpret the China and the rest of the
international society.
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Challenges in Translating Scientific and Technical Terminology
Linguistic barriers in adapting Western scientific concepts to Chinese
As highlighted by Chan (2013) the translation of the western scientific concepts into
Chinese has been a major practice that has faced drastic language challenges in the past. An issue
that was rooted is that ancient Chinese did not develop the type of scientific reason that is typical
to this present day Modern Scientific subculture as postulated by Gong (2010). Ancient Chinese
used the syncretic and comparative pattern of thought, thus profoundly different from the
utilization of Western-style scientific method (Li, 2009 Zhou, 2008). Not analytical
categorization but correspondence thinking was the sort of reasoning that the classical Chinese
philosophy assumed, as far as Graham (1989) was concerned. This has made the translation of
technical scientific vocabulary into Chinese an issue since most of them cannot be translated into
the Chinese language because they do not fit in the linguistic and philosophical system of
Chinese (Hu, 2001). For example, Chinese people did not have dichotomy perceiving the inner
mental processes in the same way as it is seen with the Westerners in the tradition of science, as
perceived by Nisbett et al, 2001. Translating such concepts that are based on this subject-object
split such as ‘psychology’ has therefore been hard (Gong, 2010).
Benjamin Lee Whorf in his work published 1956 attempted to bring forward the idea that
language divides reality in a certain way, and that reality in turn will be perceived in that manner.
From this view, the difficulties of translation of the concepts of science from Chinese to Western
languages or vice versa show that the Chinese and Western pattern of thinking are quite different
in perceiving the real world (Zhou, 2008). To counter these barriers, one had to ensure that there
was creation of new Chinese words which could be used to describe western science concepts
that do not in any way relate to Laozi and Confucius philosophies. This is a question to this day
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because it is only possible to translate the literal meaning of the words but not the ways of
analysis and of the theoretical thinking characteristic to the Western science (Gong, 2010). For
the purpose of integrating the western scientific ideas to Chinese setting, two totally distinct
ways of thinking have to be incorporated by (Hu, 2001). On the one hand, the development of
science put pressure on Chinese scholars to participate in the international academic community,
on the other hand, language is still deeply rooted. Presumably, if the Chinese could learn the
process by which Chinese words could be made which could be used to translate the Western
scientific concepts then there might be integration of Chinese and the Western knowledge system
in the future (Chan, 2013). But, as Whorf stated, even translating of these word may not be
enough to reorient the two different perception and classification of reality – that of Chinese and
that of the West.
Introduction of new terms for Western concept in Chinese scientific terminology
In the course of the translation in the Chinese language formation of the true scientific
terms involves the addition of a much larger number of terms for the purpose of designation of
the western science. When China change over in borrowing western ST from mid nineteenth
century the Chinese scholars felt the need to expand the range of CHN to incorporate new areas
of knowledge. It is also worth mentioning that the processes of translation and coining of modern
scientific terms have been significant with the processes of the adaptation of Western science to
the Chinese linguistic and cultural context. In the course of the last decades of the nineteenth and
the early twentieth centuries the Protestant missionaries alongside with the Chinese scholars with
education in the Western sciences began to translate the texts on the sciences into Chinese. They
had the problem that in Chinese there was no history of words for distinctly more western ideas
and abstractions. The following strategy was adopted Compounding of Chinese morphemes with
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other morphemes to produce words which would come close in form to the given foreign words
would be used. For instance, the word dianyuan was created from two characters of which dian
means electricity and yuan means origin; thus, the term came to mean ‘electron. ’ Despite the
early part of the twentieth century new culture movement, and establishment of the Republic of
China, contributed significantly to the advancement of Chinese terminology for western science.
Also worthy of mention is the fact that the movement to establish the Commission on the
Unification of Pronunciation and Terms in Latin, or Kuomingtang in 1922 assisted in spreading
this newly coined word as it was a body which was charged with the responsibility of setting up
standard Chinese scientific lexicon. In Republican China, scientific organizations were also
established Chinese scholars worked and cooperated with their counterparts trained in the west
and dictionaries to build on the construction of terminologies in mathematics, chemistry and
psychology among others. The supremacy of the western science across the world meant that
other cultures had to adopt external conceptions in their local languages. The situation in the
Republican period helped in the formation of the Chinese terminology that referred to the
modern scientific advancement.
Due to the fact that after the commencement of the Communist Revolution in 1949
mainland China was isolated from the West the differences between the mainland Chinese
scientific terms and the Western scientific terminology came into existence. The formation of the
new terminology has continued under the auspices of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which
was primarily based upon the patterns of USSR. On the other hand, ROC scholarship on Taiwan
sustained the direct link to the science that was done in the west in the 1950s. From late 1970s,
the copying of imports technological advancement by the Chinese Communist Party brought in
different styles of translation of English to Chinese and the creation of new words. This desire of
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mainland China to be part of the scientific world has prompted this nation to opt to return to the
conventional international scientific practice and the associated terminology. Unlike this, they
have thereby revisited/shifted mainland Chinese and Western/global science language use in the
most recent decades. This way the introduction of western scientific knowledge also brought
certain lexicographical changes which posed the Chinese language with a lot of new terms and
concepts. Therefore, by turning foreign terms into Chinese language and culture, the modern
scholars made it possible for the Sinosphere to absorb leading edge globalization sciences. As
symbolic carriers of culture meanings, these neologisms recount the histories of Chinese thought
encounter with the western hegemonic science since the late imperial period of China to today’s
China. This shift in the Chinese scientific terminology still continues to narrate China’s search
for discursive power in the global science and technology today.
The strategies employed to ensure accuracy in technical translations
Scientific and technical translation is difficult and carries certain unique problems that
should be solved to provide adequate translation with special regards to the subject matter. Smith
(2019) is absolutely right in pointing out that scientific language is specific, elaborate and has to
involve understanding of the particular field and the tradition in which the source was produced.
Linguistic and conceptual equivalence are not easy to attain. The translator must have an
appreciation of some specific terms or idea that cannot be translated to other language
appropriately. Another challenge that they come across is that they encounter different
languages, writing techniques, terms of use, and measurements as well as standards for different
languages (Huang, 2021). Some of the strategies that help in addressing these issues are as
mentioned below. First of all, it is necessary to mention that technical translators have to be
informed about the specific field. According to Huang (2021), “meaningful improvement of the
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quality of translation is quite unattainable if there is an absence of background knowledge and
appreciation of concepts, information, and terms to do with a given subject matter” (p. 94). To
translate with fine details from one language to the next, translators should have academic
background and working experience in some fields such as engineering, computer science,
chemistry, law and health care among others. Another important strategy is research or in other
words writing a lot of essays. Hardworking translators get to do background research on any
possible unknown technicality in the texts they are to translate (Castro Melendrez, 2022). Some
of the sources they use include the dictionary, encyclopedia, text, academic journals, manuals,
style guide so that they realize what is required (Huang, 2021). For instance, in the Spanish
automotive text, if there is ‘injectors’, the translator has to decide whether a component is a fuel
injector or an injection pump. According to Huang (2021), such research provides useful
information and reference as to what constitutes better choices in the words to be used and it t
also assists in maintaining uniformity when preparing different document so that pennies are
harmonized.
Before going through all the aspects of the benefits of using CAT tools for technical
translation it is important to mention that CAT tools are useful in the following ways. Such
sophisticated software tools consist of terminology databases which are computerized databases
of terms, translation memories, which are an application that can match the new strings that
require translation with the strings that have already been translated; quality assurance tools;
machine translation tools; and glossary generation tools (Roturier & Mitchell, 2021, p. 57). For
example, SDL Trados provides an instant translation of specialised terms, which increases
reliability. CAT tools also help in information sharing among the team of translators that is
involved in translation of a large scale project. We believe that members can collaborate to
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implement company-specific words that may include such components as phrases, product
names, global standards references, etc, potentially seen on different software systems. This will
ensure that there is increased concordance and there is less use of different terms by different
members of the profession. McDonough Dolmaya also noted that interacting with the SMEs also
enhance the technical translation quality. However, in the large scale translation, where many
documents are translated, the number of specialized terms may cause other texts’ subordination
to other translators who do not have access to other documents. In the translation process the
translators gets in touch with the field experts in case of difficult in the process. These
deficiencies are counterbalanced by the conceptual understanding of the SME while translating
and interpreting the actual documents. This is so because they can give a more accurate
definition of the specific concepts to avoid the distortion when they are translating. Nevertheless,
there are cases when active collaboration could also be used for the software interface
localization. The textual clarity of translated text and the manner in which aimed cultural
references are expressed during translation are ascertained by using feedback from SMEs.
These controlled languages thus increase the technical translation precision that comes
with it. According to O’Brien & Roturier (2007) “controlled languages are restricted languages
which have been restricted in a manner that does not or has a lower density of the original text in
terms of ambiguity and complexity.” It includes a style check that limits some terms that are
used, spell check that limits some spellings, grammar check that limits some grammatical
constructs, length and the level of the language of the text, etc Airbus, an aircraft manufacturing
company developed the Simplified Technical English which is a 64-page maintenance manual
book which has very specific rules of writing that translators have to follow. This goes a long
way in ensuring that there is reduction in confusion and differences in their technical documents
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that are intended for non-native readers. Controlled languages optimize translatability.
Consequently, although there remain some problems with the translation of scientific and
technical text in the related aspects, it must be noted that it is possible to obtain the needed
quality by applying subject matter knowledge and research, using cat tools, cooperating with
SME and employing the concepts of controlled language systems. Since specialists continue to
advance on extensionist work that rests on the development of innovative ways of broadening
mapping of linguistic and conceptual domains, it is clear that technical translation quality can
only improve. In the future, one should explain what is going on to the client and try to make the
process itself more transparent, as well as make sure that high ethical standards are being used
throughout the duration of the project, according to Smith (2019: p. 197). This taken into
consideration there is a good potentiality for the enhancement in this rather vast and multi-
faceted area of translation and as scholars began to make the best of the most concealed
subtleties towards transformation of technical knowledge and experience from one world to the
other.
Impact of Translated Works on Chinese Scientific Community
Dissemination and reception of translated scientific texts among scholars
Scientific translation has played an important role in the establishment of modern science
in China since the establishment of the ‘Century of humiliation. ’ When China was colonized and
when it wanted to modernize in the latter half of nineteenth and early twentieth century after
being colonized and after having declined for several centuries, Chinese scholars felt the need to
acquire the latest scientific information from the west (Chen, 2004). This consequently resulted
in the inundation of translated texts from all specializations of science such as mathematics and
physics, biology and medicine. Earlier confined from getting into the Chinese society, new ideas
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and theories that comprised the scientific society became flooded through the mass translation
movement carried out by the intellectuals and officials. But, as According to Jones (2013), by the
translation of manuals and text books modern science was introduced in china schools n
universities. Other scholarly journals such as Kexue (Scientific Science) also assisted in
popularising significant scientific findings to other scholars (Wang 2008). Translation of such
academic papers was vital in ensuring that advanced research methods were available in china
thus enhancing the empirical sciences. However, while giving emphasis on the role of scientific
translations it is crucial to point out socio-political realities of early twentieth-century China.
Thus, the act of being a scholar consisted of such activities as translating foreign texts, such as
Einstein’s theory of relativity, during war and other disturbances (Chen, 2004). The following
points can be discussed in relation to work of the translators during the war: It is also considered
that lack of funds and economic difficulties influenced translators as well. It means the problems
highlighted above illustrate the need for people who tried to introduce new scientific concepts to
China.
Chinese scholars’ approach to the translated texts was equally varied and complex, which
is why it is important not to overemphasise the specific aspects of the reception. Liu (1997) state
that while some welcomed the liberalization of ideas and knowledge from the west as the needed
boost for Chinese science, others saw the imports as a source of corruption to Chinese learning.
As Liu (1995) has noted, there arose disputes concerning the efforts of onboard syncretism of
China and Europe, in such fields as medicine and physics. The translations did create issues for
the scholars and researchers who were caught in between between learning modern Chinese
science and practicing the projects of modernization (Wu, 2015). Thus, while the over-arching
impact was one of an injection of new life into Chinese philosophical thought, where in scholars
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combined their translations of foreign ideas with local concepts (Fan, 2010). This gave birth to
newer fields of research areas like early China relation studies with the relativity theory which
blends the Einsteinian theories with the Daoism describe in the ancient classic Chinese text
(Wang 2012). Thus, by mid of the 20th century there was an academic community which is not
only translating but also contributing to the process of works’ translation and further evolution. It
is therefore evident that the large scale translation and circulation of such texts from the West
was to instigate a lasting revolution in the dynamics of science in China. The imports provided a
knowledge deficit which was left behind by the declining China and promoted indigenous
inventions. While the conflict between the old and new styles of translation still prevailed
translators contributed to the advancement in various branches of sciences – creating a place for
the Chinese active participation in the scientific world. As for the present China, the debates
about the foreign theories versus indigenous knowledge are still debatable, while the translators
of the past century have paved the way for China, to become a scientific nation.
Influence on curriculum development in newly established modern schools
Chinese scholars were able to obtain translations of western scientific works and treatises
in the second half of the nineteenth century which brought immeasurable effect on the academic
society and curriculum reform in China. The reformers started to call for social reform
throughout China when the country started to realize that imperialism in Europe has become too
powerful to the extent that it may pose a threat to China and then the calls for the introduction of
western science and technology for the improvement of Chinese society were made (Biggerstaff,
1961). This gave rise to a desperate search for translating more and more western scientific work
into Chinese. Mungello (1971:44) pointed out that in the last three decades of the nineteenth
century more books on science had been translated into Chinese than in the two thousand years
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before those decades. These translations acquainted Chinese scholars with the modern scientific
ideas and methods and thus the modification of the syllabi in new-formed schools with some
western sciences like mathematics, physics and chemistry, biology, and medicine, and the rest.
These translations helped to shape the appreciation of more scientific translated texts
which were within the academic circles of China and more particularly on traditional Chinese
medicine and science. After the acceptance of the modern anatomical science from the Western
world, Chinese scientists gradually formed a cognition toward TCM as pre-scientific or even
sectful (Lei, 2014). Modern schools initiated in many parts of the world also started adopting the
western science at the detriment of the traditional epistemologies. This resulted into new cultural
clashes where those advocating for the new western science were put against the traditionalist
who wanted to continue with the old traditional practices (Biggerstaff, 1961). However,
translated scientific works made China’s embryonic science community of the early modern
period in mathematics, astronomy, physics and chemistry alert to new findings and syntheses
containing some elements of Western science together with Chinese indigenous knowledge
(Elman, 2005).
The translated western scientific texts also contributed to curriculum in modern Chinese
schools that were established in the last part of the 1800 and middle part of the 1900. After the
Chinese education reforms launched by the Qing government in 1902, new modern schools
emphasised the acquisition of tangible knowledge including science and technology in order to
construct the Chinese nation (Hayhoe, 1984). This led to improvement of the curriculum which
depended on translated western literary works by reformist like Yen Fu, Hu Shi among others
who had studied in western countries. For instance while mathematics curriculum in modern
schools substituted the abacus with algebra and calculus based on translated European text the
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science’s like physics and chemistry substituted China’s old “natural studies” with thoroughly
modern science (Liu 2009). To mainstream the aforementioned subjects new SCIENCE courses
were introduced to teach anatomy, physiology, microscopy, electromagnetism, thermodynamics,
genetics and evolution among others using foreign texts translated into the local languages. This
kind of western influence also had the effect of a decrease in the importance of Confucian,
classical texts where schools that were newly set up with science and English language
proficiency as its main goals. Science and medicine programs realized by scientists and
educators in 1920s conform to those of western universities at modern university in Beijing and
Nanjing. Thus, the translated works played the roles of paving the way for the scientific
modernization in China and the establishment of the modern academic disciplines. However, the
struggle between the reformers who advocated for the total model of westernization education
and the conservatives who defended indigenous learning was an issue of contestation, which is
evident in science education in china in the course of the twentieth century as mentioned in Liu
(2009). However, the translated texts increased the scientific knowledge and offered the Chinese
knowledge to construct the Western science and technology that matched the requirement of the
country. Thus, original scientific works and translated ones imported from the West in the 19
century and 20 had a drastic effect on the academic circles and curriculum modernization in 19th
and 20th century China. Thus by receiving translation of the modern science China constructed
its modern scientific society and developed the modern school system based on the western
science and medicine. Nevertheless, westernisation and indigenisation remained a contentious
agenda that reflected the Chinese process of the reception of the modern sciences in science
curriculum. For China, translation of such texts paved way for the emergence of scientific
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advancements, however the conflict between the ‘already learned’ and the ‘new learning’
continued for decades.
Role in shaping Chinese understanding of Western scientific advancements
According to Song (2013), focusing on the role of translations in the process of
acculturation of Western science in China, this paper proves that translations have been
instrumental in the development of China’s modern sciences. Wang has done this by stating that
approximately the late Qing and the early Republican years sometime around 1860-1930
represented the Chinese critical age of exchange by which Chinese scholars obtained the means
to disseminate translated versions of certain scientific exercises into the Chinese language. Still,
it is essential to pay attention to the fact that by reading translated scientific works of the West
this corpus became the way how Chinese featured Western science and how science emerged in
China. For the first process, the WST introduced new systems of knowledge that changed the
conventional ‘Chinese’ worldviews that were stagnant in scientific development under the later
imperialism (Song, 2013). As for translators such as Yan Fu, who began his translation in Britain
and the United States in the late 1800s, the translated works he sought were mainly scientific and
technological ones in order to construct China (Wang, 2017). The first cycle of translation
focussed on utilitarianism and the availability of knowledge that operated through mathematical,
chemical, mechanical and medical tracts the realities of state and nation security (Elman, 2005).
Some of the European translated works served for knowing the tenets and structure of Western
sciences (Song, 2013); also, interest and effort was inspired in acquiring Western “practical
learning,” or jixue. These first-wave translations of the western scientific texts offered
philosophical and scientific frame works to the constitution of the modern Chinese scientific
paradigms. liu Song (2013) also made it clear that translated scientific works were primarily to
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blame for introducing the inductive scientific method and the materialism that replaced the
Chinese traditional philosophies of the metaphysical causation. This shift in philosophy helped to
birth the orientations of new scientific disciplines including physics, chemistry and biology in
China based on the western style of paradigm (Song, 2013). Students for example, theoretical
physicist and philosopher Xu Liangying in the early twentieth century shifted in waves to pursue
new Western sciences and thereafter translated works of Western sciences into Chinese that
consolidated new form of knowledge across China (Elman, 2005). These translations put the
foundation for China’s scientific development that can be observed in the works of Xu
Liangying, where he describes the development of relativity physics in China.
Apart from offering the Chinese readers new technical knowledge and the new scientific
paradigms, these translated texts also offered ideas about scientization of science which became
useful for constructing Chinese scientific organisations. As Chinese reformers like Yan Fu,
Zhang Zhidong and others began the process of institutional change in the nineteenth century,
translated reports of organization of western sciences at university and scholarly society provided
models for the construction of an organizational structure to support Chinese science (Elman,
2005). Some of the Chinese scientific and technical institutions that included Peking University,
Nanjing Higher Normal School, Jiangnan and Hubei Arsenal were established as cited by Elman
(2005) having been influenced by the depiction of the western scientific institutions drawn from
the translated texts. It guided measures that altered the face of scientific education in China from
being in the realm of persons of letters to the public universities in which everybody received
opportunities to study and practice science (Song, 2013). In this way, translations not only
disseminated thoughts, but also fostered such systems so that China could cultivate the scientists
and institutions of international standards. Nevertheless, as Chinese scholars engaged with this
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new wealth of scientific knowledge they also at times resist the totalizing impulse of this spread
of Western science that seemed to be undermining confidence in the indigenous knowledge
traditions in China (Wang, 2017). As reformers claimed that emulating the Western practical
sciences would guarantee China’s prosperity and its imperatives, the conservatives did not
favour the abandonment of classical Chinese learning and the science of the imperial empire.
This tension led to calls for moderation and pruning of western imaginations like those made in
the Science for All journal that so as to maintain the development of an indigenous Chinese
science based on classical learning as sought here. Therefore this established china prepared to
accept translated western scientific materials along with apprehensions of cultural impacts of free
flow of knowledge paradigms from the west. Last but not least, if the response was not positive,
the translated collections of Western works in the Chinese language in question permanently
brought into China the paradigms defining the modern Chinese science. These texts contained
the required ideas, modes and institutional paradigms needed to rebuild china’s scientific
capabilities. Today, scientists introduce the modern ideas which Wang (2017) insists that reduce
the gap though earlier western science was the way through which China was going to free itself
from weakness. On the cultural impact and conflict with the western knowledge system, the
process is still ongoing, while the compilation of scientific translations at the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th century played a major role in forging China’s scientific
destiny in the last one hundred years.
Government Support and Policies for Scientific Translation
Official endorsement and funding for translation projects
There is no doubt that the main trends in the constitution of scientific translation and
innovations are the public financing and support. Thus, the governments making the choices in
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the research priorities and offering the backing to the researchers and other stakeholders can
control the direction. For example, the government of the United States has led large-scale
translation endeavours like the Cancer Moonshot that coalesced research assets and earmarked
over . 8 billion dollars has been pledged to new funding to cancer prevention and treatment
innovations. The strategies with which the governments engage translation are research fundings,
the collaborations between the government and the private sector, tax credits for
commercialization and legal ownership of the intellectual property (Author, year). Certain grants
include the ones that may the scientist which certain funding was given to the National Institutes
of Health and National Science Foundation which provide specific funding to enable a scientist
to undertake research activities directly that may have implications in the real world. Upon such
hearings, tax incentives are offered to business entities with the aim of participating in the
processes of translation and commercialization. University patent safeguards as well as
technology transfer centers also motivate transforming management concepts into the public
domain. As such, funding and policies are both relevant although not adequate in the process of
scientific translation as there is the need for culture-shifts both within and between academia and
industry. It is equally important for the scientist to be able to reason on how the results of the
research can be implemented besides the validity to facts. It has to be ensured that management
objectives are aligned with long translational durations that can empower them. It may take
sometime for cultures to change, more so, structures but policy signals like those relating to
funding and IP can help speed up such changes. Without long-view commitment which is
necessary for inventiveness to address the society’s welfare, sustained investments and an
enabling policy environment would not be feasible.
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Integration of translated works into civil service examinations
When working on the adoptions of the translated works, official endorsement and
measures that promote scientific translation pointed above could help in integrating the works
into civil services examinations. Specifically, there is a possibility of taking the following
measures in governments to support this goal: Governments can provide funding for translation
projects, invest resources in the recruitment of translation workforce, and introduce usage
standards. The funding for translation allows the governments to translate the necessary
documents of priority in science, textbooks and other academic publications. Expenditure is done
to make certain that only competent translators and editors are hired in order to reduce the
complexity of the texts for the common population. In specific areas of civil service exams, this
may extend to translating research articles, policy briefs and or training documents on some of
the areas of public administration. As such testing agencies are able to call upon a larger pool of
translated works as may be used, or excerpted or referred to in the creation of standardised
assessments. Apart from the direct funding, governments can take long term approach of funding
future translators by offering grants and scholarships. Scholarships for language and translation
degrees contribute to training of multilingualists who would be ready to manage the future
translation needs of science each time when it is needed. Since good translators can easily be
found this makes the translation of excerpts even more possible in civil service examinations.
Finally, it is also worth indicating that the governmental translation mandates can also afford the
test integration. It paves way for the creation of more content that may be possibly used for some
sort of testing, by requiring some of the documents that are administrative or some texts that are
educational or even the publications that are academic to have those translated versions. While
increased funding and scholarships benefits translation capacities there is something more
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profound about required percentages or content categories to sustain multilingual access which
means that civil service examinations can refer to the latest translated materials with regard to a
specific job. In terms of financial investment, talent training and use of quotas, governments can
systematically promote scientific translation of examination content and make it more possible to
integrate examinations into civil service.
Impact of government policies on the scope of translation efforts
Various factors in sciences show that governments do have a tendency to interfere with
translation processes. Thus, the meaning of translation in this context is to transform research
studies and evidence into practicable programmes (Woolf, 2008). The presence of financial
support from the government combined with friendly policies facilitates larger capacity of
translation operational activities. For instance in the past few years, US government has attached
high value to the concept of translational research. In 2011, the NIH to attempt to encourage
more innovation in this realm of research with the establishment of the National Center for
Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS, 2011 Collins). Since then, large express NIH
funding for translational research has augmented in funding budgets and analysis programs.
People in the academy field have more strategies for the utilization of the findings in relation to
diagnosis and cur _of and therapeutic tools for diseases. Nevertheless, there are some policies,
which might forbid search for particular areas in science, and they can limit translation to the
same extent. For instance, limitations concerning the use of federal funds in the funding of
human embryonic stem cell research between 2001 and 2009 were detrimental to the growth of
the regenerative medicine (Lensch et al. , 2007). I must admit that there was a point where the
field really stepped backward a lot. The possibilities for stem cell research are still more obvious
since the ban was lifted. The present techniques for the cellular therapies still seem to be
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promising to tackle diseases for instance macular degeneration and diabetes (Trounson &
DeWitt, 2016). This example also demonstrates that restrictions to basic research process at the
policy level can likewise disadvantageous clinical advancements in subsequent tiers. It can be
stated that financing, institutions and legislation define what scientific translation can and cannot
do. Somewhat more rigorous effort is exercised in supportive policies which foster the principles
of honest inquiries and sound funding. On the other hand, if policies are made in a manner
whereby funding to the basic research areas is reduced and or prohibited they cut-off the
translation research systems even further downstream. Therefore, any policy maker who has the
desire of making advancement in biomedical has to understand all the challenges that the
regulatory policies will bring along.
Conclusion
The significance of translation can be attributed to the need to convey scientific
knowledge as usual across the language and culture barrier. Since the English has accupied the
status of scientific language in the modern global society, the capability of reading,
understanding, and contributing to the existing body of scientific knowledge in english is
paramount to the scientifc progress of the english deficient nations (Li, 2017). This is especially
the case in countries like china which has taken science and technology as the core areas to
invest on to foster the economic and social needs. As everyone is aware, in the growth of
scientific potential the Chinese has steadily advanced greatly since the early breaking of isolation
policy of China in late seventies. As Li pointed out (2017), this scientific advancement has been
benefited from translating scientific journals and other technical documents from English to
Chinese. As for scientific literature in Chinese, it was during the beginning of the ‘reform and
opening-up’ that there was a glaring shortage of such works that could be acquired locally.
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Translation played this role effectively by providing foreign scientific information to China and
translating it into Chinese so that Chinese researchers or engineers can upgrade themselves with
the latest research works from other countries even if they do not understand English too well
(Wang, 2013). As Wang said, translating grants and research contracts made Chinese institutions
become participants of international science projects. Wang (2013) conclude that translation also
facilitates collaborative research as it creates understanding between the Chinese and non-
Chinese partners who may not be fluent in the Chinese language.
Despite the improvement observed in the English language skills in Chinese science
community in the last couple of years, translation still plays a role in fulfilling this function to
this day. Last of all, technical terms remain a permanent difficulty irrespective of the level of
English as a foreign language of a person. Translation also moves Chinese scientific papers into
the International forum and at the same time serves the purpose of enhancing China’s soft power
and recognition in the global academic community (Li, 2017). In the future, it will be a problem
of Chinese-English translation which will cause China to move away from traditional technology
and basic science to new technologies and new inventions. It does not aim at reversing
mathematical and scientific nations of the developed world but to leap forward, be a trend setter
and producer of hi-tech products on different strategic segments of the knowledge based
economy necessary for the twenty-first century. To achieve these somewhat idealistic goals,
translation will still go on being a critical mediator of the domestic absorption and absorption of
better scholarship from the original sources in English. For China’s long-term competitiveness
and capability for innovation indigenous, it demands maintain superior performance and convert
into the importation and diffusion of scientific knowledge in China.
