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MORAL PHILOSOPHY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHINESE APPROACHES TO
NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Evolution of Chinese moral philosophy beyond Confucianism
It is worth to mention that the Chinese moral philosophy has its roots that go
back thousands of years. Chinese moral philosophy however has gone beyond
Confucianism over the centuries as other schools of thoughts have emerged (Ivanhoe,
2000). There are other schools of thought that emerged and contributed to shaping
Chinese perception of morality and ethics. For instance, Daoism emerged during the
Warring States period as a contrasting view to Confucianism which promoted proper
order and social order and responsibility (Schwartz, 1985). Daoist ethics, on the other
hand, stress harmony with the cosmos and ‘doing nothing’ or acting in the least
invasive manner possible (wu wei), thereby refraining from indulging in desires and
pursuits that are counter to the Dao or ‘Way’ (Kirkland, 2004). These Daoist moral
ideals were very influential in Chinese culture and to the Chinese thinkers. The last
philosophy originally developed in India was Buddhism which also influenced
Chinese moral thought. Buddhist ethics are based on such values as compassion,
nonviolence, non-possession and non-egoism as key steps on the way to the
attainment of nirvana and the cessation of suffering (Hansen, 1992). Chinese
Buddhists in the centuries that followed reinterpreted these moral rules using the
Chinese philosophical frameworks of Daoism and Confucianism.
As the Chinese scholars began to borrow moral concepts from the west in the
early of twentieth century, the classical learning philosophies were reconsidered.
Positivism of Durkheim and Social Darwinism of Spencer which combined with
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utilitarianism became the interest for the possible application in solving the problems
of Chinese social modernization of the Republican period. Other changes were carried
out after the incident of the Communist revolution in 1949 when Marxism and
Maoism became part of the Chinese ethical system. The socialist morality was
characterized by ideas in the following areas; optimum distribution of income, welfare
of people, and responsibility to the state (Hansen, 1992). There was renewed
emphasis on China to apply Confucian ethics in today’s world, which in turn has
given birth to what is known as New Confucianism. The formation of Chinese moral
philosophy has also been made through the dialogue between the major indigenous
schools of thought and the dialogue with other non indigenous schools of thought.
Landscape of Chinese scientific and technological achievements
China has been great and innovative and advanced scientifically than the three
thousand years back. Such creations of china include the paper, gunpowder, the
printing press as well as the compass among others; their impact has gone global (Cao,
Yu, Suttmeier & Simon, 2009). Nevertheless, as one of the most modern
technological titans China is rather young. After the Market Reform and opening up
policy in year 1978 China started reconstructing its devastated national S&T
institutional base in Mao Zedong period. In the past decades, China has been
approaching to the level of emerging S&T power by an unprecedented drive in
research and development, technology transfer and commercialization policies (Cao et
al. , 2009). This requires a flagship programme that has propelled china’s S&T
advancement; this is the National Program on Key Basic Research Projects also
referred as the 973 Programme that begun in 1997. It outlines areas of research
interest of the country in sectors that include agriculture, energy, information
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technology and advanced manufacturing. The 973 Programme support provided high-
temperature superconducting technologies for application in electrical power system,
high-speed railway, and nuclear fusion reactor (Jia et al. , 2019). In the period 1997 to
2012, the 973 Program had provided over billion USD for Chinese key researchers
and it has produced vast amount of research outcomes (Cao et al. , 2009). China also
established a goal in the 2006 Medium- to Long-Term Plan for S&T development to
construct an “innovation-driven society” by 2020 as well as a “first-rate S&T power
house” by 2050 (“The 13th Five-Year Plan,” 2016). This included a raising the
national expenditure on R&D to more than 2. 5 percent of the GDP. Speaking of the
expenditure, in the year 2020 China as the second largest country around the globe
has invested 2 trillion yuan which is approximately 307 billion US dollars in the R&D
(Jia et al. , 2019).
The areas that China has recorded impressive development in S&T in the recent
past include, but are not limited to; communication technology, HSR and space
technology. Huawei, and ZTE are two companies from China which currently control
for more than fifty percent of the international market for 5G equipment (“China’s
tech giants,” 2019). China also holds the records of having the HSR line with more
than 29,000 km that is more than two-third of the total HSR line around the globe. : In
space technology, China began the manned space project in 1992, and has scored
other advancements in the recent decade; such as sending of space laboratories and
lunar explorations. Gazetted for the future is to make China a reasonable space power;
a space station by 2022 and possibly manned missions to the moon by 2030s (Jones,
2020). China has changed from a country with a history of turbulence during the
administration of Mao to a country that over the years has built it S&T structure
through long term planning and resource commitment. Some of the disadvantages
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include the current absence of global powerhouse firms and some questions connected
with the insufficient level of the intellectual property rights protection; however the
thing is that during the last decades China became an S&T power in such spheres as
telecommunications, transportations, aerospace, etc. The mentioned above targeted
national programs as well as even higher investments to the further enhancement of
the R&D could contribute to the making China as the leading technological giant
within this century.
Mohist Ethics and Logical Reasoning in Science
Mohist focus on utility: Shaping practical scientific applications
The Mohist school of thought in ancient China was focused to the concept of the
utilitarian, or the utilitarian and valuable to the humanity, as observed by Fraser
(2022). This philosophy acted as the springboard of science and technology
advancement in the early years of China since it isolated areas of interest that would
be helpful to the people. Mohism emphasized the notion of ‘utilitarianism’ in which
when and what people in the management of the society and governance should keep
in mind was always the welfare and improvement of individuals (Ivanhoe & Van
Norden, 2005). The Mohists supported the sophistications of science as well as
inventions for enhancing the quality of satisfying human wants. For instance, they
viewed tools: in farming and constructions as factors that would improve the
efficiency of the economy as postulated by Needham (1969). Not even the founder of
the school Mozi and his disciples simply theorized about technology; they actually
participated in its progress in order to invent defensive weapons and armor so that
states could not be conquered (Fraser, 2022). Such engineering works are intended for
reduction of level of violence and instability.
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This Mohist view that science should aim at human benefit resulted to inventions
suitable for medicine and health also (Needham, 1969). It has also been recorded that
Mohists dissected bodies and there was developed a coping strategies that had to do
with physical therapy such as massaging the muscles of clients with injuries. These
also for a purpose of minimizing incidences of diseases by improving standards of
hygiene in towns (Needham, 1969). In their lifetime, some of the measures instituted
by the Mohists bore fruit, thus improving the life expectancy of people.
In physical sciences, the Mohist were more utilitarian in nature focusing on
optics, mechanical technology and material improvement (Needham, 1969). Needham
(1969) says they corrected some of the flaws of modern theories of vision and optics
that produced a particle theory of light. Mohist mechanics had proposals on how
leverages systems and gears as well as machines to lift large masses in construction
for instance. Steady yet elastic tree sap based strong lacquer was amongst the durable
items which were designed by The Mohist engineers (Fraser, 2022). In this respect,
the Mohist emphasis on scientific knowledge solutions which could affect the society
in a positive way would be the first purposeful attempts in history to focus on research
to benefit the society intentionally (Ivanhoe & Van Norden, 2005). This outlook was
different from other pursuits of knowledge in other cases such as the imitative desire
to improve on culture treasure. Mohism as one of the most significant schools of
thought declined subsequently; however, knowing that the very task of philosophy is
to contribute to people’s wellbeing, came up with new ideas that remained as the
foundation for the further development of Chinese science and technology. The stress
on utilitarianism was therefore named important in contributing to the development of
applied science in Chinese civilization.
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Logical reasoning: Contributions to early scientific methodology
In this connection, logical reasoning has been at the center of scientific method
development throughout the ancient period, through the later medieval period and up
to the present age. While the ancient Greek philosophers began to refine deductive
and inductive argumentation, these processes became necessary for the subsequent
emergence of empiricism and rationalism (Crupi, 2022). Even in the age of Greek
philosophy of the early years, Aristotle and others developed structured systems of
deductive reasoning that were driving forces for discoveries. Analytical reasoning
refers to the process of drawing specific, logical conclusions from general premises
using strict rules of inference (Crupi, 2022). However, it was Aristotle who came up
with the syllogistic logic that looked at categorical statements in a logical method that
had not been used before, in order to determine the validity of the statements. It had
an impact on the initial practitioners of astronomy, physics and other pioneers that
were just starting to define the nature of the physical world scientifically. According
to Aristotle, logical deduction, and induction from observations, enable one to
discover causal explanations (Losee 2022). While he committed mistakes, Aristotle’s
efforts to employ deductive logic for the first time and stressing on the need to
combine it with observations were significant steps.
Susmissions – Inductive reasoning has also played an important role in
formulation of scientific hypothesis and theories through observation and drawing of
conclusions. Nevertheless, induction operates in a top-bottom approach wherein it
comes up with conclusions that seems to be true based on the existing knowledge and
information available (Crupi, 2022). This generalization of a particular incidence to
other similar ones whereby a science builds a theory regarding occurrence and events
is hence the foundation of the scientific approach. Aristotle and other Greek
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philosophers recognised the use of induction in addition to that of deduction The
concept of inductive logic was not developed until the 19 th century.
In this light it was possible to proceed from the purely philosophical vision of
Ancient Greek philosophers that was based on the concepts of pure rational thinking
to the modern scientific paradigm that includes observation, hypothesis making and
experimentation. While in formal logic there was a procedure of thinking which
allowed making logically correct conclusions, induction was a kind of thinking that
encompassed flights of fancy integral for the creation of new science where one
cannot hope to get a definite proof. These schools of thought therefore provided the
basics of the scientific approach that entailed using facts collected empirically and
analyzed in a rationale and structured manner in order to give probable inference
concerning natural occurrences. The ideas of using general logical rules as well as
relevance of arguments to observation seems to be the important steps toward
scientific approach.
Critical Debate: Mohist utilitarianism versus Confucian virtue ethics in science
Mohist philosophy and Confucian virtue ethics have very different approaches
to view the science and ethical scientific conduct. Some of the major early schools of
Thought includes the Mohist, is a school of thought that originated in ancient China
and was founded by Mozi, the thought processes of the school of thought depends on
the consequentiality, that is, any action that has a positive impact to the wellbeing of
the people is good and vice versa as postulated by the Stanford encyclopedia of
Philosophy (2022). On the other hand, Confucianism is based on the virtue ethical
theory where roles and relationship of an individual have to be obeyed and the best
ought implies a course of action (Ivanhoe, 2019). Both of these ethical systems
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contain reflexive consequences concerning the orientation and evaluating of scientific
projects.
As propagated by utilitarian theory, knowledge particularly science is harnessed
mainly for the purpose of acquiring knowledge that will benefit the mankind (Johnson,
2005). So, if mohists are right, it would be okay to examine the new technologies,
diseases’ treatment, and other practices that would help to reduce pain of many
individuals. Haters of the concept of act utilitarianism are also quick to explain that
this type of utilitarianism affords no shelter to pedestrians from use by motorists in the
achievement of these favorable ends (Johnson, 2005). Confucian virtue ethics
provides such assurances because the importance of people, including scientists, to
uphold the values of integrity, propriety, and benevolence in their interaction with
respondents, colleagues, and the society (Fan, 2010). This means that the idea of
focusing more on the moral aspect of a particular development might hinder progress
which would be beneficial to the community.
These two approaches also differ about one important aspect, and the role that
science should or should not play in this battle: whether science can continue to be
structure-bound and value-less (Douglas, 2009). Mohism also means that in a society
science should be mainly useful rather than moral – a scientist should study what is
useful for people and not what is holy. In this case, although as indicated by some
Western scholars the scientific process can be amoral as it does not necessarily have
to incorporate man’s existential values, from the Confucian ethical perspective,
science has to be in tune with the moral principles. On the one hand, while
pragmatically depending science can be easily to become narrowed in questions or
issues to be investigated or developed or, conversely, it can be easily reductionistic
about what questions or issues are worthy of investigation or development. This is
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however dangerous for science when such external norms are applied on them since
this will remove their neutral stand. Thus Mohist utilitarianism of the time often
looked at science in more social terms as a way of improving society; while in
contrast Confucianism held caution as to the rejection of moral constraints in the
search for useful knowledge. Perhaps the integration of these perspectives might assist
in a way of doing science that benefits the society and a science that does not cross
the unethical line. The continuation of the philosophical discourse on the principles of
scientific Ethics from the cross cultural perspective may lead to the formulation form
more elaborate generally acceptable scientific ethical principles that UK with the
principles of utilitarianism and humanism.
Daoist Philosophy and Technological Innovation
Wu wei concept: Inspiring minimalist and sustainable technologies
From the East, wu wei is an ancient Chinese philosophy that means non-action or
non-doing, but it has been adopted in modern technologies in minimalist and
sustainability design. Thus, wu wei is, at its essence, an idea stating that one should
avoid over-interference and adjust to nature instead of forcing its submission
(Slingerland, 2019). This correlates with principles of sustainability where the idea is
to work with nature’s systems and principles of minimalism where one only uses what
is essential. As wu wei is a kind of natural harmony approach, technologies following
this philosophy will aim at utilizing natural energy and materials to the maximum
extent, without much need for artificial intervention. For instance, passive solar
building design harnesses the power of orientation and shading to warm up and cool
down inside spaces, with limited calls on mechanical systems (Chwieduk, 2019).
These passive technologies are an example of wu wei as they harness and harmonize
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with the environment rather than dominating it. Likewise, permaculture systems
mimic natural systems of food production and land management in a way that is
largely self-sustaining once established, relying on natural processes requiring
minimal additional inputs (Hathaway, 2016).
Wu wei also discourages extravagance and the unnecessary indulgence in food,
sex, or other objects. This has led to creation of designs of minimal products that are
solely aimed at offering the basic service without the need for other frills. For instance,
it covers simple designs of solar lights, stoves, and water filters designed for use in
the poor and disaster-stricken areas (Kane & Kane, 2013). These technologies are not
ornamented or highly symbolic but are practical and functional in their operation,
which can explain why they fit the requirements of the wu wei concept of moderation
in materials. Furthermore, wu wei-based design principles can be applied as a
guideline for the right use of such sophisticated technologies as artificial intelligence
(AI) and automation. Instead of applying these sophisticated instruments in all
avenues they can be applied where they’ll be of most help while maintaining human
exercising and direction wherever needed (Baum, 2017). This creates a balance so as
not to overuse the technology and risk of being social unearthed. It shows the wu wei
counselling that one should not take an extreme of anything. It is precisely the wu
weil thinking that can be quite useful in addressing the issue of how certain
developments in the technologies’ field should evolve to be more sustainable. Due to
its focus on moderation, moderation, and adherence to natural rhythms, the concept
can spur minimalist solutions that do not complicate and do not consume resources
unnecessarily. As the problems on the global environment and on the social relations
continue to emerge, the lessons of this ancient Chinese thought are still highly
applicable.
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Balance and cyclical thinking: Shaping systems engineering
System engineering is an arm of engineering that involves the systems process of
developing a product and the entire process of its life cycle. One should mention that
the concept of balance is at the heart of systems engineering; also, the process is
cyclic and iterative. This is an indication that it is important to coordinate several
stakeholder needs, engineering systems and constraints within the total system milieu.
It also enables balance in the administration of the system, and its proper functioning
well as aligning to the higher level goals. It also aligns with the cyclical and ‘closed-
loop’ nature of systems engineering which requires that assumptions and solutions
should be revisited in order to confirm that improvements are being done constantly.
The two paradigms constitute a strong impact on further practice of this field and its
constant development.
The search for balance acknowledges that system design encompasses finding
optimal solutions for the trade-off between cost, time, and quality (INCOSE, 2022).
For instance, in the process of striving for shorter schedules, one may have to endure
higher costs and risks. INCOSE (2022) add that there are also trade-offs in meeting
the needs of different users, combining sub-systems, or maintaining the systems’
stability and speed. Systems engineers employ models and processes such as concept
mapping and optimization analysis to search for imbalance or integration problems in
the architecture, and to determine balanced solutions from the identified problems
based on stakeholders’ guidance(Kossiakoff et al., 2020). This captures the Systems
Engineering essence of the ‘art and science’ of it in this integration of technicality and
experience (INCOSE, 2022). Maintenance, upgrades, retirement, and disposal
management require balancing throughout the later stages of the product’s lifecycle.
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Similarly, the principle of cyclical thinking captures the above focus on balance
in a more coherent manner. The systems engineering process itself is also a
conceptual spiral model that crystallizes stakeholder needs, explores solution options,
converges on a solution, and then verifies that the delivered system meets those needs
before transitioning into production and use (Kossiakoff et al., 2020). However, it is
possible that after the system has been deployed, new user requirements may arise or
the operating context will change and this necessitates a re-run of the earlier stages of
the lifecycle to restore equilibrium and harmony through additions, modifications or
disposals. Cyclical thinking reminds that balance is not something one achieves, but
rather works on constantly. Combined, these paradigms of balance and iterative
realignment characterize the way systems engineers think about the conceptualization,
developmental integration, operation, and evolution of these large-scale
sociotechnical systems.
Critical Debate: Can Daoist principles coexist with rapid technological
advancement?
Daoism or more commonly known as Taoism is one of the oldest recorded
Chinese belief systems that focuses on the appreciation and pursuit of the Dao or
translating to ‘the Way’ (Van Norden, 2011). The major beliefs of Daoism include:
wu wei which is non-action or the flow, being mindful, simplicity and duality of the
two forces which are yin and yang (Komjathy, 2018). As the modern society
progresses exponentially in terms of technology, there is much debate as to whether
traditional Daoist principles can merge into human technologically-oriented lives and
values efficiently.
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In this regard, technology looks opposite to such values as the Daoist. For
instance, availability of devices like the smart phones and the internet convenience
them and make it easier to have constant activities instead of engaging in the wu-wei.
Concerns with technology may also lead to stress and overstimulation, which are
contrary to Daoism’s principles of harmony and simplicity. Further, actions such as
mining of rare earth metals for the manufacturing of electronic gadgets are in
violation of Daoist concept of balance between man and nature (Miller, 2017).
However, while counterarguments exist, stating that technology is intrinsically neutral
and only depends on how humans decide to use it (Komjathy, 2018). By practising
moderation and proper application of technology, certain aspects of daoism can be
augmented rather than hindered by it.
For instance, meditation, online communities and applications for practice of
meditation, ‘mindfulness’, yoga, etc. , have done a great job of leading the stillness
and contemplation of tech-savvy consumers (Sahota, 2014). It also used in nature
documentaries and conservation to educate the society on the interdependency
between human beings and nature (Miller, 2017). Miller (2017) opines that it may be
quite possible that there is a dialectic between Daoism and technology depending on
the relevance of the technology in play. It is still possible to attempt to introduce more
aspects of Daoism into today’s world and society where technologies are already
rapidly advancing, but this time with the aim of at least trying to guide them as they
develop. The best practices familiar with Ancient East knowledge still may have a use
in society’s progressively digitalized communication.
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Buddhist Ethics in Biomedical Research
Compassion and non-harm: Guiding medical ethics
The two basic ethical principles which guide behavior of medical employees in
the exercise of their functions, are the principle of benevolence and nonmalfesace.
The principle of compassion has to do with some level of care that physicians and
nurses have for their patients in their possession (Kon, 2009). Closely related is the
principle of nonmaleficent intent where patients should not be worsened by treatment
and a physician should not act in a manner that contribute to patient’s harm (Jonsen
2012). Both of these twin ideals have the patient on their side and have formed the
basis of most ethical codisations of practice.
According to Lindström, Lindholm and Zetterlund empathy, care and concern
towards another is defined as an important virtue in the health care organization
meaning a set of discrete emotions and behaviours. The compassionate care allows
the physicians, the nurses to understand the patients’ pain and alleviate it. For
example, mercy may force the doctor to tell the patient ugly news gently, give him/her
time to ask questions, absorb the information, experience the feelings and then inform
him/her about the next steps, and show care (Duarte et al., 2016). Some research has
indicated that compassion is therapeutic in its own merit and can aid to improve on
patient satisfaction and self-compassion (Stålenberg, 2014).
Similarly, the principle of ‘do no harm’ applies to ethical medical practice since
health care givers and institutions exert a lot of control in the lives of patients. Non-
negligence coupled with non- malpractice forms part of this principle, particularly in
regards to the provision of recommendations and interventions for the patient’s
benefit as opposed to for the purpose of developing knowledge on the disease or
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testing treatments. It also means not hiding information on possible risks in a way that
patients who would consider such risks in the context of possible gains will not be in a
position to access such info (Thiroux & Krasemann, 2012). Still, since medical ethics
are situational, there could be certain questions of whether an action may cause harm
in the first place; here the principle of compassion is also a part of the picture
(Gallagher, 2019).
Non-harm and compassion as the other set of the ethical framework for the
practice of ethical conduct by physicians and other medical personnel may be as
follows Despite this, it has been noted that practicing non harm and compassion might
not be easy (Sokol, 2021). For example, how to tell a patient that he has a terminal
disease and at the same time not hurt him/her any further is a delicate exercise.
Practitioners’ active use of metacognition on an ongoing basis helps these authors to
protect these concepts from competing pressures and emotions (Duarte, Pinto-
Gouveia & Cruz, 2016). Also, there is concern or affection to fellow employees since
stress, or lack of support, and a poor mental health condition affect medical errors
(Slade et al. , 2019). Therefore, the QA of compassion and the protection against the
potential for doing harms stay the important long-term ethical goals within the health-
care organisations.
The two core values of non-harm and compassion are schools to ethical practice
with virtues of the said specialty, position or environment. In earnest, practicing of
these virtues systematically buildup trust in healthcare givers, shift the odds in
patient’s welfare and is indeed a noble pursuit of medicine’s noble task; to heal. It is
relatively rather complicated to apply these principles, but it unifies a set of principles
that guides practicians in medical field towards decision primarily concerning care
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and conscience. Therefore compassion and ‘do no harm’ provide ethics philosophies
applicable to the advanced healthcare systems.
Impermanence: Influencing approaches to genetic engineering
These two concepts of the transience of all things in the world and the opinion
that everything is subject to change is very tightly connected to how we tend to such
comparatively recent advancements as, for case, genetic engineering. The Buddha
also has this to say, and I paraphrase again, in all formations there is decay (Bercholz
& Kohn, 1993, p. 57). Genetic engineering can be defined as direct manipulation as
well as alteration of an organism’s genes with an aim of incorporating favorable
characters. In the following discussions, there are some issues stated by the authors
which might also have some negative impacts but they did not mention them or the
authors did not take them into consideration. This is because by looking at the
technology in relation to the concept of the permanent, the temporary and unpredicted
nature of the changes come to light. A study has shown that if that idea of transience
is applied to genetic engineering, one can expect slow and prudent utilization. One
can find some answers to the questions that rise in connection with the topic of the
whole-organism impermanence and how the introduced gene sequences can enter the
whole-organism system across the generations. Sirivudh (2021) further reveals that,
“An organism is not a single entity of genes…[it is an assembly of] entities with
combined subsystems at multiple strata” (pp 41). Substituting one part can destabilize
to other degrees in an unpredictable manner which is not easily recognizable. As
directly meddles with living systems that one evidently doesn’t understand may have
consequences as time goes by. Flux, then, embodies the notion of change where the
later remains a constant that occurs in unpredictable patterns – impermanence.
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In addition, instability implies that genetic modifications also come with the
notion of non-permanency or stability in their existence. According to Walsh (2018),
because of mutations and environmental stressors, engineered sequences can degrade
or change function over generations (p. 29). Impermanence considers all character
aspects as relative and temporary. Instead of guaranteeing long-lasting changes,
genetic engineering gives temporary modifications based on stability from a
multifaceted background. Since many factors that permit expression are intertwined
and cannot be completely controlled, engineered changes may compromise resilience.
Reflecting on the concept of impermanence shows how genetic solutions are
aligned to tackle what is perceived as problems in the present without considering the
holistic human health or other related factors. In the same way that the current gains
are not valued much when future problems arise. For example, Fuentes et al. (2019)
argue that disease-resistant genetically modified crops disregard whole ecological
consequences and other approaches to sustainability based on the perspective of soil
conservation (p. 12). Impermanence advocates holistic understanding. Evidently, the
reductionist approach that focuses on short-term genetic solutions seems rather
constrained. Broad and integrated methods are appropriate to the complex and
evolving living structures.
The concept of impermanence suggests that it is wise to be cautious when
incorporating strong bio technologies as genetic engineering into society. With all
forms, traits, and technological solutions perceived as inherently temporary and
dependent on context, a sense of wariness about potentials for negative effects over
time is cultivated. It forces one to look past the engineered genes themselves towards
the appreciation of the complex environment they perform in. Finally, change claims
that genetic strategies for finding narrow solutions to individual problems do not
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benefit long-term well-being and sustainability when everything else is in the process
of change. Such attitudes of precaution better reflect and adapt to the interdependence
and emergent realities of the world as marked as a system.
Critical Debate: Buddhist ethics versus utilitarian approaches in biomedical
research
While Buddhist ethics tend to focus on the consequential outcome of an action,
utilitarianism provides an opposite approach to moral decision-making in biomedical
research. The ethical system which is most inherent to Buddhism is the ethics of non-
injury and goodwill (Keown, 2017). It means that in some cases it is allowed to do
something with certain intention and they will not consider what really happened in
terms of suffering. However, under utilitarianism, actions are evaluated in accordance
with their outcome; the right action brings about the best sum of utility which is
defined as happiness, pleasure or goodness for the highest number of people (Mill,
2017). These two different frameworks therefore result in different perceptions of
issues such as animal experimentation. The Buddhist principle of non-violence
provides strong rationales in favour of strict prohibitions for the same reason as
animals are sentient beings similar to humans (Goodman, 2017). For instance, a
moderate utilitarianism may endorse animal usage for research if such benefits to
human life cannot be obtained in another method (Singer, 1993). An extreme view of
utility that only looks at consequentialist reasons could justify almost any harm to
animals as long as it is good for people.
Regarding clinical trials in developing countries, Buddhist ethics asks the
following question: were the participants able to voluntary give informed consent?
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Utilitarian ethicists weigh the quantity of the knowledge to be gained against the costs
of the suffering that will be inflicted to the needy poor communities that requite health
care services (Bhutta, 2004). The basic ethical principles attempt to achieve the mean,
which would enable conducting useful research while, at the same time also
protecting some communities. But even here, the utilitarian approach could justify
any violation of the consent or human beings’ dignity if the population’s health is
enhanced even more.
When it comes to a question like gene editing Buddhism has the ambiguous and
nuanced answer, in which ethical position is dependent on a number of factors
(Hansen 2021). Where the utilitarian approach is getting closer to the definite
decisions, to the approval or the rejection of the specific technologies in the terms of
risk/benefit basis. The highly specific perspective of Buddhism on reality forces one
to ponder over the social impacts of technologies and difficulties of drawing a line
between the curative and the eugenic goals. In this respect, the figure of speech used
by the utilitarians appears overconfident in relation to speculative modeling in terms
of their claimed meliorative effects.
Therefore, the typical attitude of Buddhist and utilitarian ethics to biomedical
problems reflects rather significant dissimilarities in the stances that both are inclined
to take. Buddhism’s situational approach prevents one from pulling it off and folding
all into a single equation but it has got the ethical paradox of harm and compassion
intact. In other words, it [Utilitarianism] searches for a state/personless,
neutral/numerical measure of well-being output that erases quality. Biomedical
policymaking requires inputs from these two ethical structures- Buddhism thus
putting into place the values of care complexity and conscience while utilitarianism
gives an equitable manner of quantifying and comparing social utility and societal
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cost. It is important for the effective serving of justice and putting into practice of
achievements for a sympathetic as well as rational understanding to be achieved.
Legalist Philosophy and Technological Control
Centralized power: Impact on state-sponsored scientific research in China
In the last decades, China has seen the growth of the scientific research sector,
including-ph D education, with remarkable policy directions from the central
government. As this, it can be clearly observed that the Chinese government plays a
prominent role in setting the research directions and funding the projects; besides
playing the role of steering the technology commercialization (Cao et al. , 2013). Such
a high level of state control and regulation impacts the amount and quality of
produced research together with the questions of research ethics. What has emerged
clearly now is that the Chinese state has provided patronage to a large extent in
increasing the scientific production of the nation in various fields. China
outperformed the United States in publishing 422,751 articles related to science in
2019, which was closest to one-fifth of the international total (Tollefson, 2022). These
domains comprise; engineering and computer science, materials science, chemistry
and health sciences (Cao et al. , 2013). Thus, it could be concluded that high research
activity is funded by the government sufficiently through programs such as National
Natural Science Foundation of China, the 973 Program (Qiu, 2010). The centralized
system can also be efficient in channelling resources on large projects for
development in contrast to the decentralized system. For example, genomic
sequencing centres that had been receiving funds from state level coordination by
2015, successfully sequenced over 100000 human genomes (Cyranoski, 2016).
21
The large government involvement is funding is a flaw as it can reduce the
quality and in extreme cases the integrity of the research. Critics argue that such a
strong orientation to state funding results in scientists’ concentrating on applied
research which is useful and will easily generate funding, while basic research, which
helps to expand the wealth of human knowledge is being left aside (Qiu, 2010). One
might be forced to write papers to get to higher rankings hence, the research fraud is
evident. In another study done in 2017 it was established that 445 articles by Chinese
scholars were demanded back from 2010 to 2015 due to falsifying peer reviews
(Hvistendahl, 2017). The Chinese publications system which is still very much hidden
enables such misconduct and also provides undue time for its correction. Central state
control also plays a role in defining the direction of research in accordance to national
interests, notwithstanding the international norms of scientific research. Chinese
scientists have inserted themselves in key areas that support the state’s oppression of
minorities and the round of surveillance (Mozur, 2019). Genomics researchers
participated in developing tracking apps and the mechanisms for performing DNA
tests on the Uyghur people in Xinjiang (Zenz and Leibold, 2020). Artificial
intelligence start-ups independently offered facial recognition services and predictive
policing for mass internment camps (Mozur, 2019). Mozur (2019) argues that the
synthesis of science with tough-authoritarian policies undermines research ethic.
However, the lack of free speech and academic freedom to disent in china does not
allow for such debates to take place. Therefore, it is only disclosed that the type of
highly centralized state guidance over academia as practiced in China achieves most
of the scientific purposes of interest but not all of them. While raising the rate of
productivity with a higher rate competitiveness raises the chances of fraud as above
illustrated. Government control focuses itself to applied sciences but the direction
22
may lead research to political goals thus neglecting ethical consideration. Perhaps, the
OB alone or a combination with other measures, democracy and accountability may
improve the state-supported science in China from the point of view of benefit/harm
ratios.
Rule by law: Influencing technological regulations and standards in China
China has emerged as a technological giant and prominent player in the global
technological arena. As the technology sector has evolved in China, the government
has endeavored to maintain more control through different laws, regulations, and
standards. Such measures enable China to guide the development of technology
according to the national needs and goals (Zenglein & Holzmann, 2019). However,
China’s approach to technology governance has raised concern with other major
powers around the world. China’s cybersecurity law that fully came into force in 2018
mandates that any data concerning Chinese users be stored in mainland China (Feng,
2021). This also enables the government to have extended opportunities to get data for
the purpose of surveillance (Feng, 2021). The law also requires cybersecurity
assessments and random checks for networks, empowers the authorities to suspend
internet connections during alleged threats to security, and demands user
identification for specific internet services (Feng, 2021). There is a focus on this as
being in direct opposition to the open internet policies of Western nations and as an
encroachment on rights and freedoms (Zenglein & Holzmann, 2019). Nevertheless,
Chinese authorities argue that the legislation is required in response to threats to the
country’s security and its citizens (Feng, 2021).
China has also looked to have technological superiority and also expand its
technological reach via the Digital Silk Road – a component of the Belt and Road
23
infrastructure initiative. For example, some Chinese tech companies have deployed IA
systems in some of the Belt and Road countries to spying and for seeing criminal
activities beforehand (Feldstein, 2019). Exporting these technologies assist China in
popularizing this model of averting scrutiny on technology regulation to the
remaining world (Feldstein, 2019). However, some of the observers have raised the
alarm with regard to the potential risks associated with the expansion of China’s
systems and standards that could be nondemocratic, according to Feldstein (2019).
While the Chinese government is attempting to be more active in the process of
technology development itself, the United States and other countries of the West have
a more diffused approach (Zenglein & Holzmann, 2019). Of the emerging concerns,
some have been observed in areas such as the construction of 5G networks where the
U.S. has been pressuring friends not to engage with Chinese firms such as Huawei
due to data security concerns on the other end China has accused the U.S., of painting
the Chinese technology firms in a wrong light (Feng, 2021). In turn, such a
technological confrontation and divergence of governance models mean a potential
for bifurcating the technology domains and disrupting collaboration.
Persisting on the technological advancement and industry upgrading initiatives
like artificial intelligence innovative tech strength apex quantum computing and
biotechnology while keeping a hard-lined state guiding position could deepen
jeopardizing China’s relation with Western governments and economies further
(Zenglein & Holzmann, 2019). China has its approach on how to deal with
technology governance which is not the same as the traditional western model.
However, sustaining international cooperation as well as managing geopolitical
rivalry is still a process, which is continuous.
24
Critical Debate: Balancing innovation with societal control in Legalist tradition
According to ancient Chinese philosophers, there was the Legalist school that
encouraged the right legal provisions and strict penalties to uphold law and order to
Riegel (2022). Exercising control in an organization may mean that creativity and
innovation that are very important for the society will be limited. Riegel (2022)
suggests that this raises a fundamental concern on how to accommodate these
interests within Legalist framework. Indeed, the authors of tidy social control are sure
that this is necessary in order to prevent anarchy and maintain order. It is worth to
share this view with the primary Legalist Han Feizi who stated that “When virtuous
man governs the state he does not await: the people to become good, but makes
goodness and let the people become good” (De Bary, and Bloom 1999, p. 179).
Namely, relying on morality only does not suffice, and therefore, the state actively
controls people’s actions and provides stimuli and sanctions suggested in the
legislation. In cases where the Socialist Party decentralises authority and power
Young believes that groups which are formed tend to operate in self interest capacities
thus causing tension and anarchy. From this kind of perspective, tight control suggests
order; orderliness that is necessary for any advancement in technology and in society
to occur.
Some critics make an argument which suggests that state intervention and
homogenization which are the characteristic of such policy, can impact on innovation
which society requires for change. During the Qing dynasty in the seventeenth
century, the philosopher, Huang Zongxi warned about the situation where people are
provide with strict regulations without any chance of having any initiatives through
saying “Making regulations for every detail so that officials are the only supervisors
will stifle the people” (De Bary & Bloom 1999, 671). In other words, over-
25
governance is an adverse effect of crowding out too much free thinking, creativity as
well as entrepreneurship among the citizens. It is imperative that a certain level of
openness and flexibility exists within the cellular telecommunication system to
accommodate for the development of new concept and the inception of new
technology. Otherwise, society becomes static in face of the authoritarian power that
is unable to reconcile itself to the existing state of affairs. The middle ground
therefore will be reasonable but limited form of governance. The state selects laws
and policies to control fundamental social functions like property rights, constructions,
environments, technology, copyrights/ patents and educations to develop an
innovation society; Porter et al. , 2022. Nonetheless, these structured interventions
leave much more space for more unstructured entrepreneurial actions in forms of
start-ups, venture capital in search of profits, new business models of the firm. In Sir
Karl Popper words, this attempt at over-concentration is typical of all utopia
ideologies and, as one would expect, its result is opposite. Together with civil liberty
restraints it has funded key provisions of public goods selectively, but it has let free
markets going together with coercive overdrive to press for new legal order.
Therefore, it cannot be denied that Legalist insists on the fact that the structure helps
to proceed, yet excessive rules result in creative stagnation. Technological loosely
coupled and organization informal emergence within the proactively constructed
regulation frameworks enable maintaining the balance between stability and
dynamism in society. Certain types of interferences by the government such as
encouraging market exchange, establishing property rights, funding infrastructure and
research, preventing anti-competitive behaviours and investing in workforce restore
productive disorder in a manner that does not hinder innovation crucial in enhancing
societal welfare. Good governance promotes freedom.
26
Contemporary Chinese Moral Philosophy and Emerging Technologies
Techno-Confucianism: Ethical considerations in AI development
The other factor that should be considered as the technological development that
is taking place in the field of artificial intelligence is also significant. It is only recent
years that some questions regarding thinking machines come up because of the
progress that researchers have made on machine learning; neural networks (p 134
Walsh 2018). This paper will emphasize on relationship, accolade and the communal
benefit with the aim of proceeding toward recognizing of the ethic of the AI with the
perception of the Confucian ethic. It has been called “Techno-Confucianism” because
of the rapid technological advancement in the world (Lu, 2022). To summarize,
Confucianism is nominally focused on cultivating the compassion and
conscientiousness in human interaction and ethical and righteous behaviour (Van
Norden, 2022). Subsuming Confucianism’s relational values of trust, responsibility,
sympathy and justice – as it were in Walsh (2018). For instance, the Confucianism
religion embraces master and servant; father and son; man and wife; elder and
younger brother and sisters; and friends. All these forms indicate different capacities
and responsibilities in the management of social order. The role sampled played by
researchers as masters, and AI as beneficiary agents come into this fortification.
Similarly, as it is good authority over the common people in Confucianism, it is
benevolent responsibility of the developers of AI to ensure that they establish systems
that would never be a hazard to human beings or encroach on the rights of human
beings (Lu, 2022).
The belief system of Confucian thought shows that people are capable of
reformation, for a lifetime, toward a morphing of a moral excelling junzi. As
27
envisaged by Lu (2022) the junzi in AI means producing an intelligent system that can
augment justice, social justice, human rights, and minimize suffering based on human
virtues. There is equality AI exploitation people’s vulnerability for profit or power; on
the other, there is the junzi AI enhancing people’s goodness for the collective good.
The junzi also worries about ‘responsibility’ – systems have to be able to explain their
actions to the end-user in terms that are comprehensible by people (Lu, 2022). The
lack of explainability is an issue for trust and proper cooperation between people and
the AI systems. Critics of Techno-Confucianism have argued that a reliance on
Confucianism’s ancient Chinese teachings may hinder technological innovation or
else keep enforcing cultural bias (Walsh 2018). Thirdly, capabilities and potentials of
AI systems and humans are beyond comparison, and hence issues arise when attempts
are made at setting the same ethic standards for machines as those for people.
However, what Techno-Confucianism allows these limitations while asserting that AI
should at least incorporate virtues of reciprocity, obligation, and benevolence. The
authors propose that it is advised to contemplate on innovation possibility and ethical
concerns as well.
Ecological civilization: Influencing renewable energy research in China
Purportedly, the idea of ecological civilization by China has been adopted as one
of the state agendas in realizing sustainable economic development for the country
without adversely affecting the environment (Hanaping, 2021). As for this priority of
sustainability, it is noted that it has influenced the way that the research on renewable
energy is targeting to make reduce China’s reliance on the fossil fuels. China has
some very acute environmental deterioration problems emerging from the process of
industrialization in the last several decades, for instance, the emission of air and water
28
pollutants (Liu & Diamant, 2022). The leadership of China learned that in the case of
further successful development the country needs to expand the idea of an ecological
civilization. Among the key ideas is the proposition to use renewable energy as the
basis to power growth of an economy without the use of dirty energy sources.
China has a conducive environment towards renewable energy in that it has
solar, wind and hydraulic power possibility all over the country (Han, 2021). Han
(2021) indicate that the Chinese government has developed policies and plans to
support renewables penetration and advance China to an innovation center for clean
power. Some of them include the Belt and Road initiative which targets infrastructure
connectivity and Made in China 2025 that targets to upgrade the Chinese industry
through advanced technology like renewable energy and to enhance the domestic
innovation capabilities (Liu & Diamant, 2022). They also give special credit to the
renewable energy like the preferential loan, or even tax exemption for the
development of this natural resource (Han, 2021).
These efforts have been useful in guiding the researchers from the Chinese
universities and companies towards renewable energy. The amount of articles in the
academic literature concerning subjects like photovoltaics, wind turbines or biofuels
has risen noticeably in the course of the last decade (Han, 2021). Chinese solar panel
manufacturers have directed their attention towards the research process to produce
solar panel products that are efficient and less expensive (Liu & Diamant, 2022).
Trina Solar and Jinko Solar are two of the biggest players currently in the solar
industry; both were founded by the Chinese solar scientists and sell their solar
products all over the world. They also became research priorities of the electric grid
industry which in its turn was interested in increasing the capacity of upgraded
transmission systems for integrating wind and solar energy sources as well as in the
29
development of energy storage systems. The development of ecological civilization in
China provides a strategic perspective for scientists to put more focus on renewable
energy instead of fossil fuel based generation. It offers a chance to find a massive
number of governmental grants for the research of renewable resources connected
with national sustainability strategies. But here, China is bigger in economy and can
rather easily commercialize rene wable innovations through the demonstration
projects and deployment bonuses (Liu & Diamant, 2022). These will further help to
persistently reduce the use of the fossil fuel in China and increasing the intake of the
clean energies such as the solar, wind, hydro and geothermal. In the future years, the
research output as well as commercialization of renewables in China will increase.
Critical Debate: Balancing technological progress with traditional moral values
In fact the use of technology in society has changed over the past few decades in
a way that is quite notable. It is widely believed that technology is progressing rapidly
and has been further progressing in an exponential manner and there are basic
questions about the application of these technologies in societies across the globe in a
way that meets old age conventional ethical norms (Harris et al. , 2017). It is most
crucial but at the same time rather simple to forget what is sufficient, and what is
rather excessive. Technological advancement can be appreciated given the great
contribution through technology in the improvement of the quality of human life
through such areas as the health sector, communication among others sector of
transport among others. People have been educated and empowered across the world
by use of the internet as the source for the sum of human knowledge( Gunkel, 2018).
Technology has dynamically assisted to find cure for diseases that were regarded as
chronic and has enhanced the life span of humans through coming up with better
30
diagnostic methods and very complicated and complex procedures (Majumder et al. ,
2017). Other positive changes are enumerated and the advocates argue that moral
issues ought to be causes of stalling technological growth (Brey, 2012).
others argue that technology cannot be considered in isolation from the ethical
domain (Gunkel, 2018). It is a fact that the technologies are not value-free; they
embody and encapsulate the values of the designers (Majumder et al., 2017). This
makes societies to deal with such issues arising from new inventions that affect their
morality like the new inventions of technologies. For instance, with social media,
users are brought closer together while at the same time they are exposed to fake news
and restricted in their interactions. AI systems may carry out discrimination against
protected classes of people if the algorithms themselves contain bias inherited from
the human designers (Brey, 2012). Hence, contentious value choices are embedded in
determining which technology should be developed and utilized (Harris et al., 2017).
In navigating this conversation, there must be good communication between
innovators, policy makers and the public (Majumder et al., 2017). General ethical
training may help expose technologists to the potential ethical consequences during
the design phases (Brey, 2012). Governments have to develop open and flexible
regulation systems that will help to derive the advantages of innovation and minimize
its negative impact (Gunkel, 2018). New technologies affect local communities hence
they should have representation (Harris et al., 2017). Practicing collective knowledge
and openness, societies can cultivate the growth of progress and values that have
stood the test of time. Harris et al. (2017), assert that adapting the impression of
spectacular technological advancement alongside unyielding moral principles means
engaging all stakeholders in continuous discourse and designing appropriate
supervisory frameworks that are both effective and sustainable. When done right, it is
31
innovation and ethics that go hand in hand and help improve the state of society. If
these advances are not to be anchored with adequate intentions to reflect the greater
good of society, then the gizmos that technology produces are capable of unraveling
the fabric of society. This high-stakes balancing will only become even more
important and challenging in the future, but it is essential to strike it.
Conclusion
The Chinese science has been influenced by Confucianism, Daoism, Chinese
Buddhism and Legalism philosophes right from ancient time (Needham, 1969). These
schools of thought have affected development of science in china and how the people
of china have perceived the natural world and knowledge and the relationship of
science with morality as noted by Elman. Therefore, the Confucianism that
emphasizes on virtuous, self-cultivation and harmonious society helped in building up
science as moral practice and stressed on knowledge for the societal welfare (Jiang &
Fu, 2016). Daoism on the other hand offered an organic holistic view which embraced
the intuitive and opposed to structure in some of its more enthusiastic mannerisms.
Two early systems offered different prescriptive views about science; Confucianism
offered a more rigid structure by advocating order and structure on the other hand
Daoism embraced the organic, holistic intuitive view offering more open ended,
systematic approaches to science (Schwartz, 1989). Where it engaged with sensory
themes of pain it influenced empirical dispositions in such areas as pharmacy by its
participation in healing practices (Unschuld, 2003). Legalism was therefore, more
interested in ideas that were clear and useful on statecraft than moral ideas (Schwartz
1985), granted technical utilitarian and pragmatic meanings to scientific applications.
However, to a certain extent, there were also similarities between these traditions; for
32
instance, Daoism was naturalistic in approach and complemented Buddhism which
focused on the identification and understanding of the world (Jiang & Fu, 2016) and
both the traditions have the view of the mean. Further, the teachings in Buddhism and
Daoism supplemented Confucianism’s teachings that entail growth of learning in
order to enhance the improvement of an individual. Compared to these integrative
medicine systems included elements of spirit, mind, and body like in the Chinese
herbology.
China had a history of embedding several philosophical outlooks into the science
realm that might be used for the modern multilateral and interrelated questions in both
science and technology and morality (Elman, 2005). Chinese philosophers established
correlations between self and/or society, or natures and/or culture and/or humanity; or
questioned or reconciled such correlations (Jullien, 2011) which can be used in the
contemporary debate on technologies’ impacts on environment, or responsible use of
biotechnology. The oriental ecological and organic realist epistemologies of Chinese
knowledge structures work as the sensitive, contextualized knowledge systems that
could solve the reductionist dilemmas of post modern science and technological
ensembles. China has a history of academic reflection on the relationship between
theoretical and applied knowledge that could be referred as example of rational
utilization of science for stakeholders’ good.
As China has become more involved in international scientific activities
(Cyranoski, 2018), the philosophical view underlying the Chinese science and
technology policies must get greater focus at the international level, especially in light
of the fact that interdependence of societies is the new era. The Chinese wise
development of heaven-humanity cooperation or individual-social-natural worlds
linkage is applicable to the current discussions for further moral and sustainable
33
technology development in the climate change and war, and loss of biophysical
diversities in the Anthropocene (Hamilton, 2016). That is why, as the western tech
expansions show us, that some traditional Chinese moral scientific values of holism of
integration, balance, may correct it (Jullien, 1995). The realism of the Chinese
philosophy could also fit the role of the missing positive paradigm of the Western
scientific approach which is mostly theoretical in its schemes and seeing the moral
solutions to new technology concerns across cultures.
These separations are clearly seen among sciences and humanities in the west;
On the contrary, the fusion of natural studies with moral philosophy in Chinese
tradition shows how such separate domains could be in the future (Elman, 2005). As
the scholarship evolves, the authors become aware of the multiplicity of dimensions
linked across the tech disciplines and with different epistemological and axiological
approaches (Klein, 2010). As shown in the Chinese way of mediating or integrating
two apparently contradictory postures, moral, religious or even scientific concerns can
constructively contribute to the strengthening of other activities in terms of
participation and reflexivity. A transformation of the kind of relation between two
specific philosophical systems relating to other similar objectives including enhancing
the lot of humankind may be a factor to a convergence to possible solutions to human
problems. As for the further evolution of an integration of moral-scientific paradigms,
it will be the educational reforms in the above direction, so that tolerance, pluralism
and integration will serve future reforms of schools.
34
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