Mughal Empire
The South Asian subcontinent—modern India, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan
— is part of the Eurasian landmass. Like Europe, it has a long history of big empires and small
states. In 1750, it was mostly governed through a loose confederation of powerful princely states '
and rich port cities. Once upon a time, the subcontinent had been dominated by the mighty
Mughal Empire. But in the eighteenth century, the control held by the Mughals had begun to
change for two reasons. First, growing internal divisions led to rival groups challenging the
central government of the declining empire. Second, European merchants and governments
started looking for ways to get some of the empire's wealth. Technically, the empire would
survive until 1858. In reality, these two changes amplified each other and had already created a
major crisis for the Mughal rulers in 1750.
Networks of trade and bureaucracy
The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty who ruled over a majority Hindu population. By 1750, they
had dominated much of South Asia for several centuries. Muslims were already living in India
when the Mughals first arrived. During Mughal rule, Muslims averaged only about 15 percent of
the population. For most of their era of dominance, however, Mughal rule was generally tolerant
of all of the religions of the region. That policy created enough social stability to ensure healthy
business, investment, and trade.
The Mughals had built their empire by making good use of India's resources, developing its
production capacity, and supporting a very rich Muslim-dominated trade system in the Indian
Ocean. India was at the center of a global market for goods in which Muslims, from many
backgrounds and regions, were the principal dealers. Muslims across the Indian Ocean benefitted
by having a common language (Arabic), a common set of ethical codes, and a shared tradition of
commercial practices.
South Asia had an important place in this system. While most of the population farmed foods
such as rice, Mughal India had a thriving manufacturing industry, producing a massive quantity
of hand-loom textiles for the Indian Ocean economy. The trade in cotton and silk fabrics had
brought great wealth to India as early as the fifth century BCE (during the Roman Empire). High
demand for these items had attracted traders from as far as China in the East and Persia in the
West. Yet this wealth made the region a target for competitive rivals.
By the fifteenth century, Indians had taken advantage of growing global markets to expand
textile production and distribution. And trade was really spiced up by the nutmeg, mace, cloves,
cardamom and cinnamon coming out of Indonesia's "spice islands". Other than black pepper,
India didn't grow many spices of its own, but it was the world's trans-shipment center for spices.
Columbus had sailed on behalf of the King and Queen of Spain in 1492 to get easier access to
that flavorful wealth. By 1750, almost every household in London and Lisbon had a pepper pot!
Building the Mughal state
The Mughal state was established by the Sultan Babur in the sixteenth century, with his
legendary victory over the Lodhi Sultan in 1526. Babur used 20 cannons to defeat an army twice
the size of his own. But he died two years later, so it wasn't really Babur's leadership that
sustained his dynasty. That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal
territories and establish a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity,
both in trade and textile production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century,
Mughals governed one of the world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish
a highly efficient governance structure. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile
production, created great wealth. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the
world's most populous and affluent empires in world history.
This wealth was ensured by a wide-spread, efficient government. The Mughal rulers established
a complex bureaucracy. Both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans could become officers of the state,
called mansabdars, when the emperors awarded them land grants. These military and civil
leaders’ maintained cavalry (armed horsemen) ready for battle, and they collected taxes on
behalf of the empire. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status.
Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. In the Mughal
system, noble titles were not inherited and could be taken away by the emperor. Also, unlike
European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. This
meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. At first.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan, nobles
became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the weak center in
Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial growth. When the
state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since awarding land was how they
bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars had grown extremely powerful.
Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until it grows to 500 pounds, then running
out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state
feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
Factions rose and battles over succession for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted, both
financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant with their
diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
'. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering territories,
amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his enemies, both
Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat, and millions more
civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed foreign
powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
External rivals for power
Many different Europeans were aggressively seeking bits of land in South Asia in the eighteenth
century, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese. But it was the British who emerged
dominant. They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British
private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal
in the mid-eighteenth century. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working
within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authority—while making
money, of course. Through treaty agreements, the Mughal state gave the Company the right to
collect taxes on the lands they won by political and military intervention. The Company then
began to expand beyond Bengal. The plan wasn't so much to conquer India as it was to slowly
expand their commercial interests. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went
province by province and made nice with different local factions. By allying with the various
local power players who didn't like the Mughals and other Europeans, the British gradually beat
out all other European rivals.
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
Conclusions
Europeans weren't the only outsiders challenging Mughal supremacy. By 1750, neighboring
Afghan, Uzbek, and Persian states had pushed against the empire, often furiously. In 1759, the
Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock
Throne. Meanwhile, internal division continued to crack the empire. Contests over the throne
created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs.
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples and
Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely explain
the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired
more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Religious zealotry does not
explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another 150 years. But we might be able to
trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval
war state in modern times. At the same time, India's changing role in the global economy now
introduced new Indian bankers, financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that
diverted money from the state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not
afford. As Mughal power diminished, Europeans— especially British merchants—stepped in to
reap the profits.
